Download pdf - CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN TEACHER EDUCATION: NEED AND STRATEGIES

1578

AMERICAN RESEARCH THOUGHTS ISSN: 2392 – 876X Available online at: www.researchthoughts.us

http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1431537

Volume 1 │ Issue 7 │ May 2015

Impact Factor: 2.0178 (UIF)

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN TEACHER

EDUCATION: NEED AND STRATEGIES

Bonnie Amonge Crerar1, Dr. Neeta Kalita Barua2

1Research Scholar, Dept. of Education, Dibrugarh University

2Associate Professor, Dept. of Education, Dibrugarh University

Abstract: Today’s citizens need to think globally while acting locally, conscious of the fact that their

actions can have far reaching implications despite their absence. And teacher’s actions in the

classroom are pertinent to the development of future adult citizens. Human actions are nothing but a

manifestation of their thoughts, teachers being human their actions whether within or outside the

classroom too is a result of their thoughts. Present day schools no more house Monocultural

Traditional Classrooms but have been replaced by Culturally Diversified Smart Classroom where in

the main motto is ‚Sabke Saath, Sabka Vikas‛. Here no one is to be left behind on the basis of

ethnicity, race, socio-economic status, gender, exceptionalities, language, religion, sexual orientation

and geographical area. This demands that teachers impartially identify, tap-in and provide

opportunities for the development of the unique abilities of the students. For this teachers will have to

be able to carry out Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) that involves critical thinking, problem

solving and creating with critical thinking at its foundational level. In fact a 21st century teacher to

fully participate in the Global community needs to Master not only the 3R’s of reading, writing and

arithmetic, but also the 4C’s i.e. critical thinking, creativity, communication and collaboration. The

term ‘Master’ reminds us of the fact that effective teachers are made and not born, hence the concept of

Teacher Education. Teacher Education is a teacher preparation programme wherein one of the main

objectives is to help teachers develop the required skills to perform their task effectively in the school

and classroom, here the Critical Thinking Skills. Here Albert Einstein can be aptly quoted where he

stated: ‚Education is not the learning of facts but training the mind to think‛. The term Critical

Thinking too finds expression in the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education 2009-10

which aims at developing teacher’s ability to think and be critical, thus producing Humane and

Professional teachers. Critical Thinking being the focal point of the present paper an attempt is made

to understand the need and means of embedding Critical Thinking in Teacher Education. As such this

paper attempts to fulfil the following objectives:

http://www.researchthoughts.us/

Bonnie Amonge Crerar, Neeta Kalita Barua - CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN TEACHER EDUCATION: NEED

AND STRATEGIES

1579 AMERICAN RESEARCH THOUGHTS- Volume 1 │ Issue 7 │2015

To explain the concept of critical thinking and the steps involved.

To state the need of critical thinking in teacher education.

To suggest strategies to be adopted in developing critical thinking through teacher education.

Key Words: Critical Thinking, Value Education, Teaching Method, Knowledge,

Understanding

1. INTRODUCTION

Today’s citizens need to think globally while acting locally, at the same time being

conscious of the fact that their actions can have far reaching implications despite their

absence, unwillingness and unawareness. The teacher’s actions in the classroom are

pertinent to the development of future adult citizens or to be more precise future

human resources. Human actions are nothing but a manifestation of their thoughts;

teachers being human their actions, whether within or outside the classroom, too is a

result of their thoughts. Present day schools no more house Monocultural Traditional

Classrooms but have been replaced by Culturally Diversified Smart Classrooms where

in the main motto is ‚Sabke Saath, Sabka Vikas‛. Here no one is to be left behind on the

basis of ethnicity, race, socio-economic status, gender, exceptionalities, language,

religion, sexual orientation and geographical area. This was further reaffirmed by our

Honourable Present Prime Minister Sri Narendra Modi in his speech delivered on

Thursday, April 24, 2015 at the Global Services Exhibition in New Delhi, that India had

to move forward from becoming a hub for ‘BRAIN DRAIN’ to a hub for ‘BRAIN

GAIN’. For achieving the goal of BRAIN GAIN, the Prime minister impressed upon the

global leaders investing in education in the country, for mapping of human resources to

identify region specific talents and encourage development of region specific skills to be

able to cater to the requirement of the global community, thus procuring benefits both

at a personal and national level. Furthering the cause of Human Resource Mapping, he

drew attention to the demography of the country stating that 65% of the population was

below 35 years of age and this was going to double in the coming few years, thus

making India a young country. Viewing this scenario from a global perspective, India’s

Human Resource constituted its biggest strength and property and had to be taken care

of in India’s journey towards development. This would help India in exporting multi-

layer services to the world, Human Resource Services being one of them. From this it is

clear that most of India’s future youth are at present seated in her classrooms (K12 to


AND STRATEGIES


Higher Education all inclusive) at the behest of one or more than one teacher. In

making India’s strive towards BRAIN GAIN a success, teachers’ role cannot be ignored

wherein the teacher would be expected to help each individual student become a

contributing member of society. This would demand that teachers impartially identify,

tap-in and provide opportunities for the development of the unique abilities of the

students in this context. For this teachers would have to be able to carry out certain

innovative methods to be able to materialize the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)

that are involved in critical thinking, problem solving and creating with critical thinking

at its foundational level. In fact a 21st century learner, to fully participate in the Global

community needs to Master not only the 3R’s of reading, writing and arithmetic, but

also the 4C’s i.e., Critical thinking, Creativity, Communication and Collaboration. The

term ‘Master’ reminds us of the fact that effective leaders are made and not born, hence

the concept of mastery learning.

Teacher Education is a teacher preparation programme wherein one of the main

objectives is to help student-teachers develop the required skills to perform their task

effectively in the school and classroom, so that they may be able to help each student to

develop their personality potentials. The twenty-first century learner is supposed to be

the product of a quality education: quality education implies that every student should

be able to develop certain life-skills by the time h/she completes schooling. One of the

important 21st century life skills is development of the Thinking Skill in learners, which

includes also the Critical Thinking Skills within its various components.

