Copenhagen International School
Environmental StatementApril 2010
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 4
2. Environmental Policy............................................................................................................................. 4
3. Roles and Responsibilities.................................................................................................................. 53.1. Management and Administration.................................................................................................................. 53.2. Faculty..................................................................................................................................................................... 53.3. Students.................................................................................................................................................................. 53.4. Parents.................................................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Whole School Approach........................................................................................................................ 64.1. Energy Audit.......................................................................................................................................................... 64.2. Air Quality Audit.................................................................................................................................................. 64.3. Maintenance Audit.............................................................................................................................................. 64.4. Eco-Mapping.......................................................................................................................................................... 7
5. Exemplars of Good Practice................................................................................................................. 75.1. Events...................................................................................................................................................................... 75.2. Curriculum............................................................................................................................................................. 85.3. Notable speakers................................................................................................................................................. 85.4. Communication.................................................................................................................................................. 105.5. Food....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5.5.1. Cafeteria.............................................................................................................................................................................. 105.5.2. Green House...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5.6. Professional Development............................................................................................................................. 11
6. Accreditation Agencies....................................................................................................................... 11
7. Waste and Energy................................................................................................................................. 117.1. Electricity usage................................................................................................................................................ 11
7.1.1. ECO-Driver.........................................................................................................................................................................117.1.2. Lights.................................................................................................................................................................................... 127.1.3. Computers..........................................................................................................................................................................127.1.4. Photocopiers..................................................................................................................................................................... 127.1.5. Renewable Energy..........................................................................................................................................................13
7.2. Recycling.............................................................................................................................................................. 137.3. Water usage........................................................................................................................................................ 137.4. Paper Usage........................................................................................................................................................ 147.5. Heating (District).............................................................................................................................................. 147.6. Electronic Waste................................................................................................................................................ 147.7. Organic Growing................................................................................................................................................ 15
8. Transport.................................................................................................................................................... 158.1. Bicycles................................................................................................................................................................. 158.2. Lift-share.............................................................................................................................................................. 158.3. Public Transport............................................................................................................................................... 158.4. Transport for Professional Development.................................................................................................16
9. Maintenance.............................................................................................................................................. 169.1 Cleaning................................................................................................................................................................. 169.2 Chemicals.............................................................................................................................................................. 169.3 Hazardous materials......................................................................................................................................... 16
2
10. Summary of Key Goals...................................................................................................................... 16Energy:.......................................................................................................................................................................... 16Air Quality:.................................................................................................................................................................. 16Maintenance Audit:.................................................................................................................................................. 17Eco-Mapping Audit:.................................................................................................................................................. 17Food:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 17Professional Development:................................................................................................................................... 17Electricity:.................................................................................................................................................................... 17Heating:........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Appendix 1...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Appendix 2...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Appendix 3...................................................................................................................................................... 51
Appendix 4...................................................................................................................................................... 52
Appendix 5...................................................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix 6...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix 7.............................................................................................................................................................................. 89
List of Abbreviations
CIS - Copenhagen International School COP15 - 15th Conference of the PartiesDP - Diploma ProgramEEA - European Environmental Agency EMAS - Eco-Management and Audit SchemeFSC - Forestry Stewardship CouncilIB - International Baccalaureate KK - Københavns KommuneMYP - Middle Years ProgramPAC - Performing Arts Center PYP - Primary Years Program
3
1. Introduction
Copenhagen International School (CIS) is an International Baccalaureate (IB) World School offering the three educational programmes of the International Baccalaureate. Students from 50 nations, aged between three and eighteen attend CIS. As one of the founding members of the IB Diploma Programme, CIS enjoys an international standing among international schools worldwide.
There are 600 students and 120 staff working at the school. The parent body consists of corporate executives, diplomats and NGO workers, some of whom are highly influential in their respective field.
An environmental agenda has been gaining prominence over the past year or so. This is primarily due to two factors. Firstly, a conscious decision by the management of the school to have sustainability and the environment as a focus for students and staff at CIS. In the current climate, it is unethical for a school, responsible for shaping the citizens and leaders of tomorrow, to turn away from this critical issue. Secondly, we have a dedicated team of staff (teachers and management) and parents, with the energy, enthusiasm and ideas to carry such an agenda through the school.
2. Environmental Policy
Copenhagen International School (CIS) is committed to educating its students and staff about climate change and sustainability, and to establish habits that promote clean living.
The greening of CIS involves many groups comprised of students, teachers and parents. The groups all fall under the umbrella Go On Green. The CIS environmental policy as defined by the goals of Go On Green and includes:
1. To promote a sense of responsibility for the environment through raising environmental awareness of the teachers and staff, students, and parent community.2. To reduce the amount of energy and water consumed and ensure all uses of energy and water are as efficient as possible.3. To reduce the amount of fossil fuels consumed.4. To report on C02 emissions relating to energy consumption and transport under the direct control of CIS, with the aim to reduce C02 emissions year after year.5. To reduce, re-use and recycle waste with a firm commitment to the prevention of pollution.6. To comply with all relevant environmental legislation achieving the legal requirements as a minimum standard (ISO:14001).7. To improve and achieve our environmental objectives through an ongoing continual process of defining standards, collecting data, evaluating performance and identifying areas for improvement.8. To continually monitor the use of energy, water, fossil fuels, and paper, in order to comply with reduction targets.9. To research, evaluate and implement environmental best practice.10. To work to ensure that suppliers, contractors and sub-contractors are aware of and comply with our environmental policy.
4
3. Roles and Responsibilities
3.1. Management and Administration
The management and administration personnel at CIS have the overarching responsibility for implementing and ensuring the continuing development of the EMS system within the organization. It is through the clear, coordinated and structured approach to ‘good housekeeping’ that has been fully supported by the leadership team, which has given way to such a successful implementation of the EMAS concept at CIS. The acknowledged efficiencies that are possible to pursue by having a functioning EMS is one of the key drivers behind the rationale of implementing this system. From August 2010, each member of the CIS administration will have their key roles and responsibilities outlined on their personal website portal page.
3.2. Faculty
The faculty at CIS is fully committed and supports the required steps that must be maintained in order for he EMAS system to be fully operational. This has been made possible through the continued efforts of the greening committee who have presented numerous talks and sessions to the faculty on the implementation steps and process required for the EMAS concept to have a solid grounding. Thus, this is naturally expressed in the classrooms and throughout the school where teachers share their knowledge and understanding of key concepts with the students. From August 2010, each member of the CIS faculty will have their key roles and responsibilities outlined on their personal website portal page.
3.3. Students
Each student at CIS has the responsibility to limit their ecological impact on the natural environment through being aware and conscious of the results of their actions. This transforms into careful consideration when selecting means of transport, paper use, food types and pre-packaged products to name but a few. Each areas of the schools’ students will have their individual roles and responsibilities documented on the inside cover of their school diary from August 2010.
3.4. Parents
The parents of students at CIS are duly expected to ensure that all children are aware of the environmental responsibility that is entrusted to them while attending CIS. It is expected that parents will promote and encourage good housekeeping practices when at home or at school so that students have a reinforced role within the wider school community. Parents themselves are encouraged to take an active role in promoting active caring for the natural environment and the conservative use of natural resources.
5
4. Whole School Approach
4.1. Energy Audit
In 2009 we conducted an Energy Audit (Appendix 1). The main recommendations were:
- Reduce to overall energy consumption of both electricity and heating.- Insulate areas that are currently un-insulated.
4.2. Air Quality Audit
In 2010 we conducted an Air quality audit. The main recommendations were:
- Ensure adequate ventilation to all rooms on the basement level especially the staffroom. - Carryout the necessary maintenance to avert the foul odor on the basement corridor. - Install a ventilation system on the D-floor for the Technology room.
4.3. Maintenance Audit
In 2009 we conducted a Maintenance Audit (Appendix 2). The man recommendations were:
- The replacement of the main school building roof due to the hazardous impact posed by its state.- Replacement of the wooden windows of the main school building.- Restore the façade of the main building where plaster is falling off.- Check dampness in basement areas where water appears to be entering from outside.
6
4.4. Eco-Mapping
This activity was carried out as part of the EMAS challenge within CIS where a group of dedicated students, staff and a parent completed an eco-mapping project school wide during a weekend. This was used as the starting point for gaining an insight of behavioral and common practices throughout the school (Appendix 4.)
The main recommendations were:
- Monitor energy use by conducting a quick check of each classroom at the end of the school day to ensure that all equipment is switched off.
- Monitor all radiator thermo valves at the end of the school do to ensure that none of these are set above the 3 mark.
- Establish a organized facility for the storage of products and goods in the boiler rooms area.- Install plastic recycling bins in main meeting areas of the school grounds and buildings.
5. Exemplars of Good Practice
5.1. Events
UN Day Focus on Climate Oct 23, 2009 – MYP students focused on a number of whole day activities specifically related to the environment in preparation for the COP15 summit in December 2009. Two teams of environmental professionals from the European Environmental Agency (EEA) and Københavns Kommune (KK) attended CIS to work alongside MYP students and staff in order to guide their projects and decision making processes. This gave the students the opportunity to experience integrated environmental learning and how their decisions affect their natural surroundings.
CIS Climate Conference Dec 7-10, 2009 – Spanning the period of four days CIS implemented a series of talks, workshops and lectures aimed at the whole of the CIS community as a support mechanism while the COP15 summit was taking place in Copenhagen. This conference helped raise awareness and highlight the major issues surrounding Climate Change for those who attended the events.
7
MYP 1-3 assembly presented by Alliance for Climate Education.
Earth Day events planned for April 23 and 24, 2010. Trashion-Show was a parade of costumes made from “trash” and was a huge success, which was attended by a wide range of people from the whole CIS community.
5.2. Curriculum
COP-Art school-wide project Student-initiated and/or governed, overseen by faculty/parents: Greenies monitoring resource use and recording data on Greenies
Ning Outreach to other schools focused on sustainability (web cast) Personal project work of grade 10 students on sustainability
showcased in assemblies Issues of sustainability and environment embedded in the PYP,
MYP and DP curriculum.
5.3. Notable speakers
John Robinson
Copenhagen International School was pleased to welcome Nobel Prize winner, Professor John Robinson, last month for a series of classroom lectures and discussions on the topic of sustainability and the environment. John is professor of Geography, Director of the Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability at the University of British Columbia. He was one of the lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) which as a body received the Nobel Peace Prize together with Al Gore in 2008. Visit: http://www.cfis.ubc.ca/faculty/directory/robinson.html
John Liu
John is an eminent keynote speaker at international conferences. His thesis is that the eradication of poverty and the rehabilitation of ecosystems are inextricably linked. In rehabilitating ecosystems we not only ensure the survival of our species but also ’address the massive historic crimes that enriched some, but left billions of people in abject poverty.’ John believes that the headline solutions being proposed for COP 15 will achieve little more than Calpol: alleviating the symptoms but leaving the fundamental causes of the problem intact. He has directed 14 films for the BBC, Discovery and National Geographic channels. John Liu screened his film ‘Hope in a Changing Climate’ in the
8
Performing Arts Center (PAC) on Monday, 7 December 2009. Visit: http://hopeinachangingclimate.org/
“You represent the next generation of environmental speakers who are not telling us about the problems any more, but rather the solutions” J.P. Morgan
Caren Trafford
As part of the School’s Climate Change theme for UN Day, the Primary School welcomed Caren Trafford, aka ‘the worm poo lady’, who conducted workshops for Pre K - MYP 3. The workshops were all about waste, sustainability and how important worms are to the environment because they eat waste and produce a substance that enriches the soil – they are a natural and sustainable solution to the problem of waste. Visit: http://www.planetkids.biz
The Age of Stupid Team
The Age of Stupid, starring Oscar-nominated Peter Posthelthwaite and produced by an Oscar-winner, was screened in the PAC on Tuesday 8 December 2009. Lizzie Gillett, Producer of the Age of Stupid attended the screening of the movie at CIS during the Climate Conference to give an account of the making of the movie along with offering a valuable opportunity for the audience to pose questions. The impact of this movie could clearly be seen on the faces of the audience who where a little shaky afterwards to say the least!
This film has been shown in 23 countries and has a trailer featuring students from CIS. At its premiere in Australia it was shown simultaneously in over 40 cinemas. Its UK opening week enjoyed the highest screen average, beating even ‘Slumdog Millionaire.’ It has been described as ‘essential viewing for anyone who cares about the future of our planet.’Visit: http://www.ageofstupid.net/
Ghost Forest Project
CIS was very lucky to have Angela Palmer, creator of the Ghost Forest Project, share her inspiration and the story of the project's creation. Ghost Forest is an original and ambitious art project that seeks to raise public awareness of the connections between deforestation and climate change. It involves taking a series of 10 rainforest tree stumps, most with their buttress roots still attached, from a regulated, commercially logged tropical rainforest in Ghana. The tree stumps were presented as a “ghost forest” initially in Trafalgar Square in London, and then in Copenhagen from 7-16 December 2009 to coincide with the UN's COP15 Climate Change Conference. Ghost Forest is a carbon neutral project!Visit: http://www.ghostforest.org/
Cliff Valley School
CIS teamed up with the Cliff Valley School in Atlanta, Georgia USA and hosted a Skype conference for students in the Primary School. The conference included a fact-sharing session where both sides presented triumphs and
9
challenges they face with regard to climate change, an environmental song and cheer, and a climate change game show.
5.4. Communication
The management of the school took the decision to have “Greening” as one of its main tabs on the school’s homepage, which is summed up in the following extract from the November Newsletter at CIS.
“The green background of our new website is not coincidental. Of the eight drop-down menus, one is devoted solely to all that the school is doing in terms of greening. This is an indicator of the seriousness with which we take sustainability at CIS. For us this is not a voguish fad on the coat-tails of COP 15, but a serious and long-term commitment to embed sustainability in our curriculum deeper and deeper every year at every level in the school.” Peter Wellby
Events are communicated to the local press. Some recent examples being:
UN Day – MYP5 Video Project with representatives from Københavns Kommune
Visit: http://gentofte.lokalavisen.dk/article/20091026/ARTIKLER/710269848
Roots & Shoots - Kids get stuck in to clean up city lakes
Visit: http://cphpost.dk/news/community/93-community/45355-kids-get-stuck-in-to-clean-up-city-lakes.html
5.5. Food
5.5.1. Cafeteria
The school is planning to improve the quality of food served in the cafeteria, beginning in August 2010. A variety of options have been explored throughout the academic year of 2009 and a long-term plan is in the process of being finalized. This wonderful opportunity will involve as much locally produced food and organic produce as is viable, with the initial aim to have 75% local or organic. This will not only promote a healthy lifestyle and a solid well balanced nutritional diet but it will also see significant reductions in the indirect CO2 emissions as a result of our eating habits.
5.5.2. Green House
Currently under construction outside the PYP school building is a green house that is being created using materials that are as green as we can possibly find. These include over 1,500 recycled plastic bottles along with a frame made from Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) sourced wood. The aim of this building is for the students from the PYP to have access to a space where they can grow food that can then be used for their unit of work ‘For for the Earth’.
5.6. Professional Development
November Learning
10
CIS has actively started to promote in-house PD due to the overwhelming carbon footprint of those who travel to international locations to attend PD workshops. One of the first and most engaging PD workshops was held on the first two days of the Spring term in 2010 by Alan November of November Learning. This was truly a superb success due to the quality and quantity of information off loaded to the Staff at the school. Additionally, the carbon footprint attached to this event was reduced by 134 to one, owing to the fight and travel reductions of having just one individual present within CIS.Visit: http://novemberlearning.com/
6. Accreditation Agencies
EMAS accreditation Eco-Schools Green Flag application for sustainability embedded in curriculum.
Visit: http://www.eco-schools.org/
7. Waste and Energy
Being a school there is much waste generated each day and careless use of resources. This is a matter of poor habits formed over time, not only restricted to time spent by students in school, but time at home. Our aim is to educate students and staff and to change patterns of behavior.
7.1. Electricity usage
7.1.1. ECO-Driver
In order to help monitor the use of electricity we will purchase ECO-Driver, which allows for real-time monitoring of electricity consumption. It has been shown through case studies that the installation of Eco-Driver can reduce electricity consumption by up to 22%. Thus, allowing it to be used as part of the curriculum will further increase awareness among the school faculty and students of energy consumption and the environmental consequences of waste.
7.1.2. Lights
The school already has light sensors in all its classrooms. It plans to upgrade the lighting system to ‘intelligent lighting’ that adjusts the intensity of artificial depending upon the ambient light. This intelligent system uses the latest technology in light bulbs
11
7.1.3. Computers
A series of direct surveys using watt-meters were carried out as part of a research project focusing specifically on the energy consumption of individual computers and monitors. The aim was to highlight the potential savings available not only in energy terms but also in CO2 emissions by switching to more energy efficient devices (Appendix 6.)
7.1.4. Photocopiers
The school has recently changed to new photocopiers. These use less electricity, fewer resources and saves on paper (Appendix 4). The paper saving occurs because nothing is printed until the person logs into the photocopier and requests the document to be printed. This is different to the old system we had since documents were printed automatically and some were left at the printer. Additionally, faculty members can now scan and send documents directly to students, thus eliminating the need to print unnecessary material.
7.1.5. Renewable Energy
CIS is fully committed to the installation and trial of a Solar PV system for the purpose of charging a set quantity of Apple laptop low-energy computers. This will be used as an opportunity to study the available solar radiation on the CIS campus and will be analysed careful to ensure the maximum potential is reported and considered for future installations.
7.2. Recycling
12
At CIS we have already manufactured and installed dual-purpose recycle/reuse bins in the vast majority of most rooms in the school. These bins allow for the recycling and reusing of paper waste. A dedicated member of the faculty carefully coordinates the activity of emptying the bins, yet the majority of the effort is applied by a group of very engaged students.
The extended aim of the CIS recycling program is to have a similar system set up and running by September 2010 for plastic waste incorporating any plastic material that cannot be taken back to a store for a rebate.
Goal: Have recycling bins for plastic in the main areas of the school by September 2010.
7.3. Water usage
The current water use at CIS is 2580m3 (Appendix 3).
Goal: Water use for 2010-2011 school year to be 20% less. Additional reductions each year until we plateau out.
7.4. Paper Usage
More use of electronic documents such as Google Documents are being made by the teachers. New photocopiers reduce paper waste. See below under ‘Photocopiers’.
In 2008 the school used 3.6 tonnes of A3 and A4 white paper (Appendix 5.)
Goal: Paper usage for school year 2010-2011 to be 20% less. Year on year we will aim for a further 10% reduction until 2014.
7.5. Heating (District)
Consumption:
13
In 2008 we used 2,700 GJ
Goal: A 20% reduction by 2012.
7.6. Electronic Waste
A continual monitoring by the IT technician at CIS ensures that all unnecessary and redundant electronic products are recycled in a safe and environmentally sound way which is coordinated through the business manager at CIS.
14
7.7. Organic Growing
In May 2010, grade 2 students organized a composting system. This initiative was a follow-up to the Climate Conference in December 2009 when Karen Trafford came and run a series of workshops with the PYP students on worm farming. Additionally, a project to build a Green House out of used plastic bottles is very well underway. Over 3000 plastic bottles have been collected by the CIS community to contribute to the construction of this building, which will then be utilised to grow organic food by the students combining learning areas of the curriculum from science, art, math to physical education.
8. Transport
8.1. Bicycles
In MYP 2 students are required to give a theoretical and practical cycling test administrated by the Gentofte police. In order to prepare the students for the test in MYP 2, the students have a pre-test in MYP 1, during their training they are supported by their peers from MYP 5. This ultimately contributes to the overall reduction of fossil fuel transport required for the students to get to and from CIS as students are legally responsible to travel by bicycle to school once they have received and passed their training.
8.2. Lift-share
All members of the CIS community are strongly encouraged to arrange lift-shares whenever possible, thereby reducing the indirect environmental impacts on the natural environment and mitigating the effects of Climate Change.
8.3. Public Transport
All members of the CIS community are strongly encouraged to use public transport whenever possible. Most school trips are undertaken by public transport especially via train due to the ease of access to the train station from the school, which is approx. 200m. A local coach company usually takes all sporting trips within Denmark.
8.4. Transport for Professional Development
15
A detailed and comprehensive study on transport related emissions arising from professional development was carried out by a faculty member at CIS. This report calculated the entire CO2e emitted during one academic year from CIS faculty travel (Appendix 7.)
9. Maintenance
9.1 Cleaning
The business manager is controlling a coordinated approach to the cleaning of the campus where he is working with the external subcontractors to improve the availability of eco-cleaning products used for this purpose.
9.2 Chemicals
The storage and use of all chemicals onsite is carefully monitored by the Heads of Departments and by the janitors. All individual who have direct contact with chemicals are fully trained and take all necessary precautions to avoid any unnecessary spills. The disposal of chemicals is conducted only by authorized personnel who are suitably qualified and have a license to do so.
9.3 Hazardous materials
All hazardous material that is required by the faculty or janitors is kept under lock and key and beyond the reach of those who are not qualified or authorised to handle these products. Training for the handling and use of hazardous materials and products is part of the professional development program offered by CIS.
10. Summary of Key Goals
Energy:
- Reduce to overall energy consumption of both electricity and heating.- Insulate areas that are currently un-insulated.
Air Quality:
- Ensure adequate ventilation to all rooms on the basement level especially the staffroom. - Carryout the necessary maintenance to avert the foul odor on the basement corridor. - Install a ventilation system on the D-floor for the Technology room.
