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Page 1: Chola Dynasty

Chola dynasty 1

Chola dynasty

Chola Empireசோழ பேரரசு

300sBC–1279 →

Capital Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur,Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai,ThanjavurGangaikonda Cholapuram

Language(s) Tamil

Religion Hinduism

Government Monarchy

King

- 848–871 Vijayalaya Chola

- 1246–1279 Rajendra Chola III

Historical era Middle Ages

- Established 300s BC

- Rise of the medieval Cholas 848

- Disestablished 1279

Today part of  India  Sri Lanka  Bangladesh  Malaysia  Indonesia  Singapore  Maldives

List of Chola kings

Early Cholas

Elara Chola  ·   235 BC – 161 BC

Ilamcetcenni  ·   Karikala Chola

Nedunkilli  ·

Killivalavan  ·   Kopperuncholan

Kocengannan  ·   Perunarkilli

Interregnum (c.200–848)

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Medieval Cholas

Vijayalaya Chola 848–871(?)

Aditya I 871–907

Parantaka Chola I 907–950

Gandaraditya 950–957

Arinjaya Chola 956–957

Sundara Chola 957–970

Uttama Chola 970–985

Rajaraja Chola I 985–1014

Rajendra Chola I 1012–1044

Rajadhiraja Chola 1018–1054

Rajendra Chola II 1051–1063

Virarajendra Chola 1063–1070

Athirajendra Chola 1067–1070

Later Cholas

Kulothunga Chola I 1070–1120

Vikrama Chola 1118–1135

Kulothunga Chola II 1133–1150

Rajaraja Chola II 1146–1173

Rajadhiraja Chola II 1166–1178

Kulothunga Chola III 1178–1218

Rajaraja Chola III 1216–1256

Rajendra Chola III 1246–1279

Chola society

Chola government

Chola military  ·   Chola Navy

Chola art  ·   Chola literature

Solesvara Temples

Poompuhar  ·   Uraiyur

Melakadambur

Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Thanjavur  ·   Telugu Cholas

[1]

Chola dynasty (Tamil pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling dynasties insouthern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC leftby Asoka, of Maurya Empire; as one of the Three Crowned Kings, the dynasty continued to govern over varyingterritory until the 13th century AD.

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The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at theheight of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century.[2] The wholecountry south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.[3] UnderRajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in SouthAsia and South-east Asia.[4][5] The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the celebratedexpedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval warof the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[6]

During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as farnorth as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[7] Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India,annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives.[5] Rajendra Chola sent a victoriousexpedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He alsosuccessfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.[8][9] The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginningof the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall.[10][11][12]

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples has resulted insome great works of Tamil literature and architecture.[5] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned thetemples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.[13][14] Theypioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.

Origins

South India in BC 300, showing the Chera,Pandya and Chola Kingdoms

There is very little information available regarding the origin of theChola Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from thementions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medievalCholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage to their dynasty.Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)[15] indicate thatthe earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, theannotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could bethe name of an ancient king.

The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas,the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity.[16] Theannotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of people with ancient

lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". Othernames in common use for the Cholas are Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்) and Sembiyan (செம்பியன்). Killiperhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of theland. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almostdrops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam' (வளம்) – fertility and meansowner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary herowhose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and formsthe subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism.[17] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhior Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.[18] Sora or Chozha in Tamilbecomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda in Telugu.[19]

On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.[20] There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus

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Maris Erythraei).[21] Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian(81–96) and contains very little information of the Chola country.[22] Writing half a century later, the geographerPtolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities.[23] Mahavamsa, a Buddhist textwritten down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon andCholas in the 1st century BCE.[24] Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE)inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendlyterms with him.[25][26][27]

HistoryThe history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum betweenthe fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty ofVijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.[28]

Early CholasThe earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholarsgenerally agree that this literature belongs to the second or first few centuries of the common era.[15] The internalchronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the periodcannot be derived. The Sangam literature records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets whoextolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked intoconnected history.[29]

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in SriLanka showing the Tiger emblem of the

Cholas.In Grantha Tamil.[30][31]

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Cholakings.[32][33][34][35] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, asupposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion broughtthe river Kaveri into existence.[36][37]

Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kingsknown to have existed, who feature in Sangam literature: KarikalaChola[38][39][40] and Kocengannan.[41] There is no sure means ofsettling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with oneanother and with many other princelings of about the sameperiod.[42][43] Urayur (now in/part-of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest

capital.[34] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital.[44] The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamiladventurer, a Chola prince known as Elara, invaded the island around 235 BCE and that King Gajabahu visitedChera Cenguttuvan around 108 CE.[34][45]

InterregnumThere is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age(c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country.[46] An obscure dynasty, theKalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around threecenturies.[47][48][49] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.[39][50] Little is known ofthe fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter ofthe 9th century.[51]

Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that came over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. What is certain is that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[40][52] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[4][53] The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the

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neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavasaccepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation.[54] Numerous inscriptions ofPallavas of this period mention their having fought rulers of 'the Chola country'.[55][56] Despite this loss in influenceand power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya,when he rose to prominence hailed from this geographical area.[57][58]

Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[57] These Telugu Cholas (orChodas) traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to theearly Cholas.[59] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas toestablish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.[60] The Chinesepilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya',in an apparent reference to the Telugu Chodas.[51][52][61]

Medieval Cholas

Detail of the statue of Rajaraja Chola atBrihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.

While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during theperiod between the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is anabundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and theLater Chola dynasties. A large number of stone inscriptions by theCholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and Chalukyas,and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing thehistory of Cholas of that period.[62][63] Around 850, Vijayalaya rosefrom obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict betweenPandyas and Pallavas,[64] captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar andeventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas.[65][66]

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power duringthe medieval period.[3] Through their leadership and vision, kings suchas the second Chola King Aditya I who caused the demise of thePallavas, defeated the Pandyas of Madurai and occupied very largeparts of the Kannada country and had marital ties with the Gangas, wayback in 885 AD, his son Parantaka I, who conquered Sri Lanka known

as Ilangai way back in 925 AD, Sundara Chola, also known as Parantaka Chola II who regained territories from theRashtrakutas and expanded the Chola dominions up to Bhatkal in Kannada country, Rajaraja Chola I and RajendraChola I extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom.[4][5] At its peak, the CholaEmpire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna basin in the north, up to theKonkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast in addition to Lakshadweep, Maldives and vast areas of Cheracountry. The kingdoms of Deccan and the eastern coast were subordinates, feudatories of the Cholas or otherkingdoms like the Chalukyas between 1000–1075 AD paid tribute to the Cholas.[67] Rajendra Chola I completed theconquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V prisoner, in addition to his conquests ofRattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, Kolar (where the

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Portrait of Rajaraja Chola and his guru Karuvurarat Brihadeeswarar Temple

Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue) in Kannada country .[68]

According to Tamil historian K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, in additionRajendra's territories included the area falling on theGanges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, large parts of Burma, Thailand,Indo-China Laos, Kambodia, the Malay peninsula and [69] Thekingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Gangesacknowledged Chola suzerainty.[7] Chola navies invaded andconquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[8][9][70]

The Western Chalukyas under Satyasraya and Somesvara I tried towriggle out of Chola domination from time to time, primarily due tothe Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.[6] The Western Chalukyasmounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperorsin war and except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories between1118–1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successiveChola emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various placesin many wars. Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas inthe western Deccan by routing them in war constantly and levyingtribute on them.[71] It is also pertinent to note that even under the not so

strong emperors of the Cholas like Kulothunga I, Vikrama Chola etc. the wars against the Chalukyas were mainlyfought in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi, Kakinada or Anantapur or Gutti. Inany case, in the internecine wars among the small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas orKalachuris, the Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms steadily increasing their stockand ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Kalachuris and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sendingthem into oblivion.[72] With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas underVishnuvardhana where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudraaround AD 1149, and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around1150–1151 AD, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve[73] due to incompetency of its rulers after1126 AD.

The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III even collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aidingHoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and sounded the death-knell of the WesternChalukyas in a series of wars with Somesvara IV between 1185–1190 AD, the last Chalukya king whose territoriesdid not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the finaldissolution of Chalukyan power[74] though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. In contrast, theCholas would be stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the Pandiyan empire and ceasing to exist by1280 AD.[75]