At this point of our discussion it is pertinent to note that, with the signing of the

GATS treaty, education has become a product or commodity and teachers and their

teaching is a service catered by certain specialists to society, in other words, thus

making teachers important Human Resource Service Providers and hence viable for

export to the global community. It is through the Teacher Education Programme that

such human resources are created, hence making Teacher Education dually significant

of catering to the classrooms both locally and globally. To be effective in global context

teachers also will have to develop the 21st century skills (critical thinking being one of

them) and this is possible through teacher education programmes. Hence the

importance of Critical Thinking in Teacher Education and herein lies the significance of

the present paper. Here Albert Einstein can be aptly quoted where he stated:

‚Education is not the learning of facts but training the mind to think‛. The term Critical

Thinking too finds expression in the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher


AND STRATEGIES


Education 2009-10 which aims at developing teachers’ ability to think and be critical,

thus producing Humane and Professional teachers. Thus, in order to teach their

learners to be critical thinkers, every teacher should himself first learn to be a critical

thinker - thus h/she will have to know what are the components that are included in

critical thinking and how these can be promoted in every learner.

2. OBJECTIVES

Critical Thinking in Teacher Education being the focal point of the present paper, an

attempt is made to understand the need and means of embedding Critical Thinking in

Teacher Education. As such this paper attempts to fulfill the following objectives:

1. To explain the concept of critical thinking and the steps involved in it

2. To state the need of critical thinking in teacher education

3. To suggest strategies to be adopted in developing critical thinking through

teacher education

3. METHODOLOGY

The present paper is a theoretical analysis of the related literature on the concept of

critical thinking and its place in teacher education, the literature for which was mostly

collected from internet sources.

4. CONCEPT OF CRITICAL THINKING

4.1. Historical Overview

The following overview is a summarization of the writings of the Center for Critical

Thinking and Brent Taylor Leach. Etymologically the term ‘critical’ can be traced to two

Greek words: ‘kriticos’ meaning discerning judgement and ‘kriterion’ meaning

standards, both compounding to imply the development of discerning judgement based

on standards. Confirming to its coinage, the idea of critical thinking can be traced back

to Greece some 2,500 years back to the teaching practice and vision of Socrates, a Greek

philosopher. He opined that one should not depend on persons in authority, because

despite power and high position, one might be deeply confused and irrational. He

purported that nothing should be taken at face value but be examined thoroughly by


AND STRATEGIES


asking deep questions that probe profoundly into thinking before accepting them as

being true. His method of approaching truth/knowledge came to be termed as Socratic

Questioning. This was further followed by the later Greek skeptics like Plato and

Aristotle, all of whom had emphasized that things were very different from what they

actually appeared to be and only a trained mind could look beyond the appearance into

the deeper reality.

In the Middle Ages Thomas Aquinas to ensure the criticality of his thoughts

made it a point to consider and answer the criticism of his ideas as a necessary stage to

further developing them. Thus he enlightened us to the need of reasoning and its cross

examination. He highlighted the fact that a critical thinker did not always reject beliefs

but only those which lacked reason.

During the Renaissance period in England a prominent scholar, Sir Francis Bacon

was deeply concerned with the misuse of minds by humans in seeking knowledge and

that the mind cannot be safely left to its natural tendencies. In his book titled The

Advancement of Learning is argued for the empirical study of the world thus laying the

foundation for Information Gathering Process of modern science.

Some fifty years later in France, Descartes in his text Rules for the Direction of

the Mind argued for the need for a special systematic disciplining of the mind to guide

it in thinking. He argued that every part of thinking should be questioned, doubted and

tested. He developed a method of critical thought based on the principles of systematic

doubt. In the same period Sir Thomas Moore’s text Utopia makes a radical analysis and

critique of every domain of the present world.

In the Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli’s The Prince critically analysed the

political functioning of the day and paved the way for modern critical political thought.

In the 16th and 17th century England Hobbes and Locke refused to accept the

traditional picture of things considered normal in their culture. Hobbes adopted a

naturalistic view of the world in which everything was to be explained by evidence and

reasoning. Locke took up the common sense analysis of everyday life and thought. All

this led to the creation of intellectual freedom and critical thought which gave up

egocentric views of the world in favour of views based entirely on carefully gathered

evidence and sound reasoning.

Significant contribution to critical thought was made by three thinkers of the

French enlightenment: Montesquieu, Voltaire and Diderot. They all began with the

premise that human mind, when disciplined by reason, was better able to figure out the


AND STRATEGIES


nature of the social and political world. Reason for them must turn inward upon itself

to examine weaknesses and strengths of thought. They valued disciplined intellectual

exchange in which all views had been submitted to serious analysis and critique.

In the 19th century, critical thought became applicable to almost every domain of

human-social, cultural, economic, biological and psychological life by Comte, Spencer,

Karl Marx, Darwin and Sigmund Freud respectively.

The 20th century has given an explicit formulation of critical thinking in

education with William Graham Sumner’s land-breaking publication Folkways. Herein

he documented the tendency of the human mind to think socio-centrically and the

parallel tendency of schools to serve the (uncritical) function of indoctrination. Unless

regulated by the best knowledge and good sense, school education would produce men

and women on one pattern, orthodoxy. Recognizing the deep need for critical thinking

in life and education Sumner, declared that, Criticism is the examination and test of

propositions offered for acceptance, to find out whether they correspond to reality or

not. Being a prime condition of human welfare, men and women should be trained and

educated in critical thinking. It is the only guarantee against delusion, deception,

superstition and misapprehension of us and our earthly circumstances. One educated in

it cannot be stampeded or swayed, can wait for and weigh evidence and can resist

appeals to their prejudices, thus producing good citizens.

Keeping in conformity with Sumner’s claims, Dewey (1909) further drew the

attention of educators to critical thinking, encouraging them to develop ‘reflective

thinking skills’ in children. He defined reflective thinking as ‚an active, persistent and

careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the

grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends‛. For Dewey

critical thinking was an active process in which people thought things through for

themselves, raised questions themselves, found relevant information themselves etc.,

thus increasing our sense of pragmatic basis of human thought.

The contribution of Piaget (1952) to the concept of critical thinking needs

mention here. He created divisions of cognitive development identified as

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. The

sensorimotor stage consisted of the ability to create object permanence. At the

preoperational stage the child is able to administer symbols to represent other objects in

the world, thinking remains ‘egocentric’. During the concrete operational stage the child

moves to a more non-centred thinking style capable of applying logic to thinking. It is


AND STRATEGIES


only at the final formal operational stage that abstract thinking is possible. This stage of

reasoning is the developmental prerequisite of critical thinking.

Contradictory to Piaget, Vygotsky (1986) theorized that the elements of private

speech, zone of proximal development and scaffolding encouraged critical thinking.

In 1963 Kohlberg gave us a moral understanding of the concept of critical

thinking, where on reaching adulthood one’s critical thinking provided the framework

for the development of a belief system leading the individual to think for the greater

good of humanity.