Maintenance Audit:
16
- The replacement of the main school building roof due to the hazardous impact posed by its current state.- Replacement of the wooden windows of the main school building.- Restore the façade of the main building where plaster is falling off.- Check dampness in basement areas where water appears to be entering from outside.
Eco-Mapping Audit:
- Monitor energy use by conducting a quick check of each classroom at the end of the school day to ensure that all electronic equipment is switched off.
- Monitor all radiator thermostatic valves at the end of the school day to ensure that none of these are set above the III mark.
- Establish a organized facility for the storage of products and goods in the boiler rooms area.- Install plastic recycling bins in main meeting areas of the school grounds and buildings.
Food:
- Aim to have 75% local or organic.- Have a secure space for the PYP students to grow food for units of enquiry within the curriculum.
Professional Development:
- Promote more in-house PD for faculty and administration, thus reducing our overall carbon footprint.
Electricity:
- Our aim is to educate students and staff and to change patterns of behavior.- Have reduced our electrical consumption by 10% in December 2010 based on 2008 figures.
Heating:
- A 20% reduction by 2012 based on 2008 figures.
17
Appendix 1.
18
19
Appendix 2.
20
21
Appendix 3.
22
Appendix 4.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Appendix 5.Should Schools’ use Virgin, Recycled or Reduce
their Consumption Paper?
Introduction
Paper has been in use for centuries as a means for recording and sending information to one another. Since the industrial revolution, together with the development of the education system, the printing press and manufacturing techniques for paper, we have seen a remarkable increase in the consumption of paper. We use paper for such a large variety of applications and purposes, it sometimes becomes easy to forget the environmental impact of this industry and activity as a whole. (McKinney 1995)
The objective of this essay is to focus on the paper consumption of an International School in Denmark over the period of one calendar year. Normally, when detailing information of consumption for schools’ one would base it over an academic year, from August to June. However, due to the fact that the accounting year starts in January, we will look at it from this perspective and base our facts on the school order record for the year January to December 2008.
The principal emphasis will be applied to A3 and A4 copy paper, due to the vast throughput usage quantities of the school. Other paper and card used by the school will be ignored due to the limits of this essay, which will be discussed in the conclusion. A comparative study will be used to show the contrast between using virgin pulp paper and recycled paper, where the results will be expressed in kg/CO2. Strategic suggestions for ways in which the volume of paper can be reduced will be offered, showing detailed practices for improvement, thus limiting the overall negative effect on the environment .
Analysis
The International school has a total of seven-hundred and forty-three individuals comprising of six-hundred and eight students and one-hundred and thirty-five staff, including administration personnel, faculty members and Janitors. Quantifying the individual usage of paper per person will not be possible due to the lack of a monitoring system for printing and copying. Nevertheless, to make it more equal and easier to understand, the total amount of paper consumed for this period will be divided by the total head-count.
The accounting records show that between January and December of 2008, the school ordered 1,440 packs of 500 sheets of A4 80g (gram) paper and 40 packs of 500 sheets of A3 80g paper. To calculate the total quantity of paper used in kilograms (kg), it must first be converted into total sheets and then divided by the amount of sheets per square meter (m2). This is because copy paper is usually sold by weight, for example; the paper bought by the school was 80g paper. This is calculated by square-meter, so in one m2 there are sixteen A4 sheets, so each sheet weighs five grams. The same principal applies to A3 paper, however there are only eight sheets per m2, making each sheet ten grams. (ISO)
42
i) A4 Calculations:
1,440 packs of 500 sheets (1,440 x 500 = 720,000) 720,000 sheets of A4 paper.
16 sheets of A4 are equal to 1m2, which is equal to 80g ((29.7 cm x 21 cm) x 16 = 1m2 = 80g)
720,000 sheets divided by 16 (720,000 / 16 = 45,000m2)
45,000m2 of A4 paper multiplied by 80g (45,000 x 80 = 3,600,000g)
3,600,000g = 3,600kg of A4 paper (3.6 tonnes)
ii) A3 Calculations:
40 packs of 500 sheets (40 x 500 = 20,000) 20,000 sheets of A3 paper
8 sheets of A3 are equal to 1m2, which is equal to 80g ((29.7 cm x 42 cm) x 8 = 1m2 = 80g)
20,000 sheets divided by 8 (20,000 / 8 = 2,500m2)
2,500m2 of A3 paper multiplied by 80g (2,500 x 80 = 200,000g)
200,000g = 200kg of A3 paper (0.2 tonne)
iii) Head Count:
608 students + 135 staff = 743
iv) Per Capita:
720,000 / 743 = 969 A4 sheets per capita.
20,000 / 743 = 26.91 A3 sheets per capita.
The substantial sum of paper is almost meaningless when unaccompanied by costs, either fiscal or environmental. Thus, the environmental fees far outweigh the monetary value when considering measures to alleviate the quantity of paper being consumed and the contribution to Climate Change.
Evidence
In order to have a balance view of the paper consumption, it is necessary to calculate the environmental impact in terms of CO2 emitted in the manufacturing process, for both virgin pulp paper and recycled paper. To simplify the procedure and reduce the need to double calculate, the quantity of A3 paper will be added to the A4. This will not affect the outcome in any way, since both have been ordered from the same company and are of the same quality.
One-thousand kilograms of virgin pulp paper is responsible for emitting 155,000g/CO2 during the manufacturing process, while the same quantity of recycled paper is accountable for a considerably larger sum of 354,000g/CO2, which can be seen in Fig.1. (McDougall et al 2001)
43
Virgin Paper:
1,000kg of paper = 155kg/CO2
3,800kg / 1,000 = 3.8
3.8 x 155 = 589kg/CO2
Recycled Paper:
1,000kg of paper = 354kg/CO2
3,800kg / 1,000 = 3.8
3.8 x 354 = 1,345.20kg/CO2
Fig. 1 (Source: McDougall et al 2001)
If the school were to continue their consumption of paper at the 2008 levels, while ensuring all paper came from a recycled source, based on the above figures there would be quite a large increase in accountable CO2 levels. This measurable difference between using virgin pulp paper and recycled paper of 765.20kg/CO2 (1,345.20 - 589 = 765.20kg/CO2), could potentially, almost triple the carbon emitted by using the same amount of recycled as virgin paper. Considering these statistics, it would seem obvious that it is much more environmentally responsible to use virgin paper presuming it comes from an FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) forest.
It is estimated that it takes twenty-four trees of twelve meters in length by one-hundred and fifty to two-hundred millimeters in diameter to make 1,000kg of virgin pulp paper. (Thompson 1992) Based on the above figures it would take 91.2 trees (24 x 3.8 = 91.2) to meet the demand of paper for this school over one year. To put this into a more detailed perspective for A4 paper, calculated as a percentage of a tree per capita per year we see the following;
24 trees = 1,000kg virgin paper = 200,000 A4 sheets.
1 tree = 8,335 sheets of A4 paper.
8,335 / 100 = 83.35 = 1% of a tree in A4 sheets.
969 / 83.35 = 11.62% of a tree per capita per per annum.
Argument
In order to limit the waste to landfill or incineration from virgin paper, where waste from typical commercial offices can contain up to 80% paper, this should be reused or recycled. (Williams 2005) Failing to reuse or recycle results in a considerable quantity of recoverable resources being lost through going to landfill or incineration, which in turn adds to air or water pollution. (McKinney 1995) The processing stages of both types of paper along with the point of recovery for recycled paper can be seen in Fig. 2 below. The correlation between virgin and recycled paper becomes clearly obvious when shown in a linear systematic approach like that in Fig.2. Therefore, through demand comes the need for paper to be recycled and as efficiently as possible with minimal losses.
44
Fig. 2 (Source: McDougall et al 2001)
Statistics from the Danish Ministry of the Environment show that; for the year 2005, the service sector in Denmark was responsible for 1,841,000 tonnes of waste, an increase of 6% on the previous year. Of that total waste 326,184 tonnes (Fig. 3) of paper and cardboard was separated for recycling. This leaves paper and cardboard in third place at 18% of overall waste, that requires separation, treatment or disposal. (MST) Unfortunately, it is difficult to quantify the amount of paper that is recycled or included in the general waste by the school due to the lack of a way of weighing the outgoing product. Having such a system, where a detailed weight account of all paper sent for recycling would enable a closer analysis of how much paper is going to waste, being stored in files or used for other purposes. It must be understood that without factual figures of paper outgoings it is complex to determine what the possible solutions may be to reduce the flow of this resource.
Fig. 3 (Source: MST)
As far back as the 1945, Vannevar Bush had a vision that one day, through advancements in technology, a ‘paperless office’ would exist.(Sellen et al) During the 1970’s that vision appeared to be on the horizon due to the ever increasing velocity at which technology was developing. Regardless, the relentless demand for paper kept growing and the markets grew with it. Since the introduction of e-mail into businesses paper consumption has increased by close to 40%, not because of email itself, but through the enabling technology of file sharing, distribution and printing. It is now, more than ever before, immensely convenient to print a copy of an email or an electronic document, especially the longer ones.(Sellen et al)
45
This can be attributed to the spread of the personal computer (PC), along with the introduction of the laser printer in offices. Within this school all members of staff have access to their own allocated PC and students have a range of machines to chose from depending on the availability, where with one click, they have immediate means to a printed page. As mentioned above, currently there is no method for metering the individual prints per capita, however a system is due to be operational over the next academic year. Thereby, it is not uncommon to have multiple copies of identical documents circulating in an office or business and as a direct result driving the demand for more paper to be produced.
Conclusion
However, it is not just as simple as switching between one type of paper and another. There are many variables that would need to be explored and considered before electing a winner from the two types of paper, which clearly exceeds the limits to this essay. To focus on responsible utilization of paper is by far the most significant responsibility of any institution, where exemplary approaches of operating efficiently, while limiting the impact on the environment are commonplace and favored by all involved. Thus, only through the fostering of activities like the logical implementation of reducing consumption and therefore waste, will the overall cost to both the environment and the schools’ budget be decreased.
It is commonly accepted that a school is an environment where learning takes place, which should happen at all levels, where all members both staff and students are both learners and educators. Consequently, it is the function of the school to offer leadership towards the future, where respect for the environment and natural resources is seen as a coherent route in progressive learning. By offering informative practical solutions in order to reduce paper consumption, change will happen, and when it is realised that not only does eliminate waste but it also increases efficiency, it will create a ripple effect where the same understanding can be applied to other areas such as electrical and water consumption.
“First, information is the key to transformation. That does not necessarily mean more information, better statistics, bigger databases, or the World Wide Web, though all of these may play a part. It means relevant, compelling, select, powerful, timely, accurate information flowing in new ways to new recipients, carrying new content, suggesting new rules and goals (rules and goals that are themselves information).” (Meadows 2004)
One very practical approach to reducing paper consumption is through the use of electronic documents such as Google Documents, where a limited or unlimited amount of people, depending on the creators preference, can access and edit the same document without the need to print. This system can be used to set assignments, assessments, homework, group work, team building activities etc. If this is used together with Veracross (veracross.com), the system already used by the school for taking attendance, where grading and recording results from activities like tests can be entered it would significantly reduce the role held by the paper products. Another approach would be to use a Wiki system, which is being trailed at the moment, that would allow staff and students to access, enter and edit information correlating to the activities of the school, thus reducing the need for notices and flyers.
Possibly one of the more controversial approaches would be to; apply a cost to a product or process that depletes the environments natural CO2 sinks would be necessary, if we are to see the development of an environmentally sustainable system. (Daly 1996) This would however raise awareness of consumption levels among all involved, due to the fact the the toll through the paper use is not only decreasing natural resources but also the individuals financial capital. Invariably, due to the global financial situation, one would hope that thrift becomes a normal part of everyday life automatically creating a natural reduction in resources such as paper.
46
In view of the limiting capacity of this essay is is difficult to advise for or against the use of recycled or virgin pulp paper. It would require a much broader approach and analysis of the framework within the boundaries of paper production, transportation and consumption. Instead it is hoped that the solutions suggested will be considered and possibly applied, which should have an impact on consumption levels of paper.
References
Daly, H. E. Beyond Growth - The Economics of Sustainable Development. Beacon Press. 1996.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). Paper and board - Determination of grammage 1995. [Online]. Available from: http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=20674 [Accessed 12th May 2009].
McDougall, F. White, P. Franke, M. Hindle, P. Integrated Solid Waste Management - A Life Cycle Inventory. Second Edition. Blackwell Publishing. 2001
McKinney, R. W. J. Technology of Paper Recycling. Blackie Academic and Professional. 1995
Meadows, D. Randers, J. Meadows, D. Limits to Growth - The 30 - Year Update. Chelsea Green Publishing Company. 2004.
MST (Danish Ministry of the Environment). Waste Statistics 2005 (2008). [Online]. Available from: http://www2.mst.dk/common/Udgivramme/Frame.asp?http://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2007/978-87-7052-581-7/html/kap05_eng.htm [Accessed 07th May 2009].
Sellen, A. J. Harper, R. H. R. The Myth of the Paperless Office. The MIT Press. 2003.
Thompson, C. G. Recycled Papers - The Essential Guide. MIT Press. 1992
Williams, P. T. Waste treatment and disposal. Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 2005
47
Appendix 6.Can CO 2 savings be made by using laptops compared to
desktop computers with a separate monitor?
Introduction
The Investment and implementation of technology in schools appears to be a goal that many Governments and school administration teams are striving towards. The use of technology in the classroom by teachers is strengthening due to the requirements of curriculums, like that of the IB (International Baccalaureate) or the National Curriculum for England and Wales. This requires a considerable investment of both time and money on behalf of the school. Teachers need to be trained to work with new equipment and software, while computer labs and school networks demand immense quantities of funding to facilitate the evolutionary leaps of technology.
“Technology: Introducing innovative technology such as the online curriculum centre (OCC) so that we can offer opportunities to students and teachers who are limited by resource, time or geography. Research and pilots are currently underway in a number of areas (for example e-marking, electronic assessment, activities on the OCC).” (IBO 2004) This leads to an ever increasing consumption of electrical energy, which we measure in kilowatt-hours (kWh) (Boyle 2004). In most cases, the result of electricity production contributes to Climate Change due to carbon emissions (CO2) being released into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels, except in the case of nuclear and renewable energy such as hydro, solar, tidal, wind and biomass (Boyle et al 2004). This essay seeks to quantify the amount of CO2 that can be saved through switching to energy efficient laptops from the current PC desktop computers at an International School in Eastern Denmark. However the aim is not to advocate the overnight transition from desktop to laptop but to highlight the potential electrical energy and consequently carbon savings available to industry.
Watt (w): One watt is by definition one joule per second.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh): One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy converted in one hour at a rate of one kilowatt. (Boyle et al 2004)
Analysis
A hands-on approach to the gathering of relevant data for this report has been applied, using first hand calculations of energy consumption of various computers within the school buildings. A digital ‘watt hour meter’ was utilised as the main tool for collecting and recording the results of the tasks applied. A clearly structured format was employed and used in succession for each of the individual machines surveyed, which will be shown in-depth below. This approach assisted in creating a benchmark, where upon analysis of the data a transparent baseline of energy consumption could be set.
At present, a total of 317 computing devices are held by the school, most of which are operated on a continual school day basis. However, the total figure does not take into account the twenty-two servers used for the schools network and file storage system. These machines are also responsible for the operation of the web access and Remote Desktop Connection, which allows students, staff and parents to access files from anywhere in the world, twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. One consequence of having such a mobile privilege is that it requires the servers to be running continuously without interruption every day of the year. Therefore, disruption of the servers was not
48
possible for this task and carbon savings of replacing servers with laptop devices is not technically possible at this point in time due to vast amount of processing power required from these machines. The breakdown of the 317 computers are as follows;
Staff Computers:• 150 Desktop PC’s with flat screen monitors• 8 PC Laptops• 4 Apple Desktops• 2 Apple Laptops
Student Computers:• 78 Desktop PC’s with flat screen monitors• 68 PC Laptops• 7 Apple Desktops
The main focus of this research has been applied to PC’s on account of them dominating the proportion of computers by having almost 96% of the overall total. Another reason for this decision was that the Apple computers vary a lot in specifications and are only used for specialised purposes such as editing images in art classes.
Evidence
The format for the investigation focused on six given tasks to be performed by the computers. Once the tasks were launched the results for each of the individual steps was logged at various intervals and then an average was worked out. This was done by taking the reading from the lowest and highest points of consumption of the task and finding the average. All of the tasks were ordered and performed in a logical configuration to increase productivity. The results form the undertaking are shown in table 1. where a minimum, maximum and average in watts for each activity of the computers is shown along with the individual recordings of each machine.
Before any of the three laptops were measured by performing a given task, it was ensured that their batteries were fully charged giving an equal starting point to all. A similar approach to the desktop PC’s was run, where all of the machines studied had a flat-screen LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitor of similar physical size and wattage attached to the CPU (Central Processing Unit), enabling a more uniformed outcome.
wattsDevice Start-up Internet MS Word Idle Sleep Off
HP dc5800 Desktop 95 74 70 42 8 5
HP d530c Desktop 105 87 71 46 8 4.1
HP dc5100 Desktop 149 113 93 92 6 4.3
HP 6720s Laptop 36 34.5 30 24.5 10.8 10.8
HP tx2000 Laptop 57 55 40 30 1.2 1.2
MacBook Intel 39.7 22 20 14 1.3 0.6
Minimum 36 22 20 14 1.2 0.6Maximum 149 113 93 92 10.8 10.8
Average 80.28 64.25 54 41.42 5.88 4.33Table 1. (The ‘off’ activity is measured with the machines still connected to the mains power supply.)
49
As outlined above, electrical energy is usually measured and sold in kWh (Boyle et al 2004), therefore it is necessary to calculate the kWh consumption of an electrical device to fully understand the costs involved in running it and how much carbon emissions it is responsible for emitting. Carbon emissions
from electrical production and consumption are normally measured in grams (g) or kilograms (kg) per kWh. Statistics for 2007 from the Danish Energy Agency show CO2 Emissions per kWh Sold [Grams per kWh] at 547[g]. (DEA 2008)
Calculating the kWh use of an electrical machine is worked out by dividing the watts by one thousand (kilowatt) and then multiplying the answer by the amount of hours the machine has been running for.
Example 1. 50w/1000 x 2 (hours) = 0.1 kWh
Now that we know the kWh of a machine we can continue to calculate the CO2 per kWh. Using the figures from the Danish Energy Agency and the answer from example 1. we can show the working out for this part of the process.
Example 2. 0.1 kWh x 547g = 54.7g/CO2/kWh (answer in grams)0.1 kWh x 0.547kg = 0.547kg/CO2/kWh (answer in kilograms)
Based on the results shown in table 1. and using the equation from example we can now show the kg/CO2/kWh for each activity. This information is displayed in table 2, which clearly displays the efficiency of the individual machines. In this report for practical reasons, all CO2 results will be measured in kilograms (kg/CO2).
kg/CO2/kWhDevice Start-up Internet MS Word Idle Sleep Off
HP dc5800 Desktop 0.052 0.04 0.038 0.023 0.0043 0.0027
HP d530c Desktop 0.057 0.047 0.039 0.025 0.0043 0.0022
HP dc5100 Desktop 0.081 0.062 0.05 0.05 0.0033 0.0023
HP 6720s Laptop 0.019 0.018 0.016 0.013 0.0059 0.0059
HP tx2000 Laptop 0.031 0.03 0.021 0.016 0.0006 0.0006
MacBook Intel 0.021 0.012 0.01 0.007 0.0007 0.0003
Minimum 0.019 0.012 0.01 0.007 0.0006 0.0003Maximum 0.081 0.062 0.05 0.05 0.0059 0.0059
Average 0.0435 0.0348 0.029 0.022 0.0031 0.0023Table 2.
Argument
The above results of kg/CO2/kWh are correlative to the the academic year and will have much more of an impact once attributed to this calculation. There are, on average, one hundred and eighty days in a school academic year, where the school day starts at 08.30 and finishes at 15.30. This works out at one thousand, three hundred and fifty hours per academic year (7.5 x 180 = 1,350). This hourly total can be used in conjunction with the kWh totals for individual activities of each computer to show the carbonemissions emitted from electricity consumption. It will also highlight the potential carbon savings available through intelligent decisions before purchasing ‘new’ computers.
50
In fig.1 below it is distinctly obvious how inefficient and energy demanding the HP dc5100 is in comparison to the MacBook Intel.
Fig. 1
Let us focus on three of the six performance activities that have been measured assuming that they are the most frequently used in schools and select the two computers with the largest overall energy gap between them, those being;
Activity1. Internet Browsing2. Word Processing3. Off
Computer1. HP dc5100 Desktop2. MacBook Intel
Using the equations and evidence from above, it is possible to show the total kg/CO2 per academic year, for each of these two machines performing identical tasks. This will then lead to the differential and ultimately the quantity of carbon savings possible through the use of more energy efficient machines.
