Chapter 9

Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.

Mental images - mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality.

Concepts - ideas we group together that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.• Superordinate concept - the most

general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit.”

• Basic level type - an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear.”

• Subordinate concept – the most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand.

VehicleCar

Lexus

Formal concepts - concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. A square vs. triangle

Natural concepts - concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world.

Prototype – the best example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept.• How we group things together• What is the best prototype for a football

player?

A platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept

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Convergent Thinking -there is a right answer• Traditional School Question

Divergent Thinking- to think “creatively” with as many possible answers you can come up with• Allow time for Incubation- walk away from the problem and

let you mind work on it without conscious effort• Metacognition- think about one’s own problem solving strategy

Problem solving - process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

Trial and error (mechanical solution) – problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.

Insight - sudden perception of a solution to a problem.

Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.

Heuristic - an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.”• Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the

difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. Math Problem?

Intuition- allows us to act quickly, unreasoning, based on “ gut feelings”- hard to quantify

Availability Heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in Memory• Statistical Reality vs. Dramatic Events• Fear of swimming in the ocean vs. crossing the street• Watch a scary movie!

Representative Heuristic- we judge the likelihood of some event based on how well it matched some picture or expectation we already have• We assume based upon appearances

Truck Driver vs. Ivy League Psychology Professor

Anchoring heuristic (bias)- faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity

• How much someone weighs.

Functional fixedness - a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions.• MacGyver or the Candle Mounting Problem

Mental set - the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. Math Problems Opening a door.. Push or pull?

Confirmation bias – the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.• If we thought all Italians were in shape, did their own laundry

and went tanning… watch MTV

• Implicit Assumptions- we assume there are rules limiting what we can do

I’m not good with numbers therefore I can’t do math.

Overconfidence- tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments• How long it takes to study for

psych?

Belief perseverance- tendency to hold on to beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

Hindsight bias- Tendency, after learning about an event to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect- people that are bad at something often believe they are good when they are not in reality

Framing- the way an issue is stated can effect it’s impact on it’s audience• Ex- 90% of people with this disease recover (yea!) 10%

of people with this disease die…. (boo!)

We fear our ancestral history.

We fear what we cannot control.

We fear what is immediate.

We fear what is readily available in memory.

Language - a system for combining symbols (spoken, written, or signed) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others.

IIIIIIIIII

Phonemes - the basic units of sound in language. • English has about 44 phonemes.

Morphemes - the smallest units of meaning within a language.• Can be words like a or but or s.• prefixes or suffixes…”ed” at the end of a word

means past tense

How many phonemes in cats?How many morphemes in cats?

Grammar - the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language. • Syntax - the system of

rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.

• Semantics - the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences.

Is this the White House or the House

White?

1. Babbling Stage • make speech sounds both in and out of native language• First able to discriminate speech sounds or phonemes

2. Holophrastic Stage/one word stage… 1st birthday

• Productive language begins (speaking meaningful words)• Receptive language (comprehension of meaning)• Example… “doggy”

3. Telegraphic Stage/two word stage… 2nd birthday

• Grammatically correct 2 word saying• Contains mostly nouns and verbs• Follows rules of syntax ; Example… “big doggy”• Overgeneralization/Overregularization – extending

the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm

• “Yesterday I goed to psychology”

Descriptive Grammar- might not follow proper grammar rules but meaning is there (actually used)• “I ain’t listening to you!”

Prescriptive Grammar- following proper grammar rules (should be used)• “I understand what you are saying but I would

prefer to do it my way.”

Skinner- Operant learning• Learning principles explain

language development. • Association of sights of things

with sounds• Imitation of words and syntax

modeled by others• Reinforcement- smiles and hugs

when the child says something right

Language Acquisition Device- prewired ability to learn the language that is being spoken. (Noam Chomsky)• Made possible by universal grammar- all

languages have the same building blocks

• Children start speaking in nouns- naturally

• Interactionist Model- combination of Skinner and Chomsky; learning and biological predisposition

Critical periods of learning occur in childhood. If a child has not been spoken to or learned sign language by age 7 they lose their ability to master any language.• Learning a language as an adult you will

always speak with an accent• Most easily master language as a child

“Genie” case study The Wild Child of Aveyron - Victor

Aphasia- impairment of language usually caused by left hemisphere damage to Broca’s or Wernicke’s area.

Visual Cortex- receives written words

Angular Gyrus- transforms (reads) visual info and recodes it into auditory form.

Motor Cortex- word is pronounced

In processing language, the brain operates by dividing its mental functions (speaking, perceiving, thinking, remembering) into subfunctions

The brain acts as a unified whole depending on specific neural networks.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis - the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language.• Benjamin Lee Whorf• Ex.-The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their

language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.

Cognitive universalism – theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language.

Bilingual Advantage- think and respond better

Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas.

Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.