Tsui (2002) implied that critical thinking required the thinker to suspend

judgement and reflect on the validity of a hypothesis.

The historical overview of the concept of critical thinking makes it clear that it is

not the brainchild of any one single person or discipline, but has developed to its

present status because of the contribution of hundreds of thinkers (of whom only a few

had been mentioned here), having its roots in philosophy, social sciences and

psychology, hence making critical thinking an eclectic concept.

5. DEFINITION AND MEANING

On reviewing the relevant literature the following oft quoted 41 definitions on critical

thinking had been identified:

Sl.

No. Source Definition

1 Dewey (1909)

‚an active, pertinent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of

knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further

conclusions to which it tends‛

2 Glaser (1941)

‚an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and

subjects that come from within the range of one’s experiences, the knowledge of

the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and some skill in applying these

methods‛

3 McPeck (1981)

‚skillful, responsible thinking that facilitates good judgment because it (a) relies

upon criteria, (b) is self-correcting, and (c)is sensitive to context‛

4 Ennis (1985)

‚a reflective and reasonable thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe

or do‛

5 Norris (1985)

‚assessing the views of others and one’s own views according to acceptable

standards of appraisal‛

6 Meyers (1986)

‚the ability to raise relevant questions and critique solutions without necessarily

posing alternatives‛

7 Chance ‚the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make


AND STRATEGIES


(1986) comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems‛

8

Brookfield

(1987)

‚a process that involves identifying and challenging assumptions, becoming

aware of the importance of context in creating meaning, imagining and exploring

reflective skepticisms< a reflective dimensions, more than the cognitive activity

of analyzing arguments - it is emotive as well as rational‛

9 Glock (1987) ‚diverse cognitive processes and associated attitudes‛

10

Kurfiss

(1988)

‚an investigation whose purpose is to explore a situation, phenomenon, question,

or problem to arrive at a hypothesis or conclusion about its intellectual

developmental process that integrates all available information and that can

therefore be convincingly justified‛

11 Siegel

(1988)

‚involving the ability to assess reasons properly, and the willingness, desire and

dispositions to base one’s actions and beliefs on reasons‛

12 Tama

(1989)

‚a way of reasoning that demands adequate support for one’s beliefs and an

unwillingness to be persuaded unless support is forthcoming‛

13 Browne and

Keeley

(1990)

‚our active, purposeful, and organized efforts to make sense of our worlds by

carefully examining our thinking and the thinking of others in order to clarify and

improve our understanding‛

14 Facione

(1990)

‚process of purposeful and self-regulatory judgment, which gives reasoned

consideration to evidence, contexts, conceptualization, methods and criteria‛

15 Hickey

(1990)

‚ involving analytical thinking for the purpose of evaluating what is read‛

16

Mayer and

Goodchild

(1990)

‚active, systematic process of understanding and evaluating arguments‛

17

Mertes

(1991)

‚a conscious and deliberate process which is used to interpret or evaluate

information and experiences with a set of reflective attitudes and abilities that

guide thoughtful beliefs and actions‛

18 Schafersman

(1991)

‚correct thinking in the pursuit of relevant and reliable knowledge about the

world‛

19

Screven and

Paul

(1992)

‚the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,

applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from,

or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication,

as a guide to belief and action‛

20 Ennis

(1992)

‚reasoned reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do‛

21 Fitzpatrick

(1993)

‚a process for determining the value of an idea‛

22

Cüceloğlu

(1994)

‚an active and organized cognitive process aiming at understanding oneself and

the events which take place in one’s environment by being aware of his or her

own thinking process, considering others’ thinking processes and applying what

one has learned‛

23

Kataoka-

Yahiro

(1994)

‚a process of thinking without a single solution‛

24 Jones

(1995)

‚a cognitive process involving the primary components of analysis,

interpretation, evaluation, inference, justification and self-correction‛

25 Agnelo ‚the intentional application of rational, higher order thinking skills, such as


AND STRATEGIES


(1995) evaluation‛

26 Beyer

(1995)

‚ making reasoned judgments‛

27

Richard Paul

(1995)

‚A unique kind of purposeful thinking In which the thinker systematically and

habitually imposes criteria and intellectual standards upon the thinking taking

charge of the construction of thinking guiding the construction of the thinking

according to the standards assessing the effectiveness of the thinking according to

the purpose, the criteria, and the standards‛

28

Alfaro-

Lefevre,

1996)

‚reasonable, reflective thinking that focuses on what to believe or do <

purposeful, goal-directed thinking that aims to make judgments based on

evidence‛

29

Halpern

(1996)

‚a cognitive process that involves the use of judgment and the use of reflection to

increase the probability of a desired outcome < thinking that is purposeful,

reasoned and goal directed < using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the

particular context and type of thinking task‛

30

Bickenbach

and

Davis

(1997)

‚purposeful, reasoned and goal-directed thinking – thinking involved in solving

problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions

when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular

context and type of thinking tasks‛

31 Walkner and

Finney (1999)

‚use of the cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable

outcome‛

32 Demirel

(1999)

‚the ability and tendency to acquire, evaluate and use knowledge‛

33 Stancato

(2000)

‚making judgments about the truthfulness and worth of statements and ideas‛

34

Reed and

Kromley

(2001)

‚the ability and propensity to analyze complex issues and situations, to recognize

and to evaluate assumptions and alternative points of view according to

acceptable criteria, to make sound inferences and to draw reasonable conclusions

based on reliable information, and to make interdisciplinary connections and to

transfer insights to new contexts‛

35 Astleitner

(2001)

‚a mental activity of evaluating arguments or propositions and making

judgments that can guide the development of beliefs and taking action‛

36

Partnership

for 21st

Century

Skills

(P21 2002)

‚to reason effectively, use systems thinking, make judgments and decisions and

solve problems‛

37

Menkes

(2005)

‚cognitive skills that determine how well someone gathers, processes, and applies

information in order to identify the best way to reach a particular goal or navigate

a complex situation‛

38 Chaffee

(2006)

‚a purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to understand the world

and make informed decisions‛

39 Slavin

(2009)

‚the evaluation of thorough logical and systematic examination of the problem,

the evidence and the solution‛

40

Pearson

(2009/10)