51
Internet Browsing:
1. HP dc5100 0.062 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 83.7 kg/CO2
2. MacBook Intel 0.012 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 16.2 kg/CO2
Word Processing:
1. HP dc5100 0.05 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 67.5 kg/CO2
2. MacBook Intel 0.01 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 13.5 kg/CO2
Off:
1. HP dc5100 0.0023 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 3.105 kg/CO2
2. MacBook Intel 0.0003 kg/CO2/kWh x 1,350 (hrs) = 0.405 kg/CO2
Fig. 2
It may be argued that the ‘off’ activity monitored may be of no beneficial use due to minimal quantity of energy consumed and CO2 emitted as a result. However, if the HP dc5100 was left in the off mode for the duration of time out of school hours, which is calculated at sixteen and a half hours per day (24 - 7.5 = 16.5) over the academic period it would be responsible for emitting 6.831 kg/CO2 (0.0023 kg/CO2/kWh x 2,970). This is assuming that the off position is when the computer is still connected to a power source and not isolated by a kill switch or has not been disconnected from the mains electricity supply. Using the same calculation for the hours of an entire calender year (24 x 365 = 8,769) the emissions of CO2 for the HP dc5100 reach 20.148 kg/CO2 (0.0023 kg/CO2/kWh x 8,769), where the Macbook CO2 emissions for the same equation total 2.628 kg/CO2.
Based on this evidence there are considerable savings to be made by using more energy efficient computers. Conducting the simple activity of Internet browsing sees a saving of 67.5 kg/CO2, while word processing saves 54 kg/CO2 and leaving the devices switched off shows a potential saving of 2.7 kg/CO2 per academic year.
52
Conclusion
Theoretically it may be possible to show substantial savings of CO2 when it comes to the energy consumption of an electrical device such as a computer. However, the savings calculated in this report do not take into consideration the CO2 that would be emitted from the manufacturing and shipping of vast quantities of laptops. There is a greater need for information on energy efficiency of electrical devices among consumers before they purchase ‘new’ equipment. Apple openly offer an environmental report for most of their products, which includes the Macbook Intel, this is attached in the Appendix A. HP (Hewlett-Packard) has no solid energy figures for any of their computers or LCD monitors and only offer percentages along with the comforting knowledge that their machines are ENERGY STAR rated. (HP 2008)
While the outcome of this report is to quantify the capacity for savings of CO2 through the use of energy efficient machines, the probability exists that it would have a grater leverage had it have concentrated on the financial savings. Regardless of the overwhelming agreements among Scientists, the general public is still concerned by what and how their pockets are effected, especially at the present moment with the tightening of funds form lenders. Nonetheless, when the data in this report is presented to individuals it is evident that savings of CO2 correlate to financial reductions, owing to the fact that all consumers of electrical energy pay for their electricity which is measured in kWh. The towering differences in relative data shown in fig. 3 would be difficult to dismiss as unconnected to financial comparisons.
Fig. 3
There are innumerable variables that have not been taken into account in this report. Further research would be required to record energy consumption over a prolonged period of time so as to gain more
53
detailed data. This would help highlight the work patterns of computers in schools especially when the machines are turned off, considering it is quite commonplace for school computers to be left on ‘stand-by’ at night and over the weekend.
To demonstrate the value to the of the CO2 savings by choosing and operating an energy efficient electrical device, it would ideally require the presentation of per capita along with national CO2
emission statistics. Yet the simple calculation and presentation of the results in financial format would also have a significant role in educating consumers. This exceeds the capacity of this report and would require an additional research project to be developed.
References
Boyle, G. Renewable Energy - Power for a Sustainable Future. Oxford University Press. 2004.
Boyle, G. Everett, B. Ramage, J. Energy Systems and Sustainability - Power for a Sustainable Future. Oxford University Press. 2004.
DEA (Danish Energy Agency). Energy Statistics 2007 (2008). [Online]. Available from: http://www.ens.dk/sw16508.asp [Accessed 07th January 2009].
HP (Hewlett-Packard). Business Support Center (2008). [Online]. Available from: http://h20000.www2.hp.com/bizsupport/TechSupport/Home.jsp?lang=en&cc=us&prodTypeId=12454&prodSeriesId=454811&lang=en&cc=us&y=0&x=0 [Accessed 04th January 2009].
IBO (International Baccalaureate Organization). Strategic Plan of the International Baccalaureate Organization (2004). [Online]. Available from: http://www.ibo.org/mission/strategy/ [Accessed 09th January 2009].
54
Appendix A
55
56
57
58
59
60
Appendix 7.
Graduate School of the EnvironmentCentre for Alternative Technology,
Machynlleth, Powys, SY20 9AZ,
UK
Tel: +44 (0) 165 470 5981
School of Computing and TechnologyUniversity of East London,
Docklands Campus,4-6 University Way,
London,E16 2RD
UK
Tel: +44 (0) 208 223 3000
61
The Environmental Impact of Transport for
Professional Development
An International School Perspective
62
Preface
The aim of this thesis is to explore the relationship between the environmental impact of travel and professional development in an international education setting. The main focus will be applied to green house gas emissions which will be expressed in terms of kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent (kg/CO2 e). It is hoped that a concrete conclusion and key recommendations will be reached which could be potentially useful in reducing the emissions related to professional development travel at the Copenhagen International School.
Travel figures from the records during 2008 at the Copenhagen International School will be used to calculate the quantity of travel related emissions. Detailed information from a very wide variety of sources including, books, journals, web articles, newspapers, spreadsheet databases, questionnaires along with first-hand observations will be used to justify and support the methods taken to reach a conclusion.
Compiling this information in a simple yet coherent manner seeks to highlight the issues surrounding the implications of ones actions when choosing a method of transport. The ambition of this research in view of the pressing concern over climate change, is for it to act as a useful template which organisations could use to make informative decisions about future transport activities.
63
Acknowledgements
I would first like to thank my wife Ania who has unconditionally supported me throughout this course, while allowing me the freedom to attend onsite modules at the Centre for Alternative Technology (CAT). My two sons, Noah Ocean and Arn Oisín have also helped to inspire and encourage me to keep a clear focus on why I chose to study this subject.
Those responsible for creating the MSc Architecture: Advanced Environment and Energy Studies at CAT deserve duly accredited admiration, especially the course leader Mike Thompson who is a very influential and entertaining character. The originality of the course is inspirational as are the staff member and lecturers at CAT who help make it such a wonderful experience. I would also like to thank Holly Lesley for her assistance while completing this report.
The administration and faculty at the Copenhagen International School have offered continuous support to me during this period of study, for that I am very grateful.
Finally I would like to offer my appreciation and thanks to Kara Millen, my tutor at CAT who has always been there to guide me through this course.
64
Contents: Titles of Chapters and of Appendices
List of Abbreviations 6List of Boxes, Figures and Tables 7Introduction 8
1 International Baccalaureate Organisation 11
1.1 Historical context of International Schools and the IBO 11 1.2 Culture of International Schools 111.3 Professional Development in IBO Schools 121.4 Copenhagen International School 12
2 Transport and Locations 14
2.1 Professional Development Locations 142.2 Travel and Professional Development 142.3 The Role of Aviation for PD 152.4 Rail Travel in Europe 16
3 Environmental Impacts of Transport Modes 19
3.1 Aircraft Emissions 193.2 Impact of Aviation on Climate Change 203.3 Airport Impacts 223.4 Health Impacts of Aviation 243.5 Environmental Impact of Rail Travel 263.6 Rail Emissions and Climate Change 273.7 Local air pollutants 273.8 Railway Impacts 27
4 Methodology 28
4.1 GHG Emissions from Professional Development 284.2 Staff Questionnaire 294.3 Professional Development Value 30
5 Analysis 31
5.1 Demand for Aviation 315.2 Assessment of Figures 325.3 Priority of Personal Time 355.4 Financial Justification 375.5 Train vs Plane 39
6 Conclusions and Recommendations 42
6.1 Internalise External Costs 426.2 Carbon Cap per Capita 426.3 Technology as a Solution 426.4 Modal Shift for European Trips 436.5 Environmental Education and Awareness 436.6 Conclusion 446.7 Recommendations for Further Research 44
65
7 Appendices i 45Appendices ii 49Appendices iii 52Appendices iv 56Appendices v 65Appendices vi 69
8 References 71
9 Bibliography 76
66
List of Abbreviations
BC - British CouncilCER - Community of European RailwaysCIS - Copenhagen International SchoolCO2 - Carbon dioxide CO2 e - Carbon dioxide equivalent concentrationCoCiP - Contrail Cirrus Prediction ToolCPD - Continuing Professional Development dB - Decibeldefra - Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs - UKDKK - Danish KronerEC - European CommissionEEA - European Environmental AgencyETS - Emissions Trading SchemeEU - European Uniong - GramGDP - Gross Domestic ProductGHG - Green House Gases GWP - Global Warming Potentialha - HectaresH2O - Water vapourIB - International BaccalaureateIBO - International Baccalaureate Organisation ICAO - International Civil Aviation AuthorityICE - Inter City ExpressIUPT - International Union of Public Transportkg - Kilogramkm - KilometerLeq - Equivalent Continuous Sound Levelmio - One millionMYP - Middle Years ProgramNO - Nitric oxideNO2 - Nitrogen dioxideNOx - Nitrogen oxidesO3 - Tropospheric ozonePa - PascalsPD - Professional Developmentp/hr - Passenger hourp/min - Passenger minutepkm - Passenger Kilometer: 1 passenger transported over a distance of one kilometer. pm - Passenger MilePM10 - Particulate Matterrpk - Revenue Passenger Kilometersrpm - Revenue Passenger MilesSOx - Sulphur oxidesSO2 - Sulphur DioxideTCKs - Third Culture KidsUIR - International Union of RailwaysUNIFE - Union of European Railway Industries VOCs - Volatile Organic CompoundsWHO - World Health Organisation
67
Boxes
Box 1. - EU Noise Indicators 24
Figures
Figure 1. - World GDP vs RPM Growth 15Figure 2. - Trans European Transport Network 16Figure 3. - Impacts of aviation on different stakeholders 19Figure 4. - Aviation CO2 emissions 20Figure 5. - GHG concentrations 20Figure 6. - Summary of the principal components of the RF of climate change. 21Figure 7. - Predicted Growth in Aviation 21Figure 8. - Contrails over Europe, 1995 22Figure 9. - Total land take by transport infrastructure (1996). 23Figure 10. - People affected by transport noise. 25Figure 11. - Reading comprehension by 5 dB bands of aircraft noise. 25Figure 12. - CO2 Emissions from Transport – EU-27 by Mode (Shares %) 27Figure 13. - CIS staff questionnaire - responses to question 1. 33Figure 14. - CIS staff questionnaire - responses to question 2. 34Figure 15. - CIS staff questionnaire - responses to question 9. 34Figure 16. - CIS staff questionnaire - responses to question 14. 35Figure 17. - CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 8. 35
Tables
Table 1. - Railway Travel details from Copenhagen to Ljubljana 18Table 2. - Noise levels close to European Airports 24Table 3. - Factors determining the susceptibility of children to inhaled pollutants. 26Table 4. - PD related aviation GHG emissions from for 2008 at CIS. 28Table 5. - Comparison of Short-haul Air & Rail travel times in minutes. 36Table 6. - GHG emissions for Short-haul Air travel in kg/CO2 e. 37Table 7. - GHG emissions for European Rail travel in kg/CO2 e. 39Table 8. - GHG emissions for Rail & Air travel between Copenhagen and Stockholm. 40
68
Introduction
In our ever expanding globalised society it has become unimaginable not to be able to jet off to far away destinations, that forty years ago would have normally taken anywhere from three days to three weeks. The accessibility that air travel has allowed us is mostly taken for granted, especially in the middle-class arena, where it is seen as a given right, an integral part of this semi-luxurious and somewhat ignorant lifestyle. To contradict this behavior of hyper-mobility is to step out of line and thus, ultimately, questions the right to freedom in this democratic society.
The profound environmental degradation as a result of our mobility culture is slowly coming to the surface, where it is now common to see publications in the main stream media of such issues. However, this highlighting has only begun over the last decade and has yet to have any implications on decisions when choosing when and how to travel. The majority of travel decisions are made on a fiscal cost basis, even though the awareness of the damaging role of the individuals actions is at the forefront of the conscious - this will be elaborated upon below in more depth. The role of education in addressing the issues surrounding environmental breakdown must be questioned and possibly re-focused if it is to have grounding for the future generations.
Education has traditionally been seen as a way of ‘bettering’ oneself through the acquiring of new knowledge, thereby allowing one to make more informed and wiser decisions. The more information gained, the broader the possibilities were for the individual, where eventually they could perhaps, offer that information back with new light in the form of teaching the next generation, so that the wisdom would continue to grow. Through our advancements in societal feats of technology, science, education and medicine, we appear to have lost the very important factor, which could be considered as the key stone to development that being the understanding and wisdom of nature.
Henceforth, the aim of this research is to focus on the relationship between education and climate change. Moreover, it will specifically focus on travel behavior due to professional development (PD) at the Copenhagen International School (CIS) in Copenhagen, Denmark, which is part of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO). The hypothesis for this research is that; International schools are responsible for avoidable environmental damage through green house gas (GHG) emissions resulting from unnecessary air travel. The paper will be laid out in the following format and will offer an insight to the global community of international school teachers.
The overall aim of this research is to:
• Quantify the total carbon emissions emitted as a result of air travel for PD purposes by teachers at an International Baccalaureate (IB) International School in Copenhagen, Denmark.
• Put into context the environmental degradation and addition to Climate Change, caused as a result of passenger air kilometers.
• Raise environmental awareness among the International educational community at IB schools.• Compare alternatives to air travel for PD and on similar journeys.• Offer feasible solutions, that could be implemented without affecting the quality of PD of the
teachers.
69
To explore these points the following methods will be undertaken:
4. An analysis of the factors (motivational, logistical, financial, psychological etc) involved in the PD program at international schools (chapter 2).
5. A review of current data understood to quantify the environmental impact within specific sectors of the transport industry (chapter 3 ).
6. An investigation of behavior by means of survey/questionnaires/observations (chapter 4).7. An experiential investigation into some potential alternatives, highlighting the positives and
negatives of these (chapter 5).8. A review of the research and findings followed by a list of recommendations (chapter 6).
Chapter 1 - International Baccalaureate Organisation This opening chapter of the paper provides the historical context of the IBO detailing the origin and growth of this organisation through the decades, since its foundation in the late 1960’s. It also explains why the demand for international education arose and briefly covers the nature and culture of the communities that attend IBO schools. The final part of this section will concentrate on professional development by staff members at IBO schools. This will include, but will not isolate the workshops that the IBO offer to those that work at IB schools.
Chapter 2 - Transport and Locations
The intertwined relationship between travel and professional development is explored here in order to uncover the details of the present operational system and how one affects the other. This leads directly to professional development locations, which clearly shows the driving force behind the need to travel outside the boundary of the residing country. The distances of the PD locations from the school instantly give way to the individuals obvious choice of transport, flying. Therefore, the role of aviation as a popular method of transport is examined, questioning the priorities of those who fly and the rationale of their decisions. A brief but detailed investigation of rail travel in Europe aims to show the possibilities for an alternative method of transport, especially to those cities accessible by rail from Copenhagen.
Chapter 3 - Environmental Impacts of Transport Modes
This chapter deals with the technical details surrounding aviation and rail travel. The first looks at aircraft aircraft emissions and focuses on GHG’s emitted during long and short-haul flights. The environmental impact that aviation has on global warming is compound by the predicted rise in emissions during the coming decades. The environmental impact of airports are assessed with considerations being applied to sensitive areas such as noise and pollution. Health impacts of the aviation industry, which are vitally important, are looked at in detail before an assessment of the environmental impact of rail travel in Europe is undertaken.
70
Chapter 4 - Methodology
The approach used to correlate the annual GHG emissions from professional development at CIS is presented at the outset of this chapter. The information presented is part of the ongoing data recording by the school of all PD trips and funding offered by the school. The calendar year of 2008 was chosen as a representation of the most recent data. An analysis of the feedback from a staff questionnaire in relation to PD an travel behavior will be displayed, which will shed light on the significant demand for aviation and the lack of environmental awareness. The remaining point seeks to quantify the value of professional development in terms of overall knowledge, skills and understanding gained.
Chapter 5 - Analysis
The information and statistics collated during the research is offered in a transparent and coherent form, clearly showing the evidence offered by some of those responsible for air travel as part of their PD. This includes the prioritisation of personal time when considering air or rail travel over any environmental concern, along with the financial justification of preferring to take to the sky rather than travel by rail or possibly conduct PD using a technological approach. A brief comparison between train vs plane is conducted, raising some issues and concerns that individuals voice when the definitive decision making process is taking place over which method of transport to choose.
Chapter 6 - Conclusions and Recommendations
The final chapter of this paper brings into focus the information collected and processed and concludes with a summary of where CIS is at now and what requirements need to be brought into focus. It also attempts to offer recommendations and possible solutions that would see a substantial reduction in GHG emissions from PD related activities at CIS. Some of the solutions discussed would be simple solutions to integrate into the school, such as; internalise external costs, carbon cap per capita, technology as a solution, along with environmental education awareness raising for the staff. However, others would prove to be more controversial like a modal shift for european trips, where staff were encouraged and supported to take the train over the plane.
71
1 International Baccalaureate Organisation
1.1 Historical context of International Schools and the IBO
The concept of International schools pre-dates World War II, whereby the founding of the International School of Geneva in 1924, officially established this mantle. In 1925, the first visionary proposal for an international school final-year exam was voiced, although it would take another few decades before this enterprising initiative would finally take root. During this period between the two great wars, children of service personnel, diplomats, missionaries etc. usually attended schools that would teach the curriculum similar to that of their country of origin, thereby allowing graduates to apply for entrance to universities in their native country, or that of their parents. After the end of World War II, access to universities became possible for a broader range of social-economic applicants, largely thanks to government subsidies. This factor, coupled with the emerging vogue for international travel, gave way to the necessity for an international curriculum and exam standardisation which could be applied globally. Many years of dedication and hard work by teachers at the International School of Geneva led to the establishment of what we now know as the International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum and exam system (Peterson 1987).
The establishment in 1968 of International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO), an international educational foundation, coincided with the rapid development of international air travel. The IB curriculum was designed to cater for the needs of children whose parents travelled around the globe, following the nature of their employment, which was quite often diplomatic roles, business people and military personnel. It offered the parents and children the security and support required for this aspiring next generation to gain the internationally recognisable qualifications required for entrance to universities regardless of what country they were in, provided there was an IB school close by. Due to the success of the IB educational system, participation of schools offering one or more areas of the curriculum has grown to 2,743 schools in 138 countries (IBO 2009).
1.2 Culture of International Schools
Third Culture Kids (TCKs), coined by Ruth Useem in 1976, is a term used to characterise students that attend international schools, where they experience the norms of the guest country and familiarities of their native country, which emerges into a third culture (Gillies 1998). Students who attend international schools generally hold two or more languages, one of the benefits of the continuous travelling by their parents. On account of this, international schools usually have a relatively high turnover of student population It is also commonly accepted that students will not graduate without having attended one or more international school. Nevertheless, international school students are a highly valued resource in the ever expanding global society we live in today. In Hayden (2001) TCKs are portrayed as having immense knowledge of cross cultural diversity, resulting in well balance individuals who posses strong diplomacy skills. However, there are also negative effects associated with attending various international schools, such as feeling lonely and uprooted along with the avoidance of dealing with issues like conflicts or personal problems because they usually ‘go-away’ when they next move (Gillies 1998).
72
The make up of the staff at an international school is hard to keep pace of, on account of the annual turnover, as teachers pass through on their venture up the administrative ladder, while travelling around the globe. Teachers at international schools are hired for a variety of reasons; some have local contracts as expatriates after having relocated to the country where the school is located, following their partners employment opportunity or the return to their native homeland. Others are recruited overseas, often having secured rewarding contracts offering return air fares to their country of origin, relocation allowances, subsided accommodation and health care packages (Hayden et al. 2001).
1.3 Professional Development in IBO Schools
“A good professional development culture is crucial to the creation of a learning organisation, as also is effective implementation of the staff development policy.” (Blandford 2000)
International research has reliably shown that schools which are successful apply a generous proportion of their resources to continuing professional development (CPD) of their staff. This in turn boosts the moral, well being and growth of the teacher as a professional (Hargreaves 1994; Day 1999). Evidently, the IBO has adopted this knowledge and uses it as a way to promote increased opportunities for the staff who operate within the boundaries of this international education system. Further research shows that CPD of staff at a school, can create a positive learning environment that encourages attitudes to learning and bolsters the relationship between the teacher and student alike (Joyce et al. 1998).
It has been stated that a learning environment for professional collaboration among teachers is the “single most important factor” when seeking to improve the success factor of a school. It also should be considered “the first order of business” for those in a position, and with the capacity, to influence decisions that affect teaching and learning (Eastwood et al. 1992: 215). However, with no clearly defined way of gauging the true benefit of CPD, it is possible that many of the workshops attended by staff are of little or no value to either the school, teacher or students. There needs to be in place a functional system, where a transparent measurement can be obtained reflecting the genuine response of any CPD acquired by a staff member, which can be then be offered to other members of the faculty (Day et al. 2004).
1.4 Copenhagen International School
The Copenhagen International School (CIS) was established during the academic year of 1962/63 by Mrs. Frank B. Gallagher and a group of interested parents. The first student to graduate from CIS with an IB Diploma happened in 1971/72 (CIS 2010). Since its foundation CIS has grown to be a well recognised International player in terms of the quality of education provided. The three curriculum areas offered by the IBO are available to the students at CIS, which provides continuity for the students that are more settled in Copenhagen. The Philosophy of the school states that;
73
At Copenhagen International School we endeavour
3. to educate students in a stimulating environment to the highest possible academic standards using the International Baccalaureate Programmes: PYP (Primary Years Programme), MYP (Middle Years Programme), and DP (Diploma Programme);
4. to educate world citizens who, celebrating both their shared humanity and cultural diversity, will shape a more peaceful world;
5. to instill respect, tolerance, integrity and compassion, to promote the confidence and independence to be responsible risk-takers; to educate students to be adaptable, reflective and questioning throughout their lives;
6. to be aware of the social, physical and emotional needs of each individual student, and work with the home to provide a learning environment that is stable and caring;
7. to inspire creativity in each student in its broadest aspect and help to enlarge the human spirit both aesthetically and morally;
8. to educate students to be respectful of, and knowledgeable about, their local and global environment.
Source: http://www.cis-edu.dk/page.cfm?p=284
This school will be used as a snapshot of international education, showing the impacts on the environment due to green house gases (GHG) form PD related travel. It has been selected for study because of the clear and detailed records available from the school along with the staff members at the school enjoying the perks of a large PD fund.
74
2 Transport and Locations
2.1 Professional Development Locations
There is no predefined specification for the geographical location of a PD workshop, regardless of who is organising it. The IBO usually hires the same conference venues in various locations annually, making it less complicated for staff members to adjust to the new surroundings and lodgings. However, not all PD events are run by the IBO, therefore a broad number of locations are covered during each calendar year at any one international school. During the twelve months of 2008, staff at CIS attended forty-two PD events in twenty-three countries, which were spread over four continents.
A total of one-hundred and seventy-three people attended these PD workshops during the course of the year. The decision making process to decide who should attend the workshops lies with the principal of the relevant section of the school where the teacher works. Should a staff member find a PD event that they believe would benefit both the individual and the school, they must submit a proposal showing the purpose and advantages of this workshop before it can be considered for funding. The location of the PD event is excluded from consideration so long as it is ‘worthwhile’ for the staff member to attend. It is not unusual for individuals to apply for, and gain, successful support and funding to attend events in locations as far away as Peru, Singapore, Toronto and Atlanta, see appendix 1.
2.2 Travel and Professional Development
The full details of how travel relates to PD at CIS will become more apparent in Chapter 5, where the results of the questionnaire from staff at CIS are explored and discussed. As an overview, it was suggested by an overwhelming majority of the staff participants at CIS, that online PD would not have nearly the same benefit as physically attending a workshop or conference. There are many reasons for such beliefs, which could include: 1) a fear of technology when conducting online PD3. pleasure of social interaction with like-minded people4. no language barrier as an obstacle (when living in a non-english speaking country)5. feeling of freedom when ‘away’ from everyday work location6. stimulating conversations during non-workshop time7. hands-on approach to learning at physical events 8. the buzz from being in a new location9. time to connect with colleagues that you would otherwise not be able to do
However, while all of these concerns may well be genuine, there are also exceptions as to why online or inset PD has very beneficial outcomes. In a recent study carried out in Taiwan focusing on online workshops for the professional development of teachers, it highlighted the nature of PD workshops and conferences as being; exceedingly top-down in their functioning, flawed in their perception of classroom reality and more often, quite vague in terms of subject specific content. Another problem associated with this method of PD was found to be the implementation the implementation of newly
75
gained knowledge, skills and or resources upon returning to the ‘real‘ classroom (Yang et al. 2004). However, this criticism could be applied to both inset and off campus PD training. Yet, another study carried out in 2001 suggests that the organisations should revise their PD operations to fit with a more suitable approach to learning, where those in positions of power within the school take a leader learning role. It also suggests that head-teachers and heads of departments should be trained to be ‘leaders of learning’ rather than ‘managers of people’ as they currently are. This report also maintains that, by using the analogy of Hewlett-Packard, as documented by Charles G. Sieloff (1999) in the report “If only HP knew what HP knows”: the roots of knowledge management at Hewlett-Packard, in-house PD, learning, knowledge and collaboration would successfully rival that of most external PD (Knight 2001). This is to say that, in some instances, learning that takes place and knowledge that is gained, somewhere other than within the school community, can frequently already be in the school unknowingly to many, due to the lack of synergism and coordination. Unnecessary travel, along with the associated time loss, environmental and fiscal costs, can in many cases, be reduced dramatically over the period of a year by looking at what is available within an organisation, especially within schools.
2.3 The Role of Aviation for PD
During the emergence of this rapidly mobile transport phase of air travel, it was predominantly business executives and sun seekers who utilised the limited infrastructure available. To the majority of the global population, travel by flight was a far fetched dream - something that would require years, possibly even decades of savings to achieve. Interestingly, but also obviously, there is a tight correlation between wealth, measured using gross domestic product (GDP) and the growth in revenue passenger miles (rpm) as can be seen in fig. 1 (Hoyle et al, 1998). Fast forward almost forty years from the maiden commercial flight of the Boeing 747 in 1969 to 2008, where we see a total of 937,772 million passenger kilometers (pk) was flown by passengers on the worlds ten busiest airlines (IATA 2009). This astounding figure accounts for a fraction of the total global passenger air kilometers flown annually. Even with technological advancements we are still seeing an alarming quantity of GHG emissions being pumped into the stratosphere, which at this altitude is much more damaging that land based GHG emissions (Whitelegg et al. 2004). The 1978 deregulation of government control on the domestic aviation industry in the United States paved the way for exponential growth in air travel. Technological advancements in aircraft design along with further development in jet engines also had a considerable affect on increasing air passenger numbers (Hoyle et al. 1998). However, the overwhelming explosion of passengers in recent decades has largely been attributed to low-cost airlines serving both domestic and international demands. The subsidisation of kerosene by governments, the fuel used by aircraft, has allowed these budget airlines to rapidly expand their networks and destinations (Whitelegg et al. 2004). Consequently, this has attracted record numbers of passengers away from other forms of transport like buses, trains and ferries and driven the demand for more flights as passengers become increasingly conscious, highly protective and over inflate the value of their personal time. This can be seen by the choices made by the staff at CIS when choosing which method of travel to utilise when travelling for PD outside the country.
76
Figure 1. World GDP vs RPM Growth
Source:
http://www.skyworkscapital.com/pointofview/predicting_article.php
2.4 Rail Travel in Europe
The European Union (EU) had, in 2007, an astounding 212,336 kilometers (km) of rail network spread across the 27 member states, of which over 50% or 109,564 km was electrified. However, the high speed rail network only accounts for a mere 5,764 km of that total, which has grown from 641 km in 1985 and now spans six EU countries (European Commission 2009). There are ambitious plans by the EU to increase this network in the near future, allowing for increased usage by both passengers and freight between European nations, see figure 2 for a perspective of these plans. The liberalisation of freight movement within the EU has already taken place and from the 1st January 2010 the same laws will apply to passenger transport rail services. It is hoped that this policy will encourage greater collaboration between transport companies and governments in various countries, thereby creating a link that will allow cross border networks greater flexibility (European Communities 2008).
Figure 2.
Source: Modern Rail, Modern Europe. European Communities, 2008
77
High speed rail network travel statistics for 2006 show that an estimated total of 89,860 million passenger kilometers (mio/pkm) was covered, almost a five fold increase on 1990 levels. Yet this section of the European rail network only accounts for just under 3% of the combined total, although there is another 2,570 km of high speed tracks under construction (European Commission 2009). Historically, rail transport has struggled to compete with other forms of land based passenger transport, especially against the rise in car ownership. In 1970, rail passenger travel accounted for over 10% of the total land based travel within the EU-15, whereas now it accounts for 6.9% of the EU-27 (European Communities 2008).
There have been numerous hurdles contributing to the negative growth in rail transport, which have slowly been resolved, but have still taken much longer than those of the road systems. Ineffective international cooperation has been one of the major challenges impeding the development of a state-of-the-art rail infrastructure. However, this is in the process of change, especially since the EU directives for modal shifts towards rail of 2004 and 2007 (EEA 2009). The physical aspects of the rail hardware have also caused some problems for a rapid expansion of international movement, where voltage supplies and parallel rail spans have inhibited the cross border integration of some rail locomotives (Hoyle et al. 1998).
In 2001 the European Commission released a white paper on transport, focusing on aviation, rail and road transport. It outlines several areas for improvement and offers suggestion as to what can be achieved by an agreed date. There are a series of key targets set out with the aim of creating a single European railway system by 2020, which were approved by the International Union of Railways (UIR), the Community of European Railways (CER), the International Union of Public Transport (IUPT) and the Union of European Railway Industries (UNIFE) (European Commission, 2001).
The key targets for 2020:
– for rail to increase its market share of passenger traffic from 6% to 10% and of goods traffic from 8% to 15%;
– a trebling of manpower productivity on the railways; – a 50% gain in energy efficiency; – a 50% reduction in emissions of pollutants; – an increase in infrastructure capacity commensurate with traffic targets.
Source: White paper – ‘European transport policy for 2010: time to decide’
One overarching drawback with rail travel within Europe, which repels many is the cost of a ticket in comparison to air travel. Irrespective of any environmental benefits, it is hard to justify paying, in some cases several times the price of flying to the same destination.
To demonstrate this a return trip by train from London to Copenhagen, booked one month in advance, cost four-hundred and eighty pounds pounds sterling (Guardian 2009). At the point of booking it was possible to travel to the same destination, by plane, for a fraction of the cost at a considerably lower sum of eighteen pounds sterling return (Guardian 2009). This is clearly one of the fundamental flaws in attracting customers to switch to rail as an alternative method of transport. Subsidies for rail travel
78
would be a welcome bonus to all involved, especially for passengers that favour rail over air travel on environmental grounds.
Depending on your destination, journeys normally tend to last longer than those of a flight, thereby allowing time and facility to reflect, discuss, chat, work, eat in comfort or just relax and enjoy the journey (Guardian 2009). A recent survey in the United States showed that 56% of respondents would prefer to use a proposed high speed train link from San Francisco to Los Angeles over air travel, despite the journey being estimated to take one-third longer (San Francisco Examiner. 2009). It is suggested that one of the principal reasons behind this preference is the impractical extra logistical issues associated with plane travel.
It could also be argued that travel by train provides conditions more favorable for relaxation. It is also not that uncommon to have a more socially interactive journey when compared with the ‘stop-start’ nature that short haul airline journeys provide. However, is not necessarily a benefit for all, as is not always the case. For many business commuters time is of the essence when travelling, therefore the speed of train travel can sometimes be viewed as an impediment.
Two first-hand experiments of train travel through Europe were carried out as research for this report. The first journey was from Copenhagen, Denmark to Ljubljana in Slovenia, while the second journey was a return trip from Copenhagen, Denmark to Stockholm, Sweden. The aim of both trips was to attend PD events, organised by the British Council (BC) as part of their three year Challenge Europe project. The first leg of the journey from Copenhagen to Munich on the Inter City Express (ICE) night train did not present any problems, while part two of the journey from Munich to Ljubljana was also straight forward. However the return journey was somewhat different. A journey supposed to be a two leg <20 hr journey (Table 1) turned into a 28 hr ordeal involving six separate trains, two buses and one ferry. This was due to logistical issues within the train network that led to the missing of connections. Costings for this journey could have been increased drastically if good foresight hadn’t provided a flexible ticket that allowed for such contingencies.
79
Table 1. Railway Travel details from Copenhagen to Ljubljana
Source: Deutsche Bahn 2010
The second round trip from Copenhagen to Stockholm did not pose any problems, although the quality of sleep that was possible was far from satisfactory due to the train quality. Also, as mentioned above, the financial costs attributed to travelling by train, especially night journeys, where booking a couchette is advised, are considerably higher than booking a flight. Regardless, taking both of these return journeys by train resulted in a significant saving of CO2 e, when compared to flying.
The total impact of the two experiments will be discussed in the next chapter, where a detailed breakdown of the GHG emissions will be analysed and the saving expressed in kg/CO2 e.
80
3 Environmental Impacts of Transport Modes
3.1 Aircraft Emissions
“The best thing we can do with environmentalists is shoot them.” Michael O’Leary, CEO of Ryanair.
Airplanes, as we know, require energy to take-off, fly and land, with the most energy being required for the first and latter stages. The shorter the flight, the more fuel is consumed during taking-off and landing, where in some cases almost 25% of the total fuel is spent on getting into the air (RCEP 2002). This energy is provided in the form of kerosene, a combustible liquid derived from crude oil or fossil fuel. Once this fuel is burned by the aircraft engines, it produces GHG’s in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), water vapour (H2O), nitric oxide (NO) nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), which together are termed nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx ) and soot, see fig. 3. Additional results of this process happen in the atmosphere, which produce secondary pollutants such as tropospheric ozone (O3) that is harmful to humans, plants and animals (IPCC 1999). GHG’s emitted at altitudes of between 8 - 12 km have a much larger impact on the environment, due to the radiative forcing* (W/m2) effect (Lee et al 2009).
Figure 3.
Source: Whitelegg et al, 2004 - Impacts of aviation on different stakeholders
Radiative forcing is used as a common measure for calculating the possible effect that various pollutants have on causing global warming (Whitelegg et al. 2004). Mainly due to this radiative forcing effect, GHG emissions have the potential to be three times more damaging than those that are emitted on land. However, aviation accounts for between 2-3% of the total global anthropogenic CO2 emissions (fig 4). Although this figure could be dismissed as insignificant, the effects of radiative forcing increases the environmental impact of aviation dramatically (IPCC 1999). Within the transport sector, the total CO2 emissions from aviation represents 12% of the overall contribution. This is considerably lower than that of road transport, which currently stands at almost three-quarters of transport related emissions or 74% (IATA 2009). GHG emissions from International air travel associated with the EU, is growing at a faster pace than all other sectors. While emissions from domestic aviation are include in the Kyoto Protocol targets, those from international are not. This simple omission jeopardises the commitment by the EU reduce it’s overall emissions by 8% before 2012 under the Kyoto agreement (EU 2006). The EU emissions from aviation are similar to those of the global total at 3%, however, they are increasing at a very rapid pace and threaten to double by 2020. Comparisons between 1990 and 2006 levels show an increase of 87% within the EU alone (EU 2006).
* Radiative forcing is a measure of the importance of a potential climate change mechanism. It expresses the perturbation or change to the energy balance of the Earth-atmosphere system in watts per square meter (Wm-2). Positive values of radiative forcing imply a net warming, while negative values imply cooling (IPCC 1999).
81
Figure 4.
Source: Lee et al, 2009 - Atmospheric Environment: Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century.
A study was carried out by the EU in 2006, focusing on aviation and climate change, with the aim of presenting the need for emissions from international aviation to be included in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). This consequently provided the EU with a mechanism, which would thereby allow them to act on reducing their emissions through trading the carbon (EU, 2006). Trading of carbon emissions is a controversial subject, one that would require a broader approach to this discussion in order to fully understand all the variables.
3.2 Impact of Aviation on Climate Change
Climate change is the result of changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHG’s (IPCC 2007). The burning of fossil fuels is by far the most significant contributor to these changes, which allows CO2 and other GHG emissions to escape into the atmosphere (fig. 5). This affects the delicate stability of the global climate by disrupting the solar radiation received and the infrared radiation leaving the earth. The overall effect on the climate, due to human activities since the beginning of the industrial revolution (circa 1750), have been a warming of the global temperatures. The past 250 years have seen the largest changing development in the earths climate, beyond any other natural changes that have taken place historically, ultimately as a direct result of of human behavior (IPCC 2007).
Figure 5. GHG concentrationsSource: IPCC 2007.
82
Atmospheric concentrations of important long-lived green-house gases over the last 2,000 years. Increases since about 1750 are attributed to human activities in the industrial era (IPCC 2007).
As we have seen above, radiative forcing is used to express the potential for a factor to cause or contribute to climate change (IPCC 1999) (fig. 6). According to the 1999 report by IPCC - Aviation and the Global Atmosphere, radiative forcing by aircraft in 1992 was estimated to be 0.05 Wm-2 or 3.5% of
all human related contributions to radiative forcing. This is expected to rise significantly by 2050 based on professional scientific assumptions to a level of 0.19 Wm-2 or 5% (IPCC 1999). Excluded from these calculations is the effect of condensation trails (contrails), of which large uncertainty still remains. It is accepted that they contribute to some warming (IPCC 1999), although the exact figure remains unclear. Contrails are formed through the combustion of kerosene by aircraft engines, thus releasing GHG emissions, one of them being in the form of H2O, which is a normal GHG and supports 60% of the green-house effect (Whitelegg 2004). Water vapour emitted from an aircraft engine in the form of contrails may also add to the formation of cirrus clouds. Clear scientific evidence in support of this theory is yet to emerge and the debate continues.”
Figure 6.
Source: IPCC 1999 - Summary of the principal components of the radiative forcing of climate change.
The values represent the forcings in 2005 relative to the start of the industrial era (about 1750). Human activities cause significant changes in long-lived gases, ozone, water vapour, surface albedo, aerosols and contrails. The only increase in natural forcing of any significance between 1750 and 2005 occurred in solar irradiance. Positive forcings lead to warming of climate and negative forcings lead to a cooling. The thin black line attached to each colored bar represents the range of uncertainty for the respective value (IPCC 1999).
It is estimated that in 1992, contrails on an annual average basis, covered 0.1% of the Earths surface. This figure is expected to grow to 0.5% by 2050 if aviation growth continues as predicted by major aircraft manufacturers (IPCC 1999). Airbus estimated a doubling of air traffic over the next fifteen year period up to 2024 (Airbus 2009) (fig. 7). Thereby increasing gross emissions plus the addition of double the quantity of contrails, which will ultimately act as a contribution to Global Warming Potential (GWP) (Whitelegg et al. 2004).
83
Figure 7. Predicted Growth in Aviation
Source: Airbus 2009
A recent paper by two leading German institutions, which was presented at the 2009 ESA Atmospheric Science Conference in Barcelona, unveiled the "Contrail Cirrus Prediction Tool" (CoCiP) (Schumann et al. 2009). The paper outlines this groundbreaking technology, which will be used to get instantaneous feedback from aircraft induced contrail cirrus clouds as part of ongoing investigations on the affects that contrails have on GWP. Initial results suggest that the calculations to date for radiative effects of contrail cirrus formations have been much too low, resulting in inadequate findings (Schumann et al. 2009). The image shown in Figure 8, taken by NOAA-12 satellite, shows the contrail accumulation over central Europe on the 5 April 1995. This image clearly shows that contrails can prevail for long periods, allowing for this criss-cross pattern to form.
On the 8th January 2010, the BBC
published a series of satellite images from the UK’s Met Office showing the formation and evolution of contrails over the UK (BBC 2010). The seven images clearly show what begins as a series of circular formations, which is the contrail pattern created by a military plane off the east-coast of the UK while in holding. This contrail, combined with that of other aircraft eventually at its peak leads to a cloud spanning 50,000 km2. As a result of this case study, it is clearly demonstrated that there is an urgent need for the investigation into whether this occurrence happens regularly or is highly unusual. Based on the evidence brought to light from these images and using existing data, it is estimated that the radiative forcing could potentially be 5000 times greater that previously thought (Haywood et al. 2009).
Figure 8. Contrails over Europe, 1995
Source: www.wrh.noaa.gov/fgz/science/contrail.php?wfo=fgz
3.3 Airport Impacts
84
Land take and biodiversity are the two main areas in relation to the impact of airports that will be focused on in this section of the paper. The most common environmental research surrounding airport impacts usually concentrates on noise and air pollution, which will be discussed in the next section. As we have noted above, global forecasts predict a doubling of air traffic in the next fifteen years (Airbus 2009). Therefore, expansion of the existing infrastructure or the construction of new airports will be required to facilitate the consequential growth in passenger and freight movement. Land take as a result of airport related activities is however, relatively marginal in comparison to other forms of transport including road and rail, where we see a significant proportion of land required for the new development of their infrastructure annually. The total number of airfields or airports globally, that are identifiable from air, stands at approximately 43,867 (CIA 2009). It must be noted that not all of these have air traffic control systems, maintenance facilities or refueling stations.
Transport infrastructure coverage of available land in the EU accounts for 1.2%, of which road networks claim 93% of the total for the EU-15, whereas rail is responsible for 4%, while airports have one of the lowest fractions, aside from canal waterways at 1,500 km2 or 1%, as shown in figure 9 (EEA 2000). The total count for airports does not include military airport sites, as there are no figures available. Details from a report carried out in Germany maintain that, land take per 1,000,000 passenger miles (pm) for air travel is 0.4 hectares (ha), while for rail travel it is estimated to be over six
times larger at 2.4 ha (Davenport 2006). A highly contentious issue surrounding air travel and thereby airports themselves is birdstrikes and how this problem is being dealt with. It is estimated that birdstrikes are responsible for US$1.2 billion per annum worth of damage to the aviation industry (Allan 2002). As a control measure, the International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO) brought in a new regulatory standard, thereby allowing airport authorities to deal with the potential threat from birds. The standard basically states that: any rubbish dumps or equivalent should be eradicated or dealt with sufficiently, therefore ensuring that they will not pose a problem by attracting birds (Davenport 2006).
Figure 9. Total land take by transport infrastructure (1996).
Source: EEA 2000 - Are we moving in the right direction?