‚thinking logically with clarity and precision so that one can recognize

assumptions using an approach that is objective and accurate to evaluate

arguments focusing on information that is relevant to draw conclusions‛


AND STRATEGIES


41

Critical

Thinking

Community

‚a mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the

thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analyzing,

assessing, and reconstructing it. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined,

self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous

standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective

communication and problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to

overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism‛

The above definitions makes apparent the commonalities and differences regarding the

concept of critical thinking, which being abstract can be inferred from one’s

behaviour/reactions. However keeping in consideration the above definitions the

following can be stated regarding the meaning of critical thinking as:

‚Critical Thinking is a conscious intellectually disciplined effort towards evaluation of

any phenomena, oneself and others and making reasoned judgements prior to accepting

any belief/action; while dichotomically making an objective evaluation of one’s own

thought process‛

As such critical thinking is dualistic in nature in that it not only assesses the

information/environment but also assesses the process of assessing the information by

oneself, thus making one aware of one’s own thought process, hence metacognitive in

approach. By carrying out concept mapping of the mentioned definitions one is made

aware of the skills and dispositions expected of an individual to carry out the process of

critical thinking. Here we will discuss the core critical thinking skills and critical

thinking dispositions as identified and explained by the American Philosophical

Association Delphi Project, 1990 and Robert H Ennis, revised 2013.

6. CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

The above-mentioned definitions are expressive of the requirement of certain cognitive

skills on the part of the individual to carry out critical thinking. The American Delphi

Project 1990, recognized six (6) cognitive skills core to the process of critical thinking for

forming and improving judgements. Each core skill further constituted sub-skills as

mentioned in the following table:


AND STRATEGIES


CORE CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS : APA DELPHI PROJECT

Sl.

No. SKILL DESCRIPTION SUBSKILL

1 Interpretation

to comprehend and express the meaning

or significance of a wide variety of

experiences, situations, data events,

judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules,

procedures or criteria.

Categorize

Decode significance

Clarify meaning

2 Analysis

to identify the intended and actual

inferential relationships among

statements, questions, concepts,

descriptions or other forms of

representations intended to express belief,

judgments, experiences, reasons,

information or opinions.

Examine ideas

Identify arguments

Identify reasons and claims

3 Inference

to identify and secure elements needed to

draw reasonable conclusions; to form

conjectures and hypotheses; to consider

relevant information and to reduce the

consequences flowing from data,

statements, principles, evidence,

judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts,

descriptions, questions or other forms of

representations

Query evidence

Conjecture alternatives

Draw conclusions using

inductive or deductive

reasoning

4 Evaluation

to assess the credibility or statements or

other representations that are accounts or

description of a person’s perception,

experience, situation, judgments, belief or

opinion; and to assess the logical strength

of the actual or intended inferential

relationships among statements

descriptions, questions or other forms of

representations

Assess credibility of claims

Assess quality of arguments

that were made using inductive

or deductive reasoning

5 Explanation

to state and to justify that reasoning in

terms of the evidential, conceptual,

methodological, criteriological and

contextual considerations upon which

ones results were based; and to present

ones reasoning in the form of cogent

arguments

State results

Justify procedures

Present arguments


AND STRATEGIES


6 Self-regulation

self-consciously to monitor ones cognitive

activities, the elements used in those

activities and the results educed,

particularly by applying skills in analysis,

and evaluation to one’s inferential

judgments with a view towards

questioning, confirming, validating or

correcting either ones reasoning or ones

result

Self-monitor

Self-correct

Source: APA Reports Expert Consensus Statement on Critical Thinking

Prior to the Delphi project, Robert H Ennis had come up with his paper ‚A Taxonomy

of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities‛ (1987) and has since then been revising,

the latest accessible being of 2013. Ennis used the term ‚abilities‛ as synonymous to

‘skills’ which according to him should be used by an individual to carry out critical

thinking. He identified 15 core critical thinking abilities/skills and 3 facilitative abilities/

skills non-constitutive but contributive to the performance and improvement of critical

thinking as classified under 5 categories and each core skill demanded sub-skills

/criteria/ activities as evident in the following table:

CRITICAL THINKING ABILITIES/ SKILLS : ENNIS 2013

CATEGORY Sl.

No.

SKILL SUBSKILLS/ CRITERIA/ ACTIVITIES

1

Focus on a question

a. Identify or formulate a question

b. Identify or formulate criteria for judging

possible answers

c. Keep the question and situation in mind

2

Analyze arguments

a. Identify conclusions

b. Identify reasons or premises

c. Identify simple assumptions (see also

Ability #13)

c. Identify and handle irrelevance

d. Determine the structure of an argument,

possibly with a diagram

e. Summarize

Such as:

a. Why?

b. What is your main point?

c. What do you mean by....?


AND STRATEGIES


B

A

S

I

C

C

L

A

R

I

F

I

C

A

T

I

O

N

3

Ask and answer clarification

questions

d. What would be an example?

e. What would not be an (close) example?

f. How does that apply to this case (describe a

case, which appears to be a counterexample)?

g. What difference does it make?

h. What are the facts?

i. Is this what you are saying:______________?

j. Would you say more about that?

4

Understand and use "graphs &

maths"

a. Read graphs, scatterplots, tables, bar charts,

etc.

b. Do and understand arithmetic and other

elementary mathematics, such as percentages

c. Understand the concepts of correlation,

standard deviation, and statistical significance

of:

(1) Correlation: the degree to which two

variable vary together

(2) Standard deviation: very roughly, the

amount of variation in a group of numbers

(3) Statistical significance: Commonly a

difference between mean scores is judged

statistically significant if a certain amount of

difference could not have happened by

chance more than at a chosen level. Often

one time out of a hundred is the chosen level,

but five times out of a hundred is sometimes

chosen. The latter is easier to attain.

B

A

S

E

S

F

O

R

5

Judge the credibility of a source

Major criteria for judging (but not necessary

conditions):

a. Expertise

b. Lack of conflict of interest

c. Agreement with other sources

d. Reputation

e. Use of established procedures

f. Known risk to reputation (i.e., the source’s

knowing of a risk to reputation, if wrong)

g. Ability to give reasons

h. Careful habits

6

Observe, and judge observation

reports

Major criteria (but not necessary conditions,

except for the first) include these:

a. Minimal inferring involved


AND STRATEGIES


D

E

C

I

S

I

O

N

b. Short time interval between the observation

and the report

c. Report by the observer, rather than someone

else (that is, the report is not hearsay); crucial

in the courts

d. Provision of records

e. Corroboration

f. Possibility of corroboration

g. Good access

h. Competent employment of technology, if

technology applies

i. Satisfaction by observer (and reporter, if a

different person) of the credibility criteria in

Ability #5 above

7 Use existing knowledge

a. background knowledge, including (with

discretion) internet material

b. their knowledge of the situation

c. their previously established conclusions

I

N

F

E

R

E

N

C

E

8 Deduce, and judge deduction

a. Basic criterion: An argument is deductively

valid, if and only if, denial of the conclusion

contradicts the assertion of the premises.

b. Class logic

c. Conditional logic

d. Interpretation of logical terminology,

including

(1) Negation and double negation

(2) Necessary and sufficient condition

language

(3) Such words as "and", "only", "if and only

if", "or", "some", "unless", and "not both"

e. Qualified deductive reasoning (a loosening

for practical purposes)

a. To generalizations (enumerative induction).