85
Moreover, the distance defined by the IACO as a safe preventative measure is a radius of 13 km from the aerodrome. Using the UK as an example, this would result in 40% of the total land area of the country being subjected to this regulation, thus allowing preventative measures to be used on all birds located within this 13 km boundary. The outcome from this standard has the potential to lead to a fragmentation of natural habitats for certain species, although this is much more apparent in rail infrastructure (Watkiss 2001).
Additionally, the expansion in the EU of transport systems poses a significant threat to biodiversity and natural habitats, along with conflicting against conservation policies. Located within 5 km from the center of 66% of special bird areas and 63% of Ramsar sites (wetlands), is an extensive transport infrastructure (EEA 2001). This has a distressing and damaging effect on the both the plant and animal life located within these areas. Most of these effects can be attributed to pollutionin the form of noise, light and emissions along with run-off from roads, rail and airport runways, which sometimes have salt or other de-icing substances added (EEA 2001). Furthermore, the use of herbicides, fertilisers, pesticides and insecticides to control the vegetation in and around the aerodrome has undesirable effects on the ecosystem as a whole (Watkiss 2001).
3.4 Health Impacts of Aviation
There are numerous aviation related health impacts on humans including deep vein thrombosis, the spread of illnesses and disease, radiation exposure, air pollution and noise discomfort (Whitelegg et al. 2004). The latter two will be the main focus in this section of the paper, with a particular emphasis being paid to noise levels. The unit used to record noise levels is the decibel (dB), which is a measure of sound pressure level, while sound pressure is measured in Pascals (Pa). It is recommended that, noise levels required for a comfortable nights sleep should not exceed 30 dB equivalent continuous sound level (Leq) and anything above 55 dB Leq outdoor during the day will seriously annoy the majority of people. Night time outdoor tolerances are set at 45 dB Leq so that those who wish to sleep with their window open may do so without being disturbed. The peak maximum limit for short periods of time i.e. fireworks or such, should not be no greater than 140 dB, whereas concerts and music events should be restricted to 100 dB (Berglund et al. 1995).
86
Table 2. Noise levels close to European Airports Source: M+P 1999
As shown in figure 10, large numbers of people are subjected to noise levels above the advised limits of the World Health Organisation (WHO). In its 2009 report on transport, the EEA offers detailed figures showing that 3.2 million people (see figure 11.) in the EU are put at risk as a consequence of aviation noise, where they are being exposed to levels above 55 dB L
den (box 1). Furthermore, this
extensive report highlights the dangers associated with noise levels beyond the recommended levels, especially among young children and the elderly. These two categories of society are not the only one affected by excessive noise but they are the most vulnerable, as they
Box 1. EU Noise IndicatorsSource: EEA 2009
are not usually in a position where they are able to alter their surrounding or change their location (EEA 2009; Berglund et al. 1995). A serious issue of concern is the impeding of children’s learning, resulting in reading disabilities, long-term motivational issues and negative effects on long-term memory. It is suggested that aircraft noise, due to its unpredictability and infrequency, has a much more damaging effect of children's reading than that of other forms of transport, see figure 12. (Stansfeld et al 2005; Whitelegg et al 2004). Thus, educational institutions, health care facilities, social centres and outdoor play areas should not be located within the vicinity of areas where there is the potential for excessive noise levels, especially aerodromes (Berglund et al. 1995). Since the introduction of the EC directive 2002/49/EC, many EU member states have imposed a curfew on night flight ban, usually from 23:00 to 06:00 (Whitelegg et al 2004).
Figure 10. People affected by transport noise.
Source: The European Topic Centre Land Use and Spatial Information, 2008.
Aircraft are a major source of air pollution in close proximity to aerodromes, although they are not the only source. Transport access to airports via land based networks is also a hugh contributor to air pollution, consisting of; Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which include ethanes, isoprenes, benzene and toluene as a result of partly burnt fuel, along with
87
particulate matter (PM10), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and NOx gases. High levels of air pollutants can be found between 15-20 km from aerodromes. (Whitelegg et al. 2004) Figure 11. Reading comprehension by 5 dB bands of aircraft noise.
Source: Stansfeld et al 2005.
In the 2004 report, Health Aspect of Air Pollution by the WHO, it linked multiple acute health effects to local air pollution. The most serious outcome, as a consequence of long-term subjection to PM10 is the notable reduction in life expectancy. What’s more, negative health symptoms related to air pollution are equally likely to affect the most vulnerable groups, those being the same two groups that are similarly affected by noise levels (WHO 2000). While this point remains true, another very important concern based on the facts from this report show that, children are even more at risk because of a wider range of variables. These variables include; the faster pace of breathing, more time spent outdoors, vulnerability of growing organs, along with high rates of respiratory problems (WHO 2000). See Table 1 for further details
Table 3. Factors determining the susceptibility of children to inhaled pollutants.
Source: WHO 2000
3.5 Environmental Impact of Rail Travel
The environmental impact of railways and trains is somewhat more complicated than that of the aviation industry as a whole. One of the main causes of this complexity is the fundamental variations in railway infrastructure, carriages and locomotives between countries. As railway tracks are only beginning to become more standardised across Europe, it has been, and still is, quite difficult to quantify the impacts of this infrastructure or travel. In France, the TGV uses electricity to power the train from point to point, while 78% of the electricity in France comes from Nuclear (Kidd 2009), this results in a significant saving in GHG’s in comparison to Germany. Across the border in neighboring Germany, 49% of the electricity generated comes from coal (IEA 2009), therefore any electric trains running on electrical power that has been generated by fossil fuels, have a much higher footprint than those in France.
88
There are further environmental problems associated with railways, which together with the previous issue can be divided into the following areas:
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions• Local Air Pollutant Emissions• Noise and Vibration• Water and Land Pollution and Contamination• Land-take Visual intrusion
Of these six environmental impact areas, the most focus will be applied to, green house gas emissions followed by local air pollutants and noise, while land take will be covered in brief. Although the others have a strong argument as to why they too should be included, they are, to a lesser extent, not as important for in-depth focus in this report. Nonetheless, as mentioned above, the link between GHG’s and climate change is widely recognised, and is understood to be a major contributor to global warming, which will greatly alter the way society functions (IPCC 2007).
CO2 as a GHG is emitted through the burning of fuels to power the trains, diesel oil is burned in the case of diesel engine trains, while other fossil fuels are commonly burned in power stations to supply electricity to electric trains, they could be in the form of coal, oil, gas or a combination of one or more. However, as was mentioned above it is possible to have electricity from cleaner sources such as nuclear, although there still remains uncertainty about the development of new nuclear power reactors. The overall amount of energy that is required to power a train depends on the size of the train engine, weight of carriages, number of passengers and the length of the train.
3.6 Rail Emissions and Climate Change
On average, train emissions have a markedly lower value that those of a domestic flight, where a standard high-speed train journey can produce 40-48g/CO2/pkm, in stark contrast to a short-haul flight, where the average is between 200-300g/CO2/pkm (Watkiss et al. 2001; Brennan et al 2005). Total GHG emissions resulting from transport for the EU-27 in 2006 was 23.7% of overall emissions, of which, railway held 0.6%.
Onto this sum for railway, an additional figure is required to cover the area of electrical production emissions, due to the above percentage only representing diesel trains. Nevertheless, with this added, railway emissions account for a merited 2% of the transport total in the EU-27. During the period between 1990 - 2005, European railways successfully reduced their absolute CO2 emissions by 21%, moreover in exact CO2 /pkm terms, the reduction was an acceptable 14% (ETC 2008).
Figure 12. - CO2 Emissions from Transport – EU-27 by Mode (Shares %)
89
Source: EC 2009
3.7 Local air pollutants
Local air pollutants from rail travel very considerably due to the alternative fuel sources use in individual countries. Another contributing factor to this is the mixture of locomotives used for high-speed rail journeys as some are powered by diesel while others use electricity. On average, high speed rail travel has much higher emissions of SO2, per passenger km, than domestic air travel, yet this is expected to be considerably reduced in the future (Watkiss et al 2001). Particulate matter (PM10) is on average lower for high speed trains except in the case where diesel locomotives are used, where concentrations tend to be higher than for those of short-haul flights. SO2, NOx, CO, and VOCs emissions are lower per passenger km for high speed rail travel in comparison to air travel (Watkiss et al 2001).
3.8 Railway Impacts
Land take associated to rail infrastructure is significantly larger for rail travel than for air travel. It is estimated that for every km of new rail track created two hectares of land is required (Carpenter 1994). However, due to the need for railway tracks to run in a straight line in order to improve speed and therefore time, additional land acquisition is usually demanded. Consequently, this has quite a large impact on agricultural land use and the communities that surround them (Watkiss et al 2001). Noise is considered to be one of the most prominent health impacts associated with railways. Yet, noise impacts are specifically location based and must be assessed on an individual basis. Without a detailed analysis with particular focus on noise a comparison between air and rail travel would not be achievable. Thus, it would require further research before any conclusive assessment could be drawn.
90
4 Methodology
4.1 GHG Emissions from Professional Development
Copenhagen International School (CIS), like most schools or other educational institutions, keeps a detailed record of all accounts related to the schools operation. Having access to this data allowed for the establishment of a database of figures (see table 2), by using the recorded information for PD related activities at CIS during the calendar year of 2008. The principal rationale behind using 2008 as the base year was that, it is the most recent year with complete evidence available, thereby allowing a full perspective of PD connected events.
The first task was to build a overview picture of how many separate locations were visited during the year 2008, followed by how many staff members attended each of these destinations. This was a key task in correlating the obtained information, as it permitted a clear and concise view of how many return trips were made to each location (table 4). Which when calculating the GHG emissions simplified the process into a logical and detailed plan. At this beginning stage, three interactive tools, that are accessible online were selected to calculate the total GHG emissions. In order to utilise the practical spreadsheet tool offered by the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in the UK, it was first necessary to obtain the distances in km for each journey.
91
Table 4. PD related aviation GHG emissions from for 2008 at CIS.
A detailed comparison of the estimated reduction that could potentially be made, through switching to another mode of transport will be examined in the next chapter. Still, there are other ways of reducing this level of GHG emissions such as, technology as a means of delivering PD through applications like Skype, which has been proven in CIS, to be a very productive tool for running conferences. However, this will be noted later in this report but it is beyond the capacity of this research to delve deeper into this and show calculations as an alternative.
4.2 Staff Questionnaire
The second method used to gather information for this research was an online questionnaire, sent to all teaching members staff at CIS using the internal email system, which is over one hundred individuals. A total of twenty-four of those recipients completed the questionnaire, thereby leaving room for an improved way of collecting this type of information. ‘Google Forms’ was used as the tool to develop the questionnaire, due to it’s ability to cater for large numbers of respondents and the immediate graphical presentation of the results.
92
The questionnaire used for this report contained twenty-one questions in total including a concluding comments section (see appendix ii). Thirteen of these were closed questions that focused on specific issues and required the minimum amount of time to answer. The rest of the questions were open answers where the members of staff had the opportunity to express their views on the subject of PD and travel. Even though the questionnaire was created and send electronically to the staff at CIS, only twenty-four responses were submitted. Despite this, having feedback from this many respondents was still sufficient, thus allowing a detailed analysis of the perception held by the staff at CIS in relation to this subject. The questions, in order as appeared on the questionnaire, are as follows:
3. How many short-haul single (oneway) flights did you take between January & December 2008?4. How many short-haul single (oneway) flights were CIS related?5. How many long-haul single (oneway) flights did you take between January & December 2008?6. How many long-haul single (oneway) flights were CIS related? 7. Do you consider the environmental impact of flying before booking a flight?8. Do you offset you carbon emissions when booking a flight?9. Do you know where your money goes when you offset your carbon?10. When choosing to fly, which of the following do you consider more important?11. Are you aware that Green House Gasses (GHG) emitted at a high altitude is much more
damaging than those emitted on land?12. Between January and December 2008, flights related to PD at CIS were responsible for 62,154 kg
CO2e being emitted; do you think this is good practice for an educational institution?13. Would you consider taking a train for PD related events inside Europe? Why?14. Have you ever experienced travel on a night-train inside Europe?15. Are you aware that you can reduce you GHG emissions by up to 70% when travelling by train
compared to flying?16. Do you think schools should take the leading role by mitigating the effects of Climate Change?17. Would it be possible to gain the same PD from virtual conferences i.e. using Skype conferencing?
Why?18. Do you consider physical interaction an important factor when gaining PD? Why?19. Do you think that flying for PD related events is important and should continue regardless? Why?20. Would a regional centre for the IBO in Northern Europe be a viable solution to reduce GHG
emissions from PD related travel? Why?21. Are there any other alternatives for reducing GHG emissions from PD related travel? What?22. The IBO encourages global interaction and collaboration; do you think this is an important part of
the organisation? Why?23. Should the IBO focus on reducing the overall negative environmental impact of schools that are
affiliated with the organisation? Why? How?
The CIS staff questionnaire can be found online at:
https://spreadsheets.google.comviewform hl=en_GB&formkey=dEdNQkR1VEtoTTZ1eGx1MlNmRlZRMlE6MA
4.3 Professional Development Value
93
As discussed in chapter 1, currently at CIS, there is no way of monitoring or weighting the value of PD for those who attend workshops, conferences or events abroad. Questions fifteen and nineteen of the questionnaire cover a portion of this point, however it does not specifically mention the ‘value’ of PD. Still, extracting the information that is relevant to this topic from the answers to questions nineteen and especially fifteen reveal an important feature. The majority of answers refer to, what can be interpreted as value, as being able to share time, conversations, experiences, practical tasks and lunch with those who are also involved with the event. Thus, an emerging trend begins to appear, where PD is not only about the skills, knowledge and learning that could potentially take place on PD courses. It would appear that it is a combination of a wide range of components, that accumulate together at these events to form a space where learning in the form of PD takes place.
Technology as a solution to flying for PD does not win very much support from the participants in the questionnaire. Question 15 focuses specifically on the role of technology as an alternative to travel and the possibility of using Skype conferencing for PD workshops. The issue of personal contact arises again, whereby many of those involved feel that the outcome of at PD would not be of the same standard as having gone to attend a workshop in person. Examining the feedback from other questions related to PD and its value, leads to the conclusion that staff are not particularly willing to give up travelling for PD. Yet, they are open to the possibility of finding an alternative to flying if the quantity and quality of PD available to each individual is not sacrificed. Also, the general consensus implies that, should the school be willing to support a viable alternative travel option for PD, then staff would be prepared to consider this, as long as it does not impede too much on class teaching hours.
Selecting more specifically detailed questions for the questionnaire could potentially have gained more concise data while attracting a larger response for the number of staff replying. To do this it would be easier for those answering if most of the questions were closed, where all they were required to do is click on an answer instead of writing logical sentences.
94
5 Analysis
5.1 Demand for Aviation
To understand what drives the demand for flying in an international school context, a number of factors must be explored. One quite essential element is the perception that staff have in relation to flying for PD purposes, other key details are financial justification and personal time. Question seventeen in the staff questionnaire brings this point to the light, and unearths a wide range of responses. Most of the staff are in agreement that flying for PD purposes should continue, although a few suggest that perhaps it would be a good idea to start looking at alternatives.
Moreover, it appears that for the staff at CIS, where the main teaching language is English, having PD workshops in Denmark is not a solution due to the language barrier. Language seems to be one of the basic reasons for flying along with the ability to network while at events, the limiting loss of teaching time and the experiences that external PD can bring. Below is a summary of the key findings from question 17, while the full results can be seen in appendix iv.
Question 17 - Do you think that flying for PD related events is important and should continue regardless? Why?
Answers:
• Not necessarily. Banning flights for PD might result in loss of motivation amongst staff.• Again, it will depend on the course. Longer courses will by necessity involve flying, and that
seems acceptable to me.• Yes, when other options are not possible• It cuts down on travel time, so it's difficult to say. If we have limited time away from school and
a lot of time is spent on travel, then obviously less time can be spent on PD.• yes, but could be limited.• Yes• Regardless of what. How much should we cut back on travel? This is more of a value
judgement.• Of course it should. We are an international school in a country that doesn't offer he course we
need in English. So we are required to go abroad. International schools conferences are almost always held abroad. So as long as we are working in an international school we will have to travel to PD, unless of course all the conferences are held in Denmark, but then he other schools will have to travel here and the air travel will be he same. We can obviously minimize the air travel we do by ensuring our staff attend conferences that are closer. We should not be sending people to the USA for courses. They should have to attend the courses closest to KBH.
• I think it should continue but the school should look at how they can get more pd within europe.• Yes, PD is a fantastic way to gain new knowledge which the school by the end benefit from.• I think we should have a flight pass with restricted amount of flight per year. I should be more
aware of this offset practice that I don't know a lot about.• I think it should be continued if the value of going outweighs the impact.
95
• Only where appropriate, but alternatives should be looked at.• Yes, very.• It is a catch-22. You need PD to keep pace and to improve methodology and keep developing
your teaching styles. Students are much more difficult to teach from the point of view that you have to be interesting. PD for me is essential.
• Yes, but perhaps we could offset the carbon as we do it. PD is necessary to expand ones skills in an ever changing world of teaching. One needs to stay fresh.
• I think to attract the high calibre of international teaching staff with experience it would be difficult to not offer international PD as often the options of virtual PD are not available and also the local or national PD is not suitable for the school (language barrier) curriculum difference. It does need to be looked into as the Carbon footprint from the travel alone is massive!
• I think each conference or workshop should be looked at carefully and other alternatives to flying examined. Perhaps if the impact on teaching is too great taking alternative transport then flying should be allowed.
• Yes, unless groups that schedule conferences start scheduling more of them within more convenient travelling distances. However, I think there is some waste. People are sent to the wrong conferences or sent to conferences for MYP training that could perhaps be made more relevant and effective by presentations for new staff here at school -either by bringing a trainer in for a group (instead of sending the whole group out etc.).
5.2 Assessment of Figures
The online GHG emissions calculator, travelmath.com, automatically estimates the distance between two travel destinations, in this case airports, which is then displayed in the summary of information provided after performing a computation. There is however, room for miscalculation when using this tool as it assumes the distance to be as ‘the crow flies’, which is not always the certain route taken by all aircraft. Regardless, the distances in km provided by this method have been selected as the quantifiable aggregate for use on the defra spreadsheet. In table 2 above, the total sum of pkm, calculated using travelmath.com, is estimated to be 545,598, of which 341,116 or 62.5% is short-haul and 204,482 in long-haul.
The pkm GHG emissions for both long and short-haul flights are varying, this is due to the factors discussed in Chapter 3, which in the case of defra, two individual calculations have been performed. One very important detail relating to the definition of long and short-haul flights needs to be clarified before understanding the contents of table 2. Defra defines short-haul flights and being under 3,700 km, while long-haul flights are anything over 3,700 km (DEFRA 2009). To simplify the evidence based on CIS data and distances supplied from travelmath.com, it proved arguably, much more logical to include flights within Europe, regardless of the distance from Copenhagen as short-haul flights. The hypothesis for this choice was based upon the reasoning that; any city in Europe accessible by train from Copenhagen, with not too much effort, should be considered a short-haul destination when flying.
Taking this decision to include cities beyond the 3,700 km threshold, yet still within the EU-27 member states, enables a comprehensive comparison of train vs plane, which will be discussed in the next chapter. Nonetheless, using two of the three methods for obtaining GHG emission results (defra and
96
travelmath.com), as displayed in table 2, show that, when taking an average of the two sums, a total of 64,112 kg/CO2e was emitted in 2008. Considering this total of 64,112 kg/CO2e, while subtracting the average sum of the total kg/CO2e of tables 4 and 5 in appendix 1, which is 36,732 kg/CO2e, it leaves 27,380 kg/CO2e. This figure represents the quantity of GHG emissions that have the potential to be reduced, which is 42.70% of the total emissions for 2008.
Average total kg/CO2e from table1:
66,072 + 62,153 = 128,225 / 2 = 64,112 kg/CO2e
Average total kg/CO2e from tables 4 & 5 (appendix i):
Long-haul - 21,588 + 25,225 = 46,813 / 2 = 23,406 kg/CO2eShort-haul - 14,570 + 12,082 = 26,652 / 2 = 13,326 kg/CO2e
Average total - 23,406 + 13,326 = 36,732 kg/CO2e
Reducible qty - 64,112 - 36,732 = 27,380 kg/CO2e
Reducible % - 64,112 / 100 = 641.12 27,380 / 641.12 = 42.70%
Results from question one (fig. 13) show that, nine out of the twenty-four respondents or 38% of the total, had taken more than five one-way, short-haul flights during 2008. This does not automatically mean that those flights were CIS related, as staff members may have take personal, non-CIS related flights during this period.
Figure 13. CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 1.
97
Yet in question two (fig. 14), it is distinctly obvious that nineteen of the participants flights were in fact CIS related, while only five of those questioned, or 21%, showed that none of the flight taken were CIS related.
Figure 14. CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 2.
It could be argued that, a lack of understanding in relation to the potential impacts that flying has on climate change is the main cause of this behavior in an academic institution. A summary of the answers provided to question nine of the questionnaire are laid out below (fig. 15). They very clearly show that the damaging effects of flying due to radiative forcing, are not commonly known to those who fly frequently. At this point, it is not possible to tell if those who answered yes to question nine, actually understand what effects on climate change are attributed to GHG emissions from flying. This would require further study, in order to determine how much information and knowledge of this principal is possessed by those who are familiar with it.
Figure 15. CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 9.