Broad considerations:

(1) Typicality of data, including valid

sampling where appropriate

(2) Volume of instances

(3) Conformity of instances to the

generalization

(4) Having a principled way of dealing with

outliers


AND STRATEGIES


9

Make and judge inductive

inferences and arguments

(Enumerative and Best-

Explanation Induction)

b. To explanatory hypotheses and conclusions:

(1) Major types of explanatory conclusions

and hypotheses, showing how broadly this

type of inference and argument applies:

(a) Specific and general causal claims

(b) Claims about the beliefs and attitudes of

people

(c) Interpretation of intended meanings

(d) Historical claims that certain things

happened (including criminal accusations)

(e) Reported definitions (Ability #11b1)

(f) Claims that some proposition is an

unstated, but used, reason (Ability #13b3)

(2) Characteristic investigative activities:

(a) Designing and doing experiments,

including planning to control variables

(b) Seeking evidence and counterevidence,

including statistical significance, correlations,

mean differences, and standard deviations

(c) Seeking other possible explanations

(3) Rough criteria, application of which

requires judgment. The first four are essential,

the fifth desirable:

(a) The proposed conclusion would explain or

help explain the evidence

(b) The proposed conclusion is consistent with

all known facts

(c) Competitive alternative explanations are

inconsistent with facts

(d) A competent sincere effort has been made

to find supporting and opposing data, and

alternative hypotheses

(e) The proposed conclusion seems plausible

and simple, fitting into the broader picture


AND STRATEGIES


I

N

F

E

R

E

N

C

E

10

Make and judge value judgments,

taking into account

a. Background facts

b. Consequences of accepting or rejecting the

judgment

c. Prima facie application of acceptable

principles

d. Alternatives

e. The need to balance, weigh, decide

A

D

V

A

N

C

E

D

C

L

A

R

I

F

I

C

A

T

I

O

N

11

Define terms, and judge

definitions

by using appropriate criteria (Four basic

dimensions: form, stance, content, and use)

a. Definition form:

(1) Synonym form (one word = another

word)

(2) Classification form (genus-differentia),

(items properly labeled by a term (a noun) are

members of a class and are differentiated from

other members of the class)

(3) Range form (like classification, but with

imprecise boundaries)

(4) Equivalent-expression form (term being

defined is embedded in a larger expression,

which is equated with another expression)

(5) Operational form (like equivalent-

expression, but the second expression

describes an operation and a consequent

observation; can be strict (as in behaviorism)

or loose), (Ennis, 1964, 1969b)

(6) Example and non-example form (non-

examples sometimes being particularly

informative)

b. Definitional stances (report, stipulate,

express a position):

(1) Report a meaning (criteria: the five

criteria for an explanatory hypothesis in

Ability #9b3)

(2) Stipulate a meaning (criteria:

convenience, consistency, avoidance of

equivocation)

(3) Express a position on an issue (positional

definitions, including "programmatic" and


AND STRATEGIES


"persuasive" definitions), (criteria: all

dispositions and abilities

c. Content of the definition

d. Uses of a definition:

(1) Teach or learn a language

(2) Provide a convenient label for something

(3) Be a premise in an argument

12

Handle equivocation

appropriately

(equivocation being the exploitation of a shift

in meaning), both when deliberate and when

not deliberate (the latter being called "impact

equivocation" (having the impact of

equivocation))

13

Attribute and judge unstated

assumptions (an ability that

consists of both basic clarification

and inference)

a. Pejorative flavor (implication of

dubiousness or falsity): commonly but not

always associated to some degree with the

other types of assumptions; criteria are to be

found in Abilities #5 through #9 above

b. Types:

(1) Presuppositions (required for a

proposition to make sense)

(2) Needed assumptions (needed by the

reasoning to be at its strongest (though not

logically necessary); see Inferences (Abilities 8

to 10 above)

(3) Used assumptions are consciously or

unconsciously used by the assumer (judged by

hypothesis-testing criteria (Ability #9b3)

14

Think suppositional

Consider and reason from premises, reasons,

assumptions, positions, and other

propositions with which one disagrees or


AND STRATEGIES


about which one is in doubt, without letting

the disagreement or doubt interfere with one's

reasoning

15 Deal with fallacy labels

Employ, recognize, and appropriately react to

"fallacy labels" in discussion and presentation

(oral and written). Examples of fallacy labels

are "circularity," "bandwagon", "post hoc",

"equivocation", "non sequitur", and "straw

person‛.

a. Fallacy labels are often convenient ways for

those conversant with the vocabulary to

communicate the nature of a believed flaw in

some thinking (e.g., "post hoc").

b. They can be intimidating, though actually

relatively uninformative, to those not

conversant with the language (e, g., "non

sequitur")

c. Fallacy labels often pick out a problem, but

sometimes activities that fit a fallacy label are

not fallacious, for example, appeal to authority

and circularity. Some appeals to authority are

appropriate, and deductively valid arguments

are literally circular.

b. Criteria and principles for judgments

underlying the appropriate use of fallacy

labels appear in Abilities 1-14 above. But there

does not appear to be an intuitive

comprehensive summary of critical thinking

concerns in fallacy language.

F

A

C

I

L

I

T

A

T

I

V

E

16 Be aware of, and check the quality

of, own thinking (metacognition)

17 Proceed in an orderly manner

appropriate to the situation:

a. Follow problem solving steps

b. Monitor one's own thinking (that is, engage

in metacognition)

c. Employ a reasonable critical thinking

checklist

18

Deal with rhetorical strategies:

Rhetorical strategies can be useful

in critical thinking to help make a

reasonable critical thinking


AND STRATEGIES


A

B

I

L

I

T

I

E

S

position more persuasive. It can

also be useful to be aware of

rhetorical strategies in order not

to be fooled by them, or even to

be persuaded by them when the

rhetorically-effective position is

no better than, or is worse than,

another position.

On reviewing the above critical thinking skills it can be remarked that the individual

becomes both the subject as well as the object of critical thinking. However while the

Delphi project regards Self- regulation constitutive of critical thinking skills Ennis’s

Taxonomy regards it as facilitative to the carrying out of critical thinking. Compared to

the Delphi project the Ennis Taxonomy is a more elaborate description of the skills and

their integrated and interrelated function. Both state the importance of delayed

judgement and a methodological approach to either accepting or rejecting a belief or

action. As opposed to the Delphi project the Ennis taxonomy includes the use of

numerical reasoning (arithmetic and statistics) for a better clarification of issues at hand,

beginning from everyday life to the cosmological world. Further one is to judge not

only the credibility of the source but also the credibility of the person responsible for the

source on the basis of certain criteria. The Taxonomy in fact is a replica of the steps

required to be followed in the carrying out of research work, with a warning to the

discrete use of internet sources in the forming of judgements, because thoughts become

actions. The importance of language in critical thinking cannot be ignored and hence its

judicious use and understanding.

6.1. CRITICAL THINKING DISPOSITIONS

Generally by ‚Disposition‛ is meant a person's inherent qualities of mind and character

and both Ennis and the Delphi project agreed that it was not sufficient possessing

critical thinking skills but also the critical thinking disposition to use them. The Delphi

experts stated that only a person having a ‚critical spirit‛ was more apt to use the skills.

By critical spirit they did not mean to be negative but one in possession of a probing

inquisitiveness, a keenness of mind, a zealous dedication to reason and a hunger or


AND STRATEGIES


eagerness for reliable information. As such critical thinking demanded a fearless

attitude to consistently pursue one’s goal. Both Ennis and Delphi project had given us

some critical thinking dispositions that an individual had to possess to carry out critical

thinking. Let us first consider the critical thinking dispositions as listed by the Delphi

project:

1. Inquisitiveness with regard to a wide range of issues.

2. Concern to become and remain well informed.

3. Alertness to opportunities to use critical thinking.

4. Trust in the processes of reasoned inquiry.

5. Self confidence in one’s own abilities to reason.

6. Open-mindedness regarding divergent world views.

7. Flexibility in considering alternatives and opinion.

8. Understanding of the opinions of other people.

9. Fair mindedness in appraising reasoning.

10. Honesty in facing one’s own biases, prejudices, stereotypes or egocentric

tendencies.

11. Prudence in suspending, making or altering judgments.

12. Willingness to reconsider and revise views where honest reflection suggests that

change is warranted.

Let us now consider Robert H Ennis’s view. He defined disposition as a tendency

to do something, given certain conditions. The list provided according to Ennis is more

amenable to use in teaching.

1. Seek and offer clear statements of the thesis or question

2. Seek and offer clear reasons

3. Try to be well informed

4. Use credible sources and observations, and usually mention them

5. Take into account the total situation

6. Keep in mind the basic concern in the context

7. Be alert for alternatives

8. Be open-minded

a. Seriously consider other points of view

b. Withhold judgment when the evidence and reasons are insufficient

9. Take a position and change a position when the evidence and reasons are

sufficient.


AND STRATEGIES


10. Seek as much precision as the nature of the subject admits

11. Seek the truth when it makes sense to do so, and more broadly, try to ‚get it

right‛ to the extent possible or feasible.

12. Employ their critical thinking abilities and dispositions.

The importance of critical thinking disposition lies in the fact that even if a person

possesses critical thinking skills, might let them grow dull being too tired, too lax or too

frightened. It is a rational impulse/ drive/ will/ inclination to involve oneself in the

process of quality thinking.

7. STEPS IN CRITICAL THINKING

Despite numerous suggestions regarding steps we shall consider for our purpose

IDEAS: A 5-Step Critical Thinking Problem-Solving Process by Peter Facione and Carol

Ann Gittens: 2013. The mnemonic IDEA is a 5 step critical thinking process easy to

understand and easy to apply. Each step calls for patient investment of time on the part

of the individual in making well-reasoned reflective and yet timely decisions, yet savvy

enough to avoid paralysis by analysis. The 5 step is as follows:

IDEAS - A 5 Step Critical Thinking and Decision Making Process

1 I IDENTIFY the problem and Set Priorities.

2 D DEEPEN Understanding and Gather Relevant Information.

3 E ENUMERATE Options and Anticipate Consequences.

4 A ASSESS Situation and Make a Preliminary Decision.

5 S SCRUTINIZE the Process and Self-Correct As Needed.

Although presented as 5 steps one is not bound to go all the way through IDEAS to

correct one’s own thinking. The process can fold back on itself whenever realization of

adjustment occurs.

8. NEED OF CRITICAL THINKING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

Teacher education is responsible for preparing and improving both prospective and in-

service teachers. Teachers are core to the success of micro and macro level programmes

and hence it is crucial that they develop critical thinking skills. The following points

state the need of critical thinking in teacher education:


AND STRATEGIES


1. Gary Howard (1999) had commented that we can’t teach what we don’t know. In

order to teach critical thinking to the students, they themselves will have to have

a strong grounding in critical thinking both theoretically and practically.

2. To be sensitive to changing classroom demography.

3. To make effective integration of technology in dissemination of course content &

effective achievement of educational and national goal.

4. To develop sense of social justice among the teachers who would further

promote the same within the classroom.

5. To develop the ability of global literacy so as to be capable of embracing diversity

‚Literate citizens in a diverse, democratic society should be reflective, moral and

active. They should have the knowledge, skills and commitment needed to act to

change the world to make it more just. (Banks, J. A., 2003)

6. Due to information explosion teachers will have to make discrete choice of

information and hence be skeptical in choosing the information for classroom

instruction. To be capable of separating misinformation from genuine knowledge

and to distinguish scientific research from poorly supported claims.

7. To face the complex problems of future personal and professional life by

developing strategies of action research.

8. Since language is pertinent to critical thinking, teachers educated in critical

thinking will develop the general ability as well as the discipline specific ability

to communicate information effectively to the students.

9. Since critical thinking demands a continuous effort for refinement of one’s

knowledge it helps a teacher to become lifelong learner which is infact an

important characteristic of an effective teacher.

10. To develop the ability to meet the obligations of the teaching profession.

11. To contribute towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.

12. To make education for sustainable development a success.

13. To gain autonomy as a teacher and carry out self-directed learning.

14. Help teachers maintain their mental health through a better understanding of

self and others.