98
Intriguingly, findings presented (fig. 16) which are from the answers to question fourteen, highlight the possible concern that 79% of the questioned have in response to mitigating climate change. This raises the obvious question - where does the responsibility for taking a positive initiative on mitigating climate change lie? It would appear that, knowing a change is necessary and schools should take the leading role is clear, yet the emissions from PD are continuing unabated. This will be discussed further and in greater depth in the next chapter.
Figure 16. CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 14.
5.3 Priority of Personal Time
Results from question eight (fig. 17) of the questionnaire show that 17% of the respondents value their personal time over most other considerations. Yet, what seem to be regarded as the most important concerns when choosing to fly are 1) travel time and 2) the financial cost, with a combined total of 66% of the staff questioned justifying this. Furthermore, evidence extracted from the open questions (appendix vi) of the questionnaire, highlights that a large proportion of the staff questioned at CIS apply their personal time as a key concern when deciding how to travel. This would appear to be an obvious element of concern for a school teacher, considering the more time required to travel, the greater the away-time is from the classroom, thereby increasing the potential for loss of learning among the students. Alternatively, it could be argued that student self-directed learning, supported with material set in place by the teacher before leaving on a trip, could sufficiently continue the learning process in the teachers absence. However, this could prove to be quite difficult, especially if all staff members were to shift mode of travel to train for PD purposes.
99
Figure 17. CIS staff questionnaire - responses to Question 8.
If this change were to take place from plane to train for all short-haul trips from Copenhagen, the increase in time spent travelling would be quite substantial. Table 5. offers a comparison of the time spent travelling for each short-haul individual journey in 2008, all times are expressed in minutes to allow for an easier bisection of the results (the distance time for individual journeys was taken from ecopassenger.com). Instantly, the striking chasm between the time spent travelling by the two modes of transport becomes apparent, thus giving leverage to the argument in support of continuing to fly for PD related activities. The total passenger hours (p/hr) for air travel is less than one-fifth or 19% of the time required to complete the same journeys by train. Using figures from table 5 show that rail travel accounts for 5,251 hours, while air travel is noticeably small at 1,000 hours.
Hours of Rail Travel - 315,040 / 60 = 5,251Hours of Air Travel - 59,986 / 60 = 1,000
This information broken down even further, shows that the average loss of time per person travelling using the two different modes would be 1) 7.35 - hours for air travel and 2) 38.61 - hours for rail travel.
1,000 / 136 = 7.35 average hours per person of short-haul air travel
5,251 / 136 = 38.61 average hours per person of European train travel
The contrast between both of these times, leads to the assumption that,if travel by train were to be supported as a viable means of transport for PD, it would require a sweeping set of changes in numerous areas before it could happen. The indisputable starting point from a time perspective, would be a radical reduction in travel time for rail journeys. The current estimate of 38.61 average hours per person of European train travel for PD, is quite unrealistic as it would result in each of the 136 teachers being away from the classroom for almost two weeks of teaching. This is without the
100
additional time required for the staff member to attend the PD event, which is the purpose of the journey in the first place.
Table 5. Comparison of Short-haul Air & Rail travel times in minutes.
5.4 Financial Justification
One third of the staff who answered the questionnaire suggest that they consider the financial cost of travel before making a choice (fig. 17). This is the conventional way of making decisions, basing the outcome of a choice on how it will affect the financial sector of the equation. None of the staff that answered question 8, showed any sign of care towards the environment before deciding to fly. Along with this, it is quite clear that by taking a step towards reducing the environmental impact of ones actions it will not generate any fiscal savings. Therefore, it would be unreasonable to suggest making changes to support the environment within the present system, where financial savings outweigh those of environmental, as they will not be taken seriously.
Another element that must be factored into this equation is the quantity of funding available from CIS for PD purposes. The most recent academic year 2009/10 has DKK1,500,000 (Danish Kroner), which at the time of writing was equivalent to approximately UK£176,500. Divided equally among the same number of people that went of PD trips as in 2008, would work out at DKK8,670 per person. It must be noted that not all of the total funding available for PD is allocated to travel, as a large proportion is
101
required to pay for the PD courses along with accommodation and other occurring expenses. It is possible to work out the financial cost from an environmental perspective based on individual kg/CO2 e emissions per mode of transport.
Data drawn from tables five, six and seven allow for a comprehensive prediction of individual costings of kg/CO2 e/per person/per hour, which will then be computed into fiscal costings, thus creating a comparable base figure per individual mode of transport. This experiment will be limited to the source of data, where only destinations that are referred to as short-haul, and that are easily accessible by rail are included.
Table 6. GHG emissions for Short-haul Air travel in kg/CO2 e.
One simple equation must be completed in order to gain a related fiscal cost per kg/CO2 e. To do this, the total sum for PD funding will be divided by the total average kg/CO2 e emissions from 2008. Although this is quite a basic way of calculating the cost of a kg/CO2 e, it is relative to the division of impacts on the environment, which will be discussed in the next section.
Estimated cost of kg/CO2 e:
102
1,500,000 / 64,112 = DKK 23.39
Having this figure will allow an estimate of the cost per hour of each mode of transport, thereby showing the true cost of each. It is possible that without the subsidies for the aircraft industry, as mentioned earlier in this report, the cost of air travel would reflect the costs shown here.
Short-haul Air travel calculations:
Total travel hours - 59,986 / 60 = 1,000Total emissions kg/CO2 e - 28,217 Total kg/CO2 e/per hour - 28,217 / 1,000 = 28.217Total kg/CO2 e/per minute - 28.217 / 60 = 0.470
Total cost per hour in DKK - 28.217 x 23.39 = 660.18
European Rail travel calculations:
Total travel hours - 315,040 / 60 = 5,251Total emissions kg/CO2 e - 5,254Total kg/CO2 e/per hour - 5,254 / 5,251 = 1.0Total kg/CO2 e/per minute - 1.0 / 60 = 0.016
Total cost per hour in DKK - 1.0 x 23.39 = 23.39
Using this method to calculate the cost of travel by different modes of transport immediately brings to attention the unequal way in which the present pricing system functions. As mentioned in chapter two, when comparing ticket the prices of air and rail travel, often rail-fares can reach as much as twenty-six times the price of airfares (Guardian 2009). The above calculations are a direct contrast to this, with the reversal of the costs being projected. Whereby, based on these estimates the same journey taken by plane would cost over twenty-eight times the price of the rail journey. This type of accounting has been describe by Weizsaecker (1994) as ‘polluter pays principal’ where the true environmental cost is revealed and thus financially covered by the polluter.
103
Table 7. - GHG emissions for European Rail travel in kg/CO2 e.
5.5 Train vs Plane
There are five main areas that will be discussed in this section of the report, due to them being considered as very important in the contrasting modes of transport. They will be expanded upon in the following order:
1) Time2) Cost3) Emissions4) Health5) Environment
Time is one of the major considerations taken into account when deciding upon which method of transport to chose, especially if the journey is related to work or a similar professional requirement. It has become increasingly evident throughout this paper, backed by the majority of evidence provided, that the advantages of time saving by taking a flight over a rail journey, far outweigh most other points of attention. However, it is worth mentioning that this is primarily due to the concern among the staff at CIS over the length of time that they would be away from the classroom and students. A one-way trip from Copenhagen to Paris would take a total of fifteen hours and seventeen minutes on high-speed overnight journey, while the same journey by plane could be completed in three hours and thirty-five
104
minutes (see appendix v). Interestingly, this is one of the fastest possible routes by rail to a major European city, along with only having to change once in Köln, Germany.
Cost is perceived to be the incentive for booking a ticket, whether it is a discounted sale price or a last minute purchase. With a limited budget available to be shared out among 135 staff members at CIS, it is understandable that choosing the most cost effective means of transport would be the first option. As is the case with most alternative forms of transport, the cost is more often much higher than subsidised air travel, which has been discussed in chapter 2. Thus, if the PD budget were to be dedicated purchasing train tickets only, the quantity of available PD trips would dwindle to a possible one-twenty-sixth of the current rate. Therefore, switching from plane to train for PD at this current time would simple not be an option for CIS due to the over inflated rail ticket prices.
Where rail travel gains increasingly more credibility over air travel is in the context of GHG emissions. Substantial emission savings can be made when travelling by train. Moreover, in Sweden, where almost all of the trains run on electricity, which is generated from a number of clean sources including hydro, biomass, wind & nuclear, a reduction of almost 100% is possible by taking the train instead of flying from Copenhagen to Stockholm, see table 8 below.
Table 8. - GHG emissions for Rail & Air travel between Copenhagen and Stockholm.
Source: ecopassenger.org 2010
Technological improvements in aircraft design may increase the possibility of reducing GHG emissions from aviation, however as stated in chapter 3, Airbus are predicting the doubling of flights in the next fifteen years. Regardless of what improvements are made in the design of aircraft fuselage of engines, it would require a radical transformation if this industry were to try and compete with that of the rail industry on GHG emissions. Still, the rail industry has the available capacity to increase the quantity of power supplying the european network from fossil fuel derived electricity to renewably produced energy. Thereby, further reducing the overall impact on the environment.
The health impacts of both the rail and aviation industry have been discussed in lengthly detail in chapter 3. One of the most pressing concerns in relation to this topic is the concentrations of seriously damaging emissions such as VOCs, PM10, SO2 and NOx gases. In the case of airports, negative effects of aviation emissions can be recorded up to 20 km from the aerodrome. Similar problems are associated with the rail industry, although to a lesser extent due to the quantity of locomotives that are
105
now powered by electricity. Yet, in the case of the UK and Germany as examples, the generation of electricity from non-renewables sources, is associated as an indirect impact of railway travel on health. Also discussed in chapter 3, was the influence that noise has on general health and wellbeing, which is a key issue when dealing with conditions like stress related illnesses.
The environmental impact of both modes of transport have become quite transparent in this report, particularly the contribution of GHG emissions per km of travel. The figure based on the above calculations of 28.217 kg/CO2 e/per hour for air travel, is very overpowering in comparison to 1.0 kg/CO2 e/per hour of rail travel. If the current projections of growth by Airbus for the aviation industry are correct, this will lead to a very critical annual multiplication of already dangerous levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere. Whereas, the expansion of the Trans European Rail Network will allow more high-speed rail tracks and locomotives, thus increasing the number of passengers taking the train as an alternative to flying and ultimately reducing the overall environmental impact of travel.
106
6 Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Internalise External Costs
The concept of internalising the external costs of industrial practices has been around for a considerable length of time as it was documented by Pigou in 1920:
“the uncompensated disservices of a smoke producing factory for this smoke in large towns inflicts a heavy uncharged loss on the community, an injury to buildings and vegetables, expenses for washing clothes and cleaning rooms, expenses for the provision of artificial light, and in many other ways”
Quoted in Wit et al. (2002), page 7
This theory of ‘polluter pays principal’ was briefly mentioned in chapter 5. The concept could potentially act as a way of instigating a steady reduction of emissions from PD related travel. Through the increased cost of air travel due to the addition of the environmental cost being added to the price of a ticket, as has been calculated in chapter 5, would counter balance the number of trips being made. Thereby decreasing the overall emissions from PD travel. The supplementary cost of the air travel ticket could be utilised in a number of ways that would ultimately benefit the environment.
The most prominent method would be to create a fund where the additional cost incurred by air travel would be deposited. This reserve of funds could then be used to subsidises rail travel for PD, thereby making it more accessible to the staff at CIS. Furthermore, a percentage of this reserve could be used to fund travel by professional to attend CIS and run PD events within the school.
6.2 Carbon Cap per Capita
Interestingly this was one of the proposed solutions by a staff member at CIS who replied to the questionnaire. It was calculated in chapter 4 that 42.7% (27,380 kg/CO2e) of the total emissions related to PD at CIS could be reduced by between 70-100%, if staff chose train over air travel. Therefore, if a carbon cap per person was applied to PD related travel by the administration at CIS, it would have an immediate impact of the amount of travel km available to each staff member. However, this carbon cap could as an incentive to promote the use of rail travel for PD due to the available savings from this mode of transport.
In order to have a viable system where it would be possible to implement a carbon cap per staff member, an agreeable benchmark figure would be required. The number of staff who attended PD events at European destinations in 2008, where it is possible to reach by train totaled 136 and resulted in 27,380 kg/CO2e being emitted. Using these two figures it would be possible to generate a starting point that could be proposed as a carbon cap level for each staff member at CIS. This limit based on the above information would be set at 201 kg/CO2e per person, per academic year. However, it would also be necessary to set an overall reduction target per year where the ultimate goal would be to reach a level equivalent to an 80% of the present levels.
107
6.3 Technology as a Solution
Increasingly more people are starting to use technology as a means of gaining some form of PD. Online courses are offered by most educational institutions and organisations thereby allowing access to those who wish to avail of PD opportunities without having to leave the country. Applications like Skype have made communication between individuals and groups possible without any significant investment provided those involved have internet access and a computer equipped with a microphone.
The majority of universities now offer distance learning courses where students are supported to communicate and collaborate with each other online in virtual classrooms. Distance learning has been in existence for quite a number of years with the Open University enrolling its first students in 1970 (OU 2010). Technology as a tool for learning is broadening the possibilities available to those who wish to acquire new knowledge, skills and understanding. However, there are a number of concerns relating to the social aspect of conducting PD online which have been mentioned in the above text. Consequently, virtual learning is not for all but is a valuable resource available to those who wish to utilise it.
6.4 Modal Shift for European Trips
A move towards rail as a method of transport for those wishing to attend PD events in Europe would be a viable solution if the time aspect was not a significant factor. The obtainable saving of GHG emissions that is possibly by the transition from air to rail travel is quite notable. However, due to the extended time required for most European trips it from Copenhagen it begins to appear unfeasible. Feedback from the questionnaire show that the majority of teachers at CIS are primarily concerned about their personal time and the time they have to spend away from the classroom. This is a valid argument considering a trip from Copenhagen to Paris by train would result in the time taken to travel being multiplied by four (appendix v).
Ultimately, a whole school transition from air to rail travel would not be possible unless the administration at CIS were willing to promote travel by train, along with offering extended substitute cover for those on PD trips. Similarly, increased investment in high-speed rail networks across Europe along with additions to the percentage of available sleeper train routes would actively promote passenger growth in this sector. However, the environmental impact of a large infrastructural expansion of the trans european rail network would have wide ranging effects. The most fundamental of these impacts being; further fragmentation of geographical areas, loss of available agricultural land, visual intrusion of local communities and the potential local pollution problems that are commonly associated with railways.
6.5 Environmental Education and Awareness
The importance of environmental education and awareness raising projects among the staff at CIS is quite apparent in view of the results from the questionnaire. Many of the teachers who sent feedback do not have clear knowledge or understanding in relation to the consequences of their actions on the
108
environment. It would therefore be beneficial for both the staff of CIS and the environment to promote environmentally related learning. This could lead to a rippling effect which would influence the decisions made by those who are not directly involved with PD or teaching, such as the students at the school.
The benefits of having and promoting environmental education and awareness would transform decisions by allowing well informed choices to made. Based on the evidence put forward in chapter 1, it could be argued that it is the responsibility of an educational institution to provide its staff and students with the necessary information in order for them to become leaders of learning in their fields. This clearly highlights the need for a structure that would promote the sharing of knowledge and understanding that is required to decrease the overall impact on the environment.
6.6 Conclusion
I have looked at the following topics in order to achieve the original aim of the thesis;
• The fact that PD participants travel both long and short distances by plane.• The environmental impacts of the form of transport most widely used for attending PD events,
and have compared it against the impact of the form of transport that could be most ideally substituted.
• Extensive research into the emissions caused by the travel of PD participants from CIS, and have analysed and discussed their responses to a questionnaire.
• Compared the different modes of transport under certain headings such as time, cost, emissions, health and the environment.
The major findings of the research were as follows;
• Air travel has a much greater environmental impact due to GHG emissions.• Land take for the infrastructure of air travel is significantly lower than for that of rail.• Local pollution caused by trains varies greatly due to the fuel mixes used in alternative
countries.• Many people prefer the travel environment offered by rail over air, however it is not always
preferred.• Rail travel can be expensive and time consuming, thereby acting as a repellant for some, but
an attraction for others.• Air fares do not reflect the true cost of its impacts on the environment. • Technology as a means of reducing travel for PD is viable for those who are not concerned
about the social interactions available at a physical event. • The complexities of the european train network is a potentially drawback for individuals when
trying to negotiate its matrix over long distances.• Notable GHG emission reductions are possible through switching to rail as a form of transport
for PD related events.
109
6.7 Recommendations for Further Research
Key areas identified in this study that require further study are;
• An assessment of the level of understanding among staff at CIS surrounding the effects that GHG emissions on climate change which can be attributed to from flying.
• A detailed comparison of noise impacts associated with air and rail travel on a specific route between two destinations.
• A comparative study on the role of technology for PD training within international education.• A feasibility study on the cost effectiveness of switching to rail travel for PD purposes.
110
7 Appendices i
Table 1. Total GHG emissions for PD related travel at CIS during 2008.
Table 2. GHG emissions calculations for short-haul flights to European destinations, that are accessible by train from Copenhagen.
Table 3. Travel alternative for European destinations, showing calculations for train emissions.
Table 4. GHG emissions for short-haul flights, where the destination is not easily accessible by train form Copenhagen
Table 5. GHG emissions for long-haul PD related flights from CIS in 2008.
Appendices ii
Copy of the questionnaire that was sent to the staff at CIS.
Appendices iii
Closed question answers from the CIS staff questionnaire.
Appendices iv
Open question answers from the CIS staff questionnaire.
Question 11 - Would you consider taking a train for PD related events inside Europe? Why?
Answers:
1. Yes, but would the extra time involved result in trips being cancelled?2. Depends on where it was, and the school's approach to PD. I think a better question is "Would
the school be willing for teachers to still have the same number of PD opportunities if teachers were out for longer if it meant that they would need to be covered for longer periods of time. The cost of train travel inside Europe for long distances is often much much higher than flying.
3. I would probably consider it for adjacent countries, but not for more distant ones. More importantly, I would think that the school should think twice before sending people off on long-distance flights or on some of these events in the first place. Do we really need to send people to Turkey to learn about 'being international'? Or would there be alternative locations in the vicinity?
4. Yes, because it is simply worth the time away from my job for the benefit of the future Earth.5. Sure, but I am always worried about missing class time.6. Yes - depending on how long the train trip was.7. yes8. Probably not. Time would be the main factor.9. No. I choose not too because Copenhagen is not a good enough hub for train travel. Should
the conference be in Sweden... perhaps.10. Only if the travel time was reasonable. TRips to Berlin etc would be no problem. In fact it is
nicer than air travel in terms of comfort and ease of travel. Air travel sucks but when it's a distance that requires it well so be it.
11. yes if I was given the time to do this, it is relaxing and you can spend time getting to know the colleagues you are traveling with
12. Yes, if not wasting to much time, and not traveling on 'monkey class' for many hours13. Depending where I go Of course. My last PD was in IStanbul. For a 3 days conference, the
time spent on the train is unrealistic. And the cost for the trip will may be less expensive by plane than by train.
14. This is first time I think of flying and CO2 emission. I would rethink in the future and look at training instead when possible.
15. Because I love traveling by train.16. Yes. I enjoy taking a train much more than flying but travel time is a definite factor.17. Yes.18. I was hoping that we could take a boat to the Eco-Schools Fair next June in the UK.19. Time is a very important factor.20. If we were given enough travel time, I would have no objection, however, we are usually put on
to a very tight schedule and a train ride would incur costs the school would not appreciate.21. No as the time involved is much greater, we need to miss more classes and the trains are not
always comfortable or okay for people with back problems or other problems. I train to Frankfurt
alone takes 13 hrs vs a flight of 1.5 hrs average. Besides could the school not pay to offset the carbon emissions?
22. Yes, to set an example about our commitment to the environment, only constraint would be cost and time.
23. I would, but I would also have to take into account whether that would mean that my students would have to have more lessons without their teacher there - there is no vikar system in the DP
24. Yes, if the events were not too far away and travel time was not substantially longer.
Question 15 - Would it be possible to gain the same PD from virtual conferences i.e. using Skype conferencing? Why?
Answers:
1. The Professional Development yes. The other, incidental aspects, mainly social, no.2. Absolutely not. Research shows that online learning for short courses does not have anywhere
near the same effect as attending conferences. 3. I would certainly be in favour if we can arrange them effectively. 4. I was day dreaming about that as an option in the last "share about your PD" experience in a
staff meeting. I think it would not be as fun and would take some getting used to but it would totally work both from a attendees perspective as well as a presenters perspective. Students have been taking courses in this way for different reasons for years...why can't we take our PD this way?
5. No, face to face contact is always better. And the chats outside the actual forum are as least as useful as the formal meetings.
6. No. It would not be possible, given a great deal of time at conferences is spent socialising and networking with other teachers from around the world. This would not be possible with Skype or other video conferencing.
7. no. personal contact and interaction is not the same with a virtual conference.8. Some PD work can be achieved online but it is important to work together physically on
projects and tasks. 9. You need the human contact. You need the social and you require the opportunity to brain
storm in a non-time constrained fashion.10. No. For my subject it needs to be practical in nature, not online.11. i think it is better to be with the people offering the workshops, I think you would get more out
of it person to person12. No, due to personal networking - contact making + exhibitions13. Last year, I did an online PD. The outcome is absolutely different... even if the 2 PD were
interested. In conclusion, I would say that direct brainstorming and reflection with people during 3 days is more efficient that an online PD for 2 months. This is my experience.