Critical thinking is an essential component of successful living within a Democratic

country which should strongly suffice for its incorporation into Teacher Education.

Dewey had already made strong claims regarding the strong bond between critical

thinking and the success of democratic process. He had mentioned that prejudice


AND STRATEGIES


towards minority students was very automatic with teachers coming from the

dominant culture, thus expecting poor performance on their part which in turn did

affect their performance. This low expectation also became a means of preventing the

minority group from becoming educated and assuming power or influence in society.

Paulo Freire’s work Pedagogy of the Oppressed is a fierce reassertion wherein he makes

democratic proposals to help men and women develop their power to perceive critically

their experience in the world in which they find themselves and come to see the world

not as static but in continuous transformation.

9. STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP CRITICAL THINKING THROUGH TEACHER

EDUCATION

On review of the existing literature, the researchers had come to understand that

critical thinking is linked to the Constructivist mode of teaching and learning. But the

step by step process mirrors Behaviourism, hence seeking for a blend of teacher-centred

and student-centred instruction. Following are some of the identified strategies that can

be followed to develop critical thinking through teacher education:

1. As an independent discipline: Solon’s (2001) study suggested that one was more

likely to benefit when enrolled in a critical thinking course independent of other

disciplines.

2. Embedding critical thinking across the teacher education curriculum: This

demands that critical thinking be infused into the curriculum with regard to its

content, pedagogy and assessment. This would however demand faculty

development and revision of content to include critical thinking for student

teachers to make use of.

3. Mixed approach: This approach had been endorsed by both Robert H Ennis and

Sternberg, i.e. offering critical thinking as a separate course and embedding it in

the entire teacher education course.

4. Regular dialogue with wait time: Teacher educators should conduct regular

Student- Teacher and Student- Student dialogue in class session, while modeling

high-order questioning together with the application of wait time, and then

reflect on the used strategies with the student teachers.

5. Infusing Critical Pedagogy into Teacher Education: We cannot deny the

existence of power politics in the field of education with the dominant


AND STRATEGIES


dominating the oppressed who in turn allow themselves to be dictated by the

majority. This in turn blinds one to reality, thus obstructing the achievement of

democracy in the true sense. Critical pedagogy can be infused into teacher

education by asking student teachers to question their own ideologies, the

consequences of their actions, the role of politics and culture in shaping

education, the creation and effect of various policies etc. This will help create

teachers who will question their beliefs and actions before actualizing them in

the classroom.

6. Concept mapping: Teacher educators can use concept mapping while providing

instruction on any topic or idea.

7. Thinking out loud: Teacher educators can act as critical thinking models to

student teachers by thinking out loud in the form of seeking further information

with regard to seminar presentations and assignments. This will provide

students with a more clarified means to using critical thing in improving ones

knowledge and understanding.

8. Group collaboration: Student teachers should be provided opportunities for

group collaboration like discussion, case studies, task-related group work, and

peer reviewing debates. This is effective in promoting critical thinking because:

a. An effective group has the potential to produce better results than any

individual.

b. Students are exposed to different perspectives while clarifying their own

ideas.

c. Stimulates interest and increases an understanding and knowledge of the

topic.

9. CATS (Classroom Assessment Techniques): This technique provides scope for

using classroom assessment to assess, monitor and thus foster critical thinking

among learners, such as teacher educator asking student teachers to assess their

contribution to classroom discussion.

10. Ambiguity: To avoid spoon feeding ambiguous material (such as pictures,

graphs and data) is provided to student teachers for sorting out.

11. Simulation: Rush et al had opined that learners’ abilities in decision making and

problem solving was best improved through repeated experiences or practices

with thinking as related to specific knowledge domains. Simulation as an

educational method provided opportunity to structure learning systematically


AND STRATEGIES


thus acquiring deep content knowledge and facilitating the development of

critical thinking. Micro Teaching skills in teacher education provided much

scope for practicing critical thinking beginning from writing instructional

objectives to assessment of learning outcome.

12. Use of Information Communication Technology: According to Tinio (2003), ICT

offers a wide range of technologies and other resources that can be used to

create, communicate, store, disseminate and store information. For instance the

teacher educator can ask students to prepare a review: of a piece of news either

printed news or media generated, ads on Television or radio, films, serials,

documentaries etc. On the other hand the World Wide Web (WWW) provides

opportunity to collaborate and share information through blogs, wikis and social

networks. Teacher educators can create blogs and ask student teachers to

comment on the topic under discussion. Wikis provides scope for collaborative

learning as anyone with access to the internet can edit, add and modify the

information provided, thus creating a sense of community belongingness. This

site provides further direction to other for more information seeking. However

here the teacher educator will have to seek membership of the concerned page.

Social network sites to provide an opportunity to develop student teachers

critical thinking. For this teacher educator must at first join one such site and

then can form a group of student teachers by sending them request to join the

group. For this the student teachers would also be expected to join the social site.

They can then be asked to post comments and critique others comments as well

with regard to certain topics. This contributed to group discussion where

members blended their ideas and experiences with others to create learning, thus

reducing feelings of isolation by fostering a sense of social presence.

10. CONCLUSION

Today we are living in a fast pacing, conflicting and dangerously complex world.

Teacher Education being responsible for creating Human Resources which in turn

would be responsible for creating future Adult Human Resources, cannot ignore the

need of including critical thinking within its ambit. For this teacher educators would

have to focus more on the process rather than the output and on student teachers

thinking rather than on their learning. That the student teachers practice critical


AND STRATEGIES


thinking, teacher educators will themselves be required to exhibit it in their interaction

with the students. With this approach students would be likely to appreciate and

develop the critical thinking skills thus equipping them to function in and contribute to

the global community.

REFERENCES

1. Aizikovitsh-Udi, E., & Cheng, D. (2015). Developing critical thinking skills from

dispositions to abilities: Mathematics education from early childhood to high

school. Creative Education, 6, 455-462.

Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.64045

2. American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education and the Partnership for

21st Century Skills (P21). (2010 September). 21st Century Knowledge and Skills In

Educator Preparation.

Retrieved from

http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/aacte_p21_whitepaper2010.pdf

3. Bickmore, Kathy. (2014 June). Curricular infusion and integration: Conflict

resolution, decision-making and critical thinking in academic subject areas for

learning to live together.