14. For me participating in PD is partly the networking and meeting other teachers, I would not get that same opportunity on-line.
15. I don't know.
16. For some conferences but not for all. Some require some hands one work that is valuable and can only be done on location.
17. No. The conferences are not set up this way.18. Some PD may be done online, but some is vital to be done as a group.19. Some PD may be done online, but some is vital to be done as a group.20. No comment.21. No as conferences are designed so that we can collectively work in groups on different
projects. Skype can only conference call without video making it extremely difficult.22. Sometimes yes for sure. Technology allows us to do this as if the person is present.
Sometimes it may not be the same as sitting around a table drinking coffee and chatting about the topic but the benefits to the environment definitely out weigh the drawbacks.
23. No, it would not, because the one to one or group conversations both in the sessions and over meals are often the most important part of workshops.
24. No it wouldn't. An element of PD is networking with other educators who teach your subject. While you can transmit lectures via virtual conferences, there is no substitute for human contact in networking.
Question 16 - Do you consider physical interaction an important factor when gaining PD? Why?
Answers:
1. Yes. It depends on the activity but the travel is seen as a perk of the job.2. Absolutely. Many reasons. Being physically in a place with a group of people is a successful
way of being able to switch off form what you would normally do and concentrate on learning. It also allows you to interact with others and plan with like minded people in a way that doesn't happen. In a world where many things are online, again, research shows that the same level of learning does not occur when communicating over virtual means.
3. I do. Learning how to teach an entirely new course, for instance, is something where 3-5 days are definitely needed.
4. Many of the primary years program sessions DO involve this and I benefit from it as this is also the way I teach. But there will be some locals at the physical venue of the conference and they will benefit by doing the hands on while we watch...and pay less of course too.
5. see above6. It is always nice to visit a place you haven't been before, but it is not the most important factor
in choosing a PD.7. yes8. If you have had physical interaction with a group at least once, it is quite easy to continue
working online with the group. 9. yes. This is how we encourage our students to learn. 10. Yes it's extremely important for my subject. Of course if it something like a theory based course
such as MYP Intro course, then we should be made to do it online if this is available. If it is subject specific stuff,well it's much better (for me) to be able o have physical interaction. Being an
international school it does not work out that course participants can be online at the same time to have real time conversations. It's not very productive otherwise.
11. yes, i learn better that way12. Yes, same as above13. Yes, the physical interaction is important not only with the other participants but above all with
the colleagues from CIS who attend the same conference. 3 days workshops are intense. It is a real journey. Direct interactions are better than online interactions. Physical interactions helps to understand cultural and personal differences.
14. The networking is for me still a physical interaction thing. 15. Because it's the exchanging of experience and ideas that is the most important.16. Depends on the type of PD.17. Yes. I like to be in the same room as the people I interact with.18. Yes, where appropriate.19. Yes, very.20. No comment.21. Yes, there is a lot of good results coming from most conferences.22. Not really if they are a good speaker or workshop leader then they should be able to hold the
audience in a virtual setting.23. Yes, for the reasons given above, and also because being taken out of one's educational
environment creates the necessary distance to be able more easily to reflect on what one is doing in that environment
24. Yes, see previous answer
Question 17 - Do you think that flying for PD related events is important and should continue regardless? Why?
Answers:
1. Not necessarily. Banning flights for PD might result in loss of motivation amongst staff.2. Yes, for the reasons above. Quality of learning, motivation of attending PD, establishing
relationships with those you attending courses with or meet at the event, and money3. Again, it will depend on the course. Longer courses will by necessity involve flying, and that
seems acceptable to me.4. This survey has offered me even more facts about this interesting subject. I mostly question
the long distant flights but then feel the nearby ones have alternative options as well....I am beginning to feel we need to ground our PD transportation
5. Yes, when other options are not possible6. It cuts down on travel time, so it's difficult to say. If we have limited time away from school and
a lot of time is spent on travel, then obviously less time can be spent on PD.7. yes, but could be limited.8. Yes9. Regardless of what. How much should we cut back on travel? This is more of a value
judgement.
10. Of course it should. We are an international school in a country that doesn't offer he course we need in English. So we are required to go abroad. International schools conferences are almost always held abroad. So as long as we are working in an international school we will have to travel to PD, unless of course all the conferences are held in Denmark, but then he other schools will have to travel here and the air travel will be he same. We can obviously minimize the air travel we do by ensuring our staff attend conferences that are closer. We should not be sending people to the USA for courses. They should have to attend the courses closest to KBH.
11. I think it should continue but the school should look at how they can get more pd within europe.12. Yes, PD is a fantastic way to gain new knowledge which the school by the end benefit from.13. I think we should have a flight pass with restricted amount of flight per year. I should be more
aware of this offset practice that I don't know a lot about.14. I would reconsider this.15. No, I think we should try to arrange / find PD events that are not so far away. I find it ridiculous
to travel to the other side of the earth for a 3 day conference.16. I think it should be continued if the value of going out weighs the impact.17. No.18. Only where appropriate, but alternatives should be looked at.19. Yes, very.20. It is a catch-22. You need PD to keep pace and to improve methodology and keep developing
your teaching styles. Students are much more difficult to teach from the point of view that you have to be interesting. PD for me is essential.
21. Yes, but perhaps we could offset the carbon as we do it. PD is necessary to expand ones skills in an ever changing world of teaching. One needs to stay fresh.
22. I think to attract the high calibre of international teaching staff with experience it would be difficult to not offer international PD as often the options of virtual PD are not available and also the local or national PD is not suitable for the school (language barrier) curriculum difference. It does need to be looked into as the Carbon footprint from the travel alone is massive!
23. I think each conference or workshop should be looked at carefully and other alternatives to flying examined. Perhaps if the impact on teaching is too great taking alternative transport then flying should be allowed.
24. Yes, unless groups that schedule conferences start scheduling more of them within more convenient traveling distances. However, I think there is some waste. People are sent to the wrong conferences or sent to conferences for MYP training that could perhaps be made more relevant and effective by presentations for new staff here at school -either by bringing a trainer in for a group (instead of sending the whole group out etc.).
Question 18 - Would a regional centre for the IBO in Northern Europe be a viable solution to reduce GHG emissions from PD related travel? Why?
Answers:
1. Don't know
2. No. Not all conferences we attend are held by the IB. There will be an office in northern Europe, but it will not affect the numbers of workshops that are able to be viably run for the region.
3. YES.4. yes5. Certainly.6. There is a regional centre in Northern Europe. At the moment the Geneva offices are in the
process of moving to Holland.7. don't know8. Good idea9. not necessarily10. I'm not sure. Where about in Northern Europe will it go? How far will all the IBO schools have
to travel to get to it (including the scandinavian countries)? It would be a better solution if the IBO sent their trainers directly to the schools. This way there would be less travel if you send the presenters to the masses, rather than bring the masses to the presenters.
11. yes12. No, since I'm a nurse there are no PD within IBO that I can use directly!13. In a way yes. But this mix of culture specific to the IBO is really rich. Meeting only scandinavia
teachers (e.g for Special Educational Needs)would not be as rich as meeting with others from East and South as our northern practices tend to be quite similar.
14. If I could reach the training center by train I would support such a change.15. Of course (that must be a leading question) because then we could travel by other means that
plane.16. Yes. for the IBO related PD.17. Yes. It would make train travel possible...18. Yes. Next year the summer workshops are in Copenhagen, so as many as possible should be
encouraged to do their PD then, instead of flying off 2 months later to the US.19. Yes, when possible, but many PD opportunities are not IBO related.20. It would reduce travel time - flying time - but would continue to give us the opportunity to keep
up with changing methodology.21. Sure22. YEs definitely. Or they could tour the schools and the schools offer to host them at different
times.23. The regional office of the IB is soon to be in Amsterdam, I believe.24. yes and no. The staff attends many IBO training's, but not exclusively IBO training's. It would
be a step in the right direction though.
Question 19 - Are there any other alternatives for reducing GHG emissions from PD related travel? What?
Answers:
1. Don't know
2. We could have a policy for short trips, if it was agreed by the school that this would not reduce the chance or quantity of PD opportunities for the school.
3. Local expertise (DK, Sweden etc.) thinking twice about how many teachers should be sent where.
4. technology is the key...and flexible people who care5. I would like to know more.6. I'm not sure.7. PD at school8. Can't think of any at the moment9. online courses and video conferences.10. See above comment.11. send more people traveling together, maybe renting a car12. ?13. Miles credit per teachers. Developing more PD at school that we could prepare from CIS
teachers. We have more resource than we can imagine already at school!14. I not sure about this.15. The school could 1) make our own PD 2) cooperate with other IB schools in Denmark.16. I'm sure there are but I am not aware of them.17. offsetting carbon emissions... although this concept is new to me.18. Bring PD to CIS19. ?20. No comment.21. Don't know22. Share transport, hitch hike, erm... this is a tricky one. Maybe do exchanges and work based
PD so teachers spend longer at different schools so have the time to get there by train.23. Sorry, have to go to a meeting!24. Bringing speakers in instead of sending groups out - but then you lose the networking
possibilities.
Question 20 - The IBO encourages global interaction and collaboration; do you think this is an important part of the organisation? Why?
Answers:
1. Yes. We are meant to be educating world citizens. Interaction is vital to foster same.2. Yes. It is one of the essential elements of the program,. and with the lack of local community,
we need to look further airfield. 3. Of course. Which is why filling in this questionnaire is not easy. There are many (personal)
benefits from traveling so much ... 4. I think they need to rethink their stand on the issue and set an example for these large
corporations who also need to look at the hours their employees spend in the air.
5. It has to be. Curriculum development and workshops need face to face interaction. And the many cultural differences in play make for a more international organization. Difficult to do on Skype.
6. Yes. It is very important. Global interaction and collaboration plays a major role in learning how to be internationally-minded.
7. It is an important part of society.8. Yes9. absolutely10. Yes I think it is very important. When I'm away on Subject specific PD I learn more from the
interactions and discussions I have with other teachers than I do from the presentations. It's also vital for us to network with others because we will all move on to other international schools eventually and it's important to have these contacts who ca help guide you into a job that suits you. This is good because there are plenty of pitfalls out there for the unwary who may end up in a bad situation in another job/country because they go in blind.
11. Yes it is important, it is for future generations 12. Yes13. I think so. the IBO and CIS encourage students to be aware of /be open to international/
cultural differences when studying and living with other students. Teachers must themselves interact and experiment collaboration with teachers from different countries so they can share and spread their experience to students.
14. For me the collaboration and interactions is very important and inspiring. 15. No, because it's all so superficial anyway. As I already wrote: Meeting 3 days at the other side
of the world is just ridiculous.16. It's important that we are aware of other cultures and that teachers all over the world are
informed and up to date in the philosophy and practice of the IBO.17. Only theoretically.18. Yes. Because we shouldn't rest on our laurels, but be kept on our toes.19. Yes, very.20. We are no longer teaching in isolation - our students are global and we need to understand
and continue to learn how to reach students from all cultures. We are a global community.21. yes, it ensures we are all on the same page. We deliver the IBO program and as such we
should be doing the same things as other IBO schools22. Yes, because of the diversity in cultures with the children we teach and this would help
encourage international mindedness. It may not have to be meeting them physically.23. Yes - we are international community!24. Yes, we are educating global citizens who will have to interact and collaborate globally
Question 21 - Should the IBO focus on reducing the overall negative environmental impact of schools that are affiliated with the organisation? Why? How?
Answers:
1. Yes, of course. How is harder...
2. Yes, don’t know. 3. Announce courses earlier in advance (e.g. all courses for school year 2009/10). This will allow
schools to pick the course closest to their home country. Alternating locations as far as possible, or ensuring a better global/regional spread.
4. not sure5. Yes, it would be excellent. Already we are planning an online principle examiner workshop for
this Spring. IBO is aware of this ( also for budgetary reasons) 6. I don't know that the IB can focus on reducing the overall negative environmental impact - they
could definitely encourage it, but in the end it is the individual school's responsibility.7. No. It should be the responsibility of the schools8. Yes9. I do not think that it should be its primary concern. All facets of education must be covered. 10. I don't know if we should say they SHOULD. If it is possible and viable for them to do so and
have it be economically viable, then yes they should. HOw could they do it? I couldn't say. I'm not a business expert. I would guess that it would involve them situating-their offices and/or trainers strategically so hat they can best serve their member schools from a base/base that minimize environmental impact.
11. not sure12. Yes13. Yes, it could be a good project. They should consider this issue when organizing conferences.
The schools must remain the first actors in this process. 14. IBO should take a leading role in reduction of negative environmental impact, how I am not
sure about but as a leading educational institution they have a duty to be an actor and a model. 15. Yes, the IBO should realise that they are not better than the rest of the world and as an
educational organisation they have a bigger responsibility than everybody else.16. They should consider offsetting some of the emissions17. Yes. 18. ?19. As long as this doesn’t not limit our PD possibilities.20. No comment.21. Sure each school should take some measures to become green just as we are here22. Yes because in one of its missions or in its philosophy mentions preparing children for a
sustainable world or to live sustainably yet they contradict this.23. It is doing so by planning two exam and administrative centers, one in North America and one
in Europe, and by having regional centers24. Yes. More regional training centers might be an option. Or sending out trainers to schools.
Comments:
• This is an important area you are investigating here. I have long been wondering about the impact of the numerous trips the school is funding. Many of them are very important, but not all are indispensable. I strongly feel that we are not truly believable or environmentally committed unless we tackle this holy cow and also make our own figures re. energy use transparent. (What sort of CO2 reduction are we aiming for?)
• Commendable effort. Even this questionnaire gets us thinking! Hope you will follow up on transportation information.
• Tough questions Fintan!!! For the first questions about short- and long-haul flights, I have counted a return trip as being two flights. Hope this is okay. I counted my flights to Australia, therefore, as four long-haul flights. Also, in the question about offsetting carbon emissions, I would do this every time - but so far, I have only been able to do this in Australia. Is this even something that is offered in Europe?
• Cheers.• Globalization is part of my daily life. I am French, living in Denmark, working in an international
environment. I have to fly once every 2 months to visit my old mother in France. What would be the solution for me? Asking the TGV to be constructed between Paris and CPH would be the best. So developing the railways and reducing the cost of the train or raising flight cost would encourage me using the train more than the airplane.
• The reason I travelled so much in 2008 is because my children and I went to Australia during the summer and we also travelled by plane from place to place in Australia. Usually we/I don't fly so much.
Appendices v
Sample take from ecopassenger.com showing emission details from Copenhagen to Paris.
Sample take from ecopassenger.com showing emission details from Copenhagen to Stockholm.
Appendices vi
Verification details for travelmath.com
Verification details for travelmath.com
8 References
A £480 train ticket to Copenhagen makes it hard to care about the climate | George Monbiot | Environment | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/blog/2009/dec/11/copenhagen-cheap-flights [Accessed December 12, 2009].
About the OU : History of the OU. Available at: http://www.open.ac.uk/about/ou/p3.shtml [Accessed January 25, 2010].
Airbus (2009). Global Market Forecast 2009-2028, Airbus Industrie. Available at: http://www.airbus.com/en/corporate/gmf2009 [Accessed November 23, 2009].
Allan, J. R. (2002). The costs of birdstrikes and birdstrike prevention, Available at: http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&q=the+costs+of+birdstrikes+and+birdstrike+prevention&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0 [Accessed January 10, 2010].
Association, I.A.T.A. (2002). World air transport statistics, International Air Transport Association.
BBC News - How aircraft contrails form cloud. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8309629.stm [Accessed January 9, 2010].
Berglund, B. & Lindvall, T. (1995). Community Noise, Available at: http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&q=community+noise&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2000 [Accessed January 10, 2010].
Blandford, S. (2000). Managing professional development in schools, Routledge, UK.
Brennan, M. et al. (2005). Structure of Costs and Charges Review – Environmental Costs ofRail Transport, AEA Technology Rail.
Can you love train travel? Yes you can! | Travel | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/blog/2009/oct/22/europe-rail-guide-green [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Carpenter, T.G. (1994). The environmental impact of railways, J. Wiley.
CIA - The World Factbook -- Field Listing :: Airports. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2053.html?countryName=&countryCode=®ionCode=& [Accessed January 10, 2010].
Copenhagen International School: History. Available at: http://www.cis-edu.dk/page.cfm?p=285 [Accessed January 26, 2010].
Copenhagen International School: Mission & Philosophy. Available at: http://www.cis-edu.dk/page.cfm?p=284 [Accessed January 26, 2010].
Davenport, J. L. (2006). The ecology of transportation: managing mobility for the environment, Springer.
Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers: the challenges of lifelong learning, London: Routledge.
Day, C. & Sachs, J. (2004). International handbook on the continuing professional development of teachers, UK: Open University Press.
Eastwood, K. W. & Louis, K. S. (1992). Restructuring that lasts: managing the performance dip, Journal of school leadership. Technomic Pub. Co.
Ecopassenger.org. Available at: http://www.ecopassenger.org/ [Accessed November 21, 2009].
EEA (2000). Are we moving in the right direction? Indicators on transport and environmental integration in the EU: TERM 2000, Copenhagen, Denmark: EEA. Available at: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ENVISSUENo12 [Accessed January 10, 2010].
EEA (2001). Traffic noise: exposure and annoyance, Available at: http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/terminology/concept_html?term=decibel [Accessed January 10, 2010].
EEA (2009). Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2009 — EEA, Available at: http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2009_9 [Accessed January 6, 2010].
EU Press Releases. (2006). Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme. Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/1862 [Accessed January 9, 2010].
European Commission (2001). European transport policy for 2010: time to decide, European Commission White Paper. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/2001_white_paper_en.htm [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Commission (2008). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council - Greening Transport {SEC(2008) 2206}, European Commission. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52008DC0433:EN:HTML:NOT [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Commission (2008). Modern rail, modern Europe: Towards An Integrated European Railway Area, Transport: Publications - European commission. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/publications/index_en.htm [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Commission (2009). A sustainable future for transport: Towards an integrated, technology-led and user-friendly system, Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/2009_future_of_transport_en.htm [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Commission (2009). EU energy and transport in figures: Statistical pocketbook 2009, Transport: Publications - European commission. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/publications/index_en.htm [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Commission (2009). Transport: Statistics 2009. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/publications/statistics/statistics_en.htm [Accessed November 23, 2009].
European Travel Commission (ETC) (2010). Climate Change. Available at: http://www.etc-corporate.org/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=226 [Accessed January 17, 2010].
Germany: Statistics. International Energy Agency (IEA) (2009). Available at: http://www.iea.org/stats/countryresults.asp?COUNTRY_CODE=DE&Submit=Submit [Accessed January 17, 2010].
Gillies, W. D. (1998). Children on the Move: Third Culture Kids. Childhood Education, 75(1), 36-38. Association Childhood Education International, USA.
Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: teachers' work and culture in the postmodern age, London: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Hayden, M. & Thompson, J. (2001). International education: principles and practice, UK: Routledge.
Hayden, M., Thompson, J. & Walker, G. (2001). International Education in Practice: Dimensions for National & International Schools, London, UK: Kogan Page Limited.
History of the IB. Available at: http://www.ibo.org/history/ [Accessed November 12, 2009].
Hoyle, B.S. et al. (1998). Modern transport geography, J. Wiley.
IATA (2009). Debunking Myths: Air Transport & the Environment, he International Air Transport Association (IATA). Available at: http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/climate_change.htm [Accessed November 22, 2009].
IB World Schools. Available at: http://www.ibo.org/school/ [Accessed November 12, 2009].
International Air Transport Association (2009). Available at: http://www.iata.org/index.htm [Accessed November 11, 2009].
IPCC (1999). Aviation and the global atmosphere: a special report of IPCC Working Groups I and III in collaboration with the Scientific Assessment Panel to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (1999). Aviation and the Global Atmosphere, Cambridge University Press, UK.
James M. Haywood et al. (2009). A case study of the radiative forcing of persistent contrails evolving into contrail‐induced cirrus. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 114. Available at: http://europa.agu.org:8005/?view=article&uri=/journals/jd/jd0924/2009JD012650/2009JD012650.xml&t=2009,Haywood [Accessed January 9, 2010].
Joyce, B. R., Calhoun, E. & Hopkins, D. (1998). Models of learning: tools for teaching, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Kidd, S. (2009). Nuclear in France - what did they get right? Nuclear Engineering International. Available at: http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2053355 [Accessed January 17, 2010].
Knight, P. (2001). A systemic approach to professional development: learning as practice. ,18(3), 229-241. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VD8-44RNGP3-2&_user=8520710&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1162494421&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=f2fad076c49353b9686fc7f73f05dd58 [Accessed January 11, 2010].
Lee, D.S. et al. (2009). Atmospheric Environment: Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH3-4W3PT8V-3&_user=8520710&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F2009&_alid=1045259679&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6055&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30088&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=60e0b17c180f928d5001e48892a24173 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Lee, D.S. et al. (2009). Atmospheric Environment: Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Aviation. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH3-4WH8CDW-3&_user=8520710&_origUdi=B6VH3-4W3PT8V-3&_fmt=high&_coverDate=06%2F12%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_orig=article&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=3f67176b06892709980973fd7b1ec88b [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Metz, B., Change, I.P.O.C. & III, I.P.O.C.C.W.G. (2007). Climate change 2007: mitigation of climate change : contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
M+P Raadgevende ingenieurs (1999). Present state and future trends in transport noise in Europe, report prepared for the European Environment Agency.