Retrieved from http://doc.iiep.unesco.org/wwwisis/repdoc/peic/2787.pdf

4. California Critical Thinking Skills Test Manual. (2013).

Retrieved from http://www.insightassessment.com

5. Ennis, Robert H. (2013). The nature of critical thinking: Outlines of general

thinking dispositions and abilities.

Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.net/longdefinition.html

6. Ennis, Robert. (1991 March). Critical thinking: A streamlined conception.

Teaching Philosophy.

Retrieved from

http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/documents/EnnisStreamlinedConce

ption.pdf

7. ERIC digest 3-88. (1988). Critical thinking skills and teacher education. [On line ]

Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-929/critical.htm

8. Facione, Peter A. (2011). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.64045

http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/aacte_p21_whitepaper2010.pdf

http://doc.iiep.unesco.org/wwwisis/repdoc/peic/2787.pdf

http://www.insightassessment.com/

http://www.criticalthinking.net/longdefinition.html

http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/documents/EnnisStreamlinedConception.pdf

http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/rhennis/documents/EnnisStreamlinedConception.pdf

http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-929/critical.htm


AND STRATEGIES


Retrieved from

http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1922502/Critical-

Thinking-What-it-is-and-why-it-counts.pdf

9. Fahim, Mansoor & Masouleh, Nima Shakouri. (2012 July). Critical thinking in

higher education: A pedagogical look. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,

2(7), 1370-1375.

Retrieved from

http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/viewFile/tpls02071370137

5/5048

10. Hager, Paul. & Kaye, Michael. (1992). Critical thinking in teacher education: A

process oriented research agenda. Australian journal of teacher education. 17 (2).

Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1992v17n2.4

11. Ijaiya, N.Y.S., Alabi, A. T. & Fasasi, Y.A. (2011). Teacher Education in Africa and

Critical Thinking Skills: Needs and Strategies. Research Journal of Business

Management, 5: 26-34.

Retrieved from http://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=rjbm.2011.26.34

12. Kanik, Figen. (2010 September). An assessment of teachers’ conceptions of critical

thinking and practices for critical thinking development at seventh grade level.

Ph.D. theses.

Retrieved from http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12612523/index.pdf

13. Leach, Brent Tyler. (2011). Critical thinking skills as related to university students

gender and academic discipline. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1251.

Retrieved from http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1251

14. Morin, Marisa. (2012, February 13). Paulo Freire- Pedagogy of the oppressed.

Philosophy of education.

Retrieved from

https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/vokephilofeducation/2012/02/13/paulofr

eire-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed/

15. NCTE. (2009). National curriculum framework for teacher education.

Retrieved from http://www.teindia.nic.in/files/national_curriculu-for-teacher-

education-2009.pdf

16. Our concept and definition of critical thinking.

Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-concept-and-

definition-of-critical-thinking/411

http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1922502/Critical-Thinking-What-it-is-and-why-it-counts.pdf

http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1922502/Critical-Thinking-What-it-is-and-why-it-counts.pdf

http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/viewFile/tpls020713701375/5048

http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/viewFile/tpls020713701375/5048

http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1992v17n2.4

http://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=rjbm.2011.26.34

http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12612523/index.pdf

http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1251

https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/vokephilofeducation/2012/02/13/paulofreire-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed/

https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/vokephilofeducation/2012/02/13/paulofreire-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed/

http://www.teindia.nic.in/files/national_curriculu-for-teacher-education-2009.pdf

http://www.teindia.nic.in/files/national_curriculu-for-teacher-education-2009.pdf

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-concept-and-definition-of-critical-thinking/411

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/our-concept-and-definition-of-critical-thinking/411


AND STRATEGIES


17. Preparing 21st century National Education Association. Preparing 21st century

Students for a global society: An educator’s guide to the four cs.

Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/A-Guide-to-Four-Cs.pdf

18. PEARSON. Better decisions. Every day. Every way. Think About It!

Retrieved from http://www.thinkwatson.com/wp-content/uploads/Pearson-CT-

ebook.pdf

19. Sofos, Manolis. Critical thinking - A historical overview. Greece.

Retrieved from http://www.sdcentras.lt/mind/CThistorical.pdf

20. Scott, Sophia. Perceptions of students’ learning critical thinking through debate

in a technology classroom: A case study.

Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/v34/v34n1/pdf/scott.pdf

21. Subran, David. (2013, April 24). Developing higher-order thinking with ICT.

Retrieved from

http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/15701/Developing%2

Higher%20Order%20Thinking%20with%20ICT%20Subran.pdf?sequence=1

22. The critical thinking community. A brief history of the idea of critical thinking.

Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-

of-criticalthinking/408

23. The critical thinking community. Sumner’s definition of critical thinking.

Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/sumnerrsquos-definition-

of-critical thinking/412

24. Thompson, Claudette. (2011, July). Critical thinking across the curriculum:

Process over output. International journal of humanities and social science. 1(9).

Retrieved from

http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol._1_No._9_Special_Issue_July_2011/1.pdf

25. The Indian express. (2015, April 24). Brain drain has now become a brain gain:

PM Narendra Modi.

Retrieved from http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/pm-narendra-

modi-calls-human-resource-indias-biggest-power/

26. UNESCO principles on education for development beyond 2015: perspectives on

the post-2015 International agenda. (2013 March).UNESCO Education Research

and Foresight.

http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/A-Guide-to-Four-Cs.pdf

http://www.thinkwatson.com/wp-content/uploads/Pearson-CT-ebook.pdf

http://www.thinkwatson.com/wp-content/uploads/Pearson-CT-ebook.pdf

http://www.sdcentras.lt/mind/CThistorical.pdf

http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/v34/v34n1/pdf/scott.pdf

http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/15701/Developing%252Higher%20Order%20Thinking%20with%20ICT%20Subran.pdf?sequence=1

http://uwispace.sta.uwi.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2139/15701/Developing%252Higher%20Order%20Thinking%20with%20ICT%20Subran.pdf?sequence=1

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-of-criticalthinking/408

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-of-criticalthinking/408

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/sumnerrsquos-definition-of-critical%20thinking/412

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/sumnerrsquos-definition-of-critical%20thinking/412

http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol._1_No._9_Special_Issue_July_2011/1.pdf

http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/pm-narendra-modi-calls-human-resource-indias-biggest-power/

http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/pm-narendra-modi-calls-human-resource-indias-biggest-power/


AND STRATEGIES


Retrieved from

https://en.unesco.org/post2015/sites/post2015/files/UNESCOPrinciplesonEducat

onforDevelopmentBeyond2015.pdf