Peterson, A. D. (1987). Schools Across Frontiers: The Story of the International Baccalaureate and the United World Colleges, Illinois. USA: Open Court Publishing Company.
Respondents to survey favor high-speed rail instead of air travel | San Francisco Examiner. Available at: http://www.sfexaminer.com/local/Respondents-to-survey-favor-high-speed-rail-instead-of-air-travel-41667647.html [Accessed January 26, 2010].
Schumann, U. et al. (2009). A PARAMETRIC RADIATIVE FORCING MODEL FOR CIRRUS AND CONTRAIL CIRRUS. Available at: http://www.dlr.de/pa/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-2559/3824_read-19960/ [Accessed January 9, 2010].
Sieloff, C. G. (1999). “If only HP knew what HP knows”: the roots of knowledge management at Hewlett-Packard. Journal of Knowledge Management, 3(1), 47-53. Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do?contentType=Article&hdAction=lnkpdf&contentId=883668 [Accessed January 11, 2010].
Solomon, S., Change, I.P.O.C. & I, I.P.O.C.C.W.G. (2007). Climate change (IPCC) 2007: the physical science basis : contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press.
Stansfeld, S. A. et al. (2005). Aircraft and road traffic noise and children's cognition and health: a cross-national study. The Lancet, 365(9475), 1942-1949. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T1B-4G9HNC5-11&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1161671837&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b0e29a15252ee5753524cce455916584 [Accessed January 06, 2010].
UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (2002). The Environmental Effects of Civil Aircraft in Flight, Available at: http://www.rcep.org.uk/reports/ [Accessed January 7, 2010].
Weizsaecker, V. (1994). Earth Politics, page 119. Zed Book Ltd.
Watkiss, P. et al. (2001). A Comparative Study of the Environmental Effects of Rail and Short-haul Air Travel, UK Commission for Integrated Transport. Available at: http://cfit.independent.gov.uk/pubs/2001/racomp/racomp/index.htm [Accessed January 10, 2010].
Wit, R.C.N., Dings, J.M.W., Mendes de Leon, P., Thwaites, L., Peeters, P., Greenwood, D. and Doganis, R. (2002) Economic incentives to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from air transport in Europe, CE Delft. The Netherlands.
Whitelegg, J. & Cambridge, H. M. (2004). Aviation and Sustainability. A Policy Paper., Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: http://sei-international.org/?p=publications&task=view&pid=23 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Whitelegg, J. & Haq, G. (2004). The Earthscan reader on world transport policy and practice, Earthscan.
World Health Organisation (WHO) (2000) Noise and health. WHO, Geneva.
Yan, S. C. & Liu, S. F. (2004). Case study of online workshop for the professional development of teachers. Computers in Human Behavior, 20(6), 733-761. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VDC-4BVRPMF-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1169496860&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=c77deaeedc3b6a7d8ccc58329aff9f82 [Accessed January 12, 2010].
9 Bibliography
Agency, E.E., (2007). Air pollution in Europe 1990-2004, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Agency, E.E., (2008). Climate for a transport change, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Airline's claim that flying to Asia via Helsinki vanishes into Finnair | Fred Pearce | Environment | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/oct/08/finnair-carbon-emissions [Accessed October 8, 2009].
Alexandrou, A., Field, K. & Mitchell, H. (2005). The continuing professional development of educators, Symposium Books.
All American trouble | Education | The Guardian. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2006/mar/14/schools.schoolsworldwide [Accessed November 11, 2009].
Amanatidis, G.T. (2001). European research on the atmospheric effects of aviation and the CORSAIRE project cluster. Air & Space Europe, 3(3-4), 238-240. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VT0-43VC55H-2J&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1106557742&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=6961d3e36dbe9c36c3b466fbd1a252e4 [Accessed November 23, 2009].
Austin, J., Brimblecombe, P. & Sturges, W. (2002). Air pollution science for the 21st century, Elsevier/Academic Press.
Aviation Environment. Available at: http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/climate_change.htm [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Azeiteiro, U. & Goncalves, F. (2008). Science and environmental education, Peter Lang Pub Inc.
Åkerman, J. (2005). Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment : Sustainable air transport––on track in 2050. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH8-4FB9GY5-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=03%2F01%2F2005&_alid=1045268440&_rdoc=31&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6060&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30438&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=47f0b0b27e55771bd38a9068429d82d0 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Åkerman, J. & Höjer, M. (2005). Energy Policy : How much transport can the climate stand?—Sweden on a sustainable path in 2050. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2W-4FRJKXT-2&_user=8520710&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2006&_alid=1045268440&_rdoc=11&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5713&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30438&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=a8ab45c22fd172ab6e70a5164a0fe3ad [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Banister, D. (2000). European transport policy and sustainable mobility, Taylor & Francis.
Bank, W., Development, O.F.E.C.A. & Migration, I.O.F. (2004). Trade and migration, OECD Publishing.
Barajas, M. (2003). Virtual learning environments in higher education, Edicions Universitat Barcelona.
Bishop, S. & Grayling, T. (2003). The sky's the limit: policies for sustainable aviation, Institute for Public Policy Research.
Black, W. R. (2001). Journal of Transport Geography: An unpopular essay on transportation*1. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG8-42991PW-1&_user=8520710&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1045247616&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=fa9cdaeea9a9a77541b51180ba3d33ae [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Black, W.R. & Nijkamp, P. (2002). Social change and sustainable transport, Indiana University Press.
Bleijenberg, A. & Wit, R. (1998). A European environmental aviation charge, Centre for Energy Conservation and Environmental Technology (CE).
Button, K. & Nijkamp, P. (1997). Journal of Transport Geography: Social change and sustainable transport*1. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG8-3SX4MHJ-7&_user=8520710&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1045254092&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=b4ec898550f9434c4eca12907bdd823f [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Climate & environment - Oct 14 | Energy Bulletin. Available at: http://www.energybulletin.net/node/50386 [Accessed October 14, 2009].
Colls, J. (2002). Air pollution, Taylor & Francis.
DB BAHN - TravelService - Your timetable. Available at: http://reiseauskunft.bahn.de/bin/query.exe/en?ld=212.207&seqnr=1&ident=l0.014735207.1258822225&rt=1&OK#focus [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Defra, UK - The Environment - Business & the environment - Reporting environmental impacts. Available at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/business/reporting/conversion-factors.htm [Accessed November 18, 2009].
Denstadli, J. M. (2004). Journal of Air Transport Management: Impacts of videoconferencing on business travel: the Norwegian experience. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGP-4CYNR1H-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F2004&_alid=1045297742&_rdoc=100&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6044&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=82088&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=91bd29695bcce597d6f8b9280dcfb911 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Denton, A. et al. (2008). Achieving low carbon and sustainable transport systems in Yorkshire and Humber, Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: http://sei-international.org/?p=publications&task=view&pid=1262 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Donaghy, K., Poppelreuter, S. & Rudinger, G. (2005). Social dimensions of sustainable transport, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Druckman, A. & Jackson, T. (2009). Ecological Economics: The carbon footprint of UK households 1990–2004: A socio-economically disaggregated, quasi-multi-regional input–output model. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VDY-4VP57NH-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=05%2F15%2F2009&_alid=1045292812&_rdoc=5&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5995&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=6268&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=fb67bc8f17cf3daae49b4959fae79cec [Accessed October 12, 2009].
European map of train travel times. Available at: http://www.interrailnet.com/interrail-travel-times [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Eurostar takes off as passengers switch from flight | Travel | The Observer. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/aug/09/eurostar-airlines-ryanair-ba-flights [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Feitelson, E. & Verhoef, E.T. (2002). Transport and environment, Edward Elgar Publishing.
Fiedler, K. (2007). Social communication, Psychology Press.
Filho, W.L. (2002). Teaching sustainability at universities, Peter Lang Pub Inc.
Filho, W.L., Mannke, F. & Schmidt-Thomé, P. (2007). Information, communication and education on climate change, Peter Lang Pub Inc.
FitzRoy, F. & Smith, I. (1995). Transport Policy: The demand for rail transport in European countries. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGG-3YBB0F8-2&_user=8520710&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F1995&_alid=1045305385&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6038&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=8671&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=0013504543ac19e9773d1a269e95c7c7 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Flight Distance from Copenhagen, Denmark to Maputo, Mozambique. Available at: http://www.travelmath.com/flight-distance/from/Copenhagen,+Denmark/to/Maputo,+Mozambique [Accessed November 18, 2009].
Forsyth, P. (2006). Journal of Air Transport Management: The impacts of emerging aviation trends on airport infrastructure. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGP-4MK0HMT-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2007&_alid=1045300982&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6044&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=32378&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=0a5c34575c6a1e20e8756fa3d17ad8a9 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Friends of the Earth (2009). A Dangerous Distraction: Why offsetting is Failing the Climate And people: the evidence, FOE. Available at: http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/index.shtml [Accessed November 23, 2009].
Friends of the Earth attacks carbon trading | Environment | The Guardian. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/nov/05/friends-of-the-earth-attacks-carbon-trading [Accessed November 23, 2009].
FT.com / Magazine - The Information: Most popular airline routes. Available at: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/ea790b66-e29a-11dd-b1dd-0000779fd2ac.html [Accessed January 25, 2010].
Gerger Swartling, Å. (2002). Towards Democratisation of Expertise for Sustainabiity: A Case Study of Five Initiatives in Sweden and the UK, Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: http://sei-international.org/?p=publications&task=view&pid=1094 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Golob, T. F. (2002). Transportation Research Part B: Methodological: Structural equation modeling for travel behavior research. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V99-44N3WKP-1&_user=8520710&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1045324634&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=be1b7bfe18e570aca7983b4c1c9a2d4e [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Green Eurostar. Available at: http://www.eurostar.com/UK/uk/leisure/travel_information/before_you_go/Green_Eurostar.jsp [Accessed November 18, 2009].
Green Travel. Available at: http://www.eurostar.com/UK/uk/leisure/about_eurostar/environment/tread_lightly.jsp [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Greener than flying. Available at: http://www.eurostar.com/UK/uk/leisure/about_eurostar/environment/greener_than_flying.jsp [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Groat, L. N. & Wang, D. (2002). Architectural research methods, John Wiley and Sons.
Gössling, S. & Upham, P. (2009). Climate Change and Aviation, Earthscan.
Hares, A., Dickinson, J. & Wilkes, K. (2009). Journal of Transport Geography: Climate change and the air travel decisions of UK tourists. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG8-4X0W4KB-2&_user=8520710&_coverDate=08%2F15%2F2009&_alid=1045297742&_rdoc=32&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6032&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=82088&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=61286cab42dfb2e07ff4a78ca9bf56be [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Harré, N. & Atkinson, Q.D. (2007). Carbon neutral by 2020, Craig Potton Publishing.
Haines, M. M. et al. (2001). The West London Schools Study: the effects of chronic aircraft noise exposure on child health. Psychological Medicine, 31(08). Available at: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?aid=91583 [Accessed January 11, 2010].
Hensher, D. A. (2008). Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment : Climate change, enhanced greenhouse gas emissions and passenger transport – What can we do to make a difference? Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH8-4RTKMXG1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2008&_alid=1045310761&_rdoc=5&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6060&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=148920&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=60f38190cf1a2688c4068fb9240ff92e [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Hensher, D.A. & Button, K.J. (2003). Handbook of transport and the environment, Emerald Group Publishing.
Himanen, V., Perrels, A. & Gosselin, L. M. (2008). Building Blocks for Sustainable Transport, Emerald Group Publishing.
Holden, E. (2007). Achieving sustainable mobility, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Hustler, D., et al. (2003). Teachers’ Perceptions of Continuing Professional Development, Norwich, UK: Queen’s Printer - DfES.
International Union of Railways (UIC) (2008). EcoPassenger, Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH. Available at: http://www.ifeu.org/english/index.php?bereich=ver&seite=direkt_downloads [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Jacobsen, M. (2006). A learning technology in continuing professional development, E. Mellen Press.
Janić, M. (2007). The sustainability of air transportation, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Johnson, E.A. & Mappin, M. (2005). Environmental education and advocacy, Cambridge University Press.
Kazda, A. & Caves, R. E. (2007). Airport design and operation 2nd ed., Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Liu, D.H.F. & Lipták, B.G. (2000). Air pollution, CRC Press.
Kenny, T. & Gray, N.F. (2008). Environmental Impact Assessment Review: Comparative performance of six carbon footprint models for use in Ireland. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9G-4T0NG7X-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2009&_alid=1045292812&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5898&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=6268&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=c099db04e846fd6c46c58964d015cff3 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Kenrick, D.T., Neuberg, S.L. & Cialdini, R.B. (2007). Social Psychology, Pearson Education.
Kitzes, J., et al. (2008). Ecological Economics : A research agenda for improving national Ecological Footprint accounts. Available at:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VDY-4TBHJYG1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=38ebc4fa006fead9b492fa5e92c79ef1 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Köhler, J., et al. (2009). Ecological Economics: A transitions model for sustainable mobility. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VDY-4WVX1C1-
2&_user=8520710&_coverDate=10%2F15%2F2009&_alid=1045268440&_rdoc=62&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5995&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30438&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=2a99ce72d2c181d75f944c20279b38ca [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Leal, F.W. & Mannke, F. (2009). Interdisciplinary Aspects of Climate Change, Peter Lang Pub Inc.
Li, Z. & Williams, M. (2006). Environmental and geographical education for sustainability, Nova Publishers.
Macintosh, A. & Wallace, L. (2008). Energy Policy: International aviation emissions to 2025: Can emissions be stabilised without restricting demand? Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2W-4TPWW29-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2009&_alid=1045259679&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5713&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30088&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=87184ec372f94553ae2efca646dae547 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Lindberg, J.O. & Olofsson, A.D. (2009). Online Learning Communities and Teacher Professional Development, Idea Group Inc. (IGI).
MacKay, D. J. C. (2008). David MacKay FRS: Sustainable Energy - without the hot air.University of Cambridge: UIT. Available at: http://www.withouthotair.com/download.html [Accessed January 4, 2010].
Masson, S. & Petiot, R. (2009). Technovation: Can the high speed rail reinforce tourism attractiveness? The case of the high speed rail between Perpignan (France) and Barcelona (Spain). Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8B-4WJG8HK-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2009&_alid=1045305385&_rdoc=18&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5866&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=8671&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=75584af8dd6a7452f158f9fb2c0dc757 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
McGill, I. & Beaty, L. (2001). Action learning, Routledge.
Milan, J. (1998). Transport Policy: Comparison of the quality of rail and air networks in West, Central and Eastern Europe*1. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGG-3SX1JT8-3&_user=8520710&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F1997&_alid=1045305385&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6038&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=8671&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=4c9b5dd29db06b538baed0ad3732897a [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Morán, M.A.T. & González, P del Río. (2007). Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment : Structural factors affecting land-transport CO2 emissions: A European comparison. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH8-4NDDT80-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2007&_alid=1045310761&_rdoc=6&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6060&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=148920&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=da6f2fa79951e31c408eaefecd72f6a2 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): National Weather Service. Available at: http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/fgz/science/contrail.php?wfo=fgz [Accessed January 9, 2010].
New website promotes rail travel to the slopes | Travel | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/oct/27/snowcarbon-rail-transport-skiing [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Nicolas, J. P. & David, D. (2009). Atmospheric Environment: Passenger transport and CO2 emissions: What does the French transport survey tell us? Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH3-4TS6ST0-8&_user=8520710&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2009&_alid=1045310761&_rdoc=12&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6055&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=148920&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=1f84269270c913baf754252072e8b79f [Accessed October 12, 2009].
No more guilt trips - Times Online. Available at: http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/related_reports/europe_by_train/article6925508.ece [Accessed December 22, 2009].
Pass | EuRail - Railway Maps. Available at: http://www.eurail.com/eurail-railway-map [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Pepper, I.L., Gerba, C.P. & Brusseau, M.L. (2006). Environmental & pollution science, Elsevier/Academic Press.
Plane to train: the ultra-fast route to a travel revolution | World news | The Guardian. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/aug/05/highspeed-rail-travel-uk-scnf [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Polk, M. (2003). Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment : Are women potentially more accommodating than men to a sustainable transportation system in Sweden? Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH8-47T276H-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2003&_alid=1045268440&_rdoc=99&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6060&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30438&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=ca69b02d56d58a031d2fd46d5f024b28 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Predicting Aircraft Valuation Trends. Available at: http://www.skyworkscapital.com/pointofview/predicting_article.php [Accessed January 6, 2010].
Rejseplanen. Available at: http://euspirit.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en?L=vs_dsb&seqnr=1&ident=jh.01083140.1258818407&ml=m&OK#focus [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Responsible Travel has ditched offsetting flights and holidays for environmental reasons | Justin Francis | Environment | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/oct/16/responsible-travel-offsetting [Accessed November 23, 2009].
Roth, A. & Kåberger, T. (2002). Journal of Cleaner Production : Making transport systems sustainable. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VFX-44J6DN2-3&_user=8520710&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2002&_alid=1045268440&_rdoc=19&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6022&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30438&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=c2006c12e3b67d9744642046194cd2b7 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Sausen, R. et al. (2005). Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on IPCC (1999). Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 14(4), 555-561. Available at: http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?q=Aviation+radiative+forcing+in+2000%3A+an+update+on+IPCC+%281999%29&hl=en&btnG=Search&as_sdt=2001&as_sdtp=on [Accessed January 07, 2010].
Schipper, Y. (2003). Transport Policy : Environmental costs in European aviation. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGG-4B1XSDF-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2004&_alid=1045259679&_rdoc=62&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=6038&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=30088&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=c42752603f71f6ed0cb7c3cd6fae2b25 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Scholl, L., Schipper, L. & Kiang, N. (1996). Energy Policy: CO2 emissions from passenger transport : : A comparison of international trends from 1973 to 1992. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V2W-3VV734R-4&_user=8520710&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F1996&_alid=1045310761&_rdoc=10&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5713&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=148920&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=83f297dff34c321522fa4c7b9d947fc8 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Selby, D. & Kagawa, F. (2009). Education and Climate Change, Taylor and Francis.
Steg, L. & Gifford, R. (2004). Journal of Transport Geography: Sustainable transportation and quality of life. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VG8-4F3NXWF-3&_user=8520710&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1045250449&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=799f09fab85067965c2e94b3b3cd4caa [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Strack, F. & Förster, J., (2009). Social Cognition, Psychology Press.
Sullivan, B.A., Snyder, M. & Sullivan, J.L. (2008). Cooperation, Blackwell Publications.
Tengström, E. (1999). Towards environmental sustainability?, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
The age of the train: myth or reality? | Travel | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/blog/2009/oct/21/train-travel-myth-reality [Accessed November 22, 2009].
The high-speed train route to Europe | Travel | The Observer. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2009/sep/20/city-break-rail-zurich [Accessed November 21, 2009].
The impact of air travel on our climate. Available at: https://www.atmosfair.de/index.php?id=6&L=3 [Accessed November 21, 2009].
The Man in Seat Sixty-One... Available at: http://www.seat61.com/ [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Timetable. Available at: http://www.citynightline.ch/nachtzugreise/view/en/reiseinformationen/fahrplan_en.shtml [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Train travel in Europe is about to change for the better - Times Online. Available at: http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/related_reports/europe_by_train/article6925633.ece [Accessed December 22, 2009].
Train travel information for Denmark | Explore the country with a Eurail Rail Pass. Available at: http://www.eurail.com/eurail-railway-denmark [Accessed November 21, 2009].
Train versus plane - Times Online. Available at: http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/related_reports/europe_by_train/article6925464.ece [Accessed December 22, 2009].
TRX Airline Carbon Emissions Calculator. Available at: http://carbon.trx.com/Home.asp [Accessed January 25, 2010].
UK carbon offsetting schemes 'failing to reduce emissions' | Environment | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/jun/02/carbon-offset-friends-of-the-earth [Accessed November 23, 2009].
United Nations (UN) (2008). TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT : ENERGY CONSUMPTION (UTILIZATION) AND EMISSIONS, UN. Available at: http://documents.un.org/mother.asp [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Ureña, J. M., Menerault, P. & Garmendia, M. (2009). Cities: The high-speed rail challenge for big intermediate cities: A national, regional and local perspective. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V9W-4X3VM21-1&_user=8520710&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F2009&_alid=1045305385&_rdoc=11&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_cdi=5909&_sort=r&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=8671&_acct=C000011018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=8520710&md5=cb8b8dd504ca4d8b3130ab5970942403 [Accessed October 12, 2009]. WATS Sample - Scheduled Passengers Carried. Available at: http://www.iata.org/ps/publications/wats-passenger-km.htm [Accessed November 11, 2009].
Which country has the most high speed train lines? | World news | guardian.co.uk. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2009/aug/05/rail-transport-transport [Accessed November 22, 2009].
Whitelegg, J. (1993). Transport for a Sustainable Future, J. Wiley.
Woolfolk, A.E., Hughes, M. & Walkup, V. (2008). Psychology in education, Pearson Education.
WWF-UK / SEI (2008). The Right Climate for Change. Using the carbon footprint to reduce CO2 emissions., Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: http://sei-international.org/?p=publications&task=view&pid=807 [Accessed October 12, 2009].
Recommended