On the other hand, throughout the period from 1150–1280 AD, the staunchest opponents of the Cholas were Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories. This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. The Cholas also fought regular wars with the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga, protected Vengi though it remained largely independent under Chola control, and had domination of the entire eastern coast with their feudatories the Telugu Chodas, Velananti Cholas, Renandu Cholas etc. who also always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms and fought constantly with the Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, but till the time of the Later Chola king Kulottunga I the Cholas had firm control over Lanka. In fact, a Later Chola king Rajadhiraja Chola II was strong enough to prevail over a confederation of five Pandya princes who were aided by their traditional friend, the king of Lanka, this once again gave control of Lanka to the Cholas despite the fact that they were not strong under the resolute Rajadhiraja Chola II. However, Rajadhiraja Chola II's successor, the last great Chola

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monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Cholas by quelling rebellion and disturbances in Lanka andMadurai, defeated Hoysala generals under Veera Ballala II in Karuvur, in addition to holding on to his traditionalterritories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi and Kalinga. After this, he entered into amarital alliance with Veera Ballala II (with Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess) and his relationship with Hoysalasseems to have become friendlier.[76][77][78][79]

Later Cholas (1070–1279 AD)

Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c.1120

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas beganduring the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.[80]

Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya.[81]

Rajendra Chola's daughter was also married to an eastern Chalukyaprince Rajaraja Narendra.[82]

Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civildisturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of RajarajaNarendra, ascended the Chola throne starting the Later Choladynasty.[72][82][83]

The Later Chola dynasty saw capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I, hisson Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II,Rajadhiraja Chola II and the great Kulothunga Chola III, whoconquered Kalinga, Ilam and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218 AD, starting with RajarajaChola II to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850–1215 AD.Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to theHoysalas. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of kingVikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province ofVengi by defeating Chalukya Somesvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola Empire,though not as strong as between 850–1150, was still largely territorially intact under Raja Raja Chola II (1146–1175AD) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, thechariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. This temple is part ofthe World Heritage Sites trinity of the Great Living Chola Temples, along with the Brihadeeswarar Temples ofThanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by his predecessors Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I,respectively. Chola administration and territorial integrity till the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and veryprosperous up to 1215 AD, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat byMaravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16 AD.[84] Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island ofLanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyas as the most powerful rulers in SouthIndia, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number ofclaimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy.Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa aswell as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.[85][86]

The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime.[87][88] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris who were occupying Chalukya capital for those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who

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had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. Thiscontinued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[84][89]

The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas fromMalanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of the Cholas from Tamil country and subsequently causing thedemise of the Cholas themselves in AD 1279. They first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well asterritories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his ablesuccessor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas underRajaraja Chola III, his successor Rajendra Chola III and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha[84]

Rajendra III tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava Pallavas and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter theconstantly rising power of the Pandyans who were the major players in the Tamil country from AD 1215 and hadintelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu and Kanniyakumari belt, and hadbeen steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as wellas in the Kaveri Delta i.e. Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the wayup to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250 AD.The Pandyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas.[11] They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, who hadbeen overestimating their power by interfering in the politics of Tamil country by routing them under JatavarmanSundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam and chased them back to the Mysore plateau and stopped the war onlythereafter.[12] At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken theplace of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers.[90] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279.There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince.[91][92] The Hoysalas wererouted from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperorRajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was completelyovershadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity and ceased to exist by the end of the 13thcentury.[88][92]

Government and society

Chola countryAccording to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-dayTiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottaidistrict, Pichavaram Taluk and the Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District in Karaikal. The riverKaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea,unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in theculture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which thewhole nation took part.Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.[34] Ptolemy knew of this and theother port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas.[23] These two towns became hubs oftrade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[93] Roman ships found their way intothese ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveridelta.[94][95]

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.[34] After RajendraChola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.[96] The later Chola kingsmoved around their capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram theirregional capitals.

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Nature of governmentIn the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time, brought under a single government,[97]

when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system ofgovernment was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.[39] However, there was little in common between the localchiefdoms of the earlier time and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors.[98]

Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south Indian peninsula, extending east to westfrom coast to coast, and bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengifrontier.[4][7] Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to the Chola Empire and,for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to the banks of the Godavari river.[99]

Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals.[100] However both Kanchipuram andMadurai were considered to be regional capitals, in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supremecommander and a benevolent dictator.[101] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsibleofficers when representations were made to him.[102] A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks ofadministration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modernsense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma—a sense offairness and justice.The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth.[13][103] The temples acted not only as places ofworship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community.[13][104]

Local governmentEvery village was a self-governing unit.[105] A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram,Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area.[105][106][106][107] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.[108] Thesestructures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.[109]

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level.[107]

Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitableendowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such astreason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution orthe confiscation of property.[110]

Foreign trade

This is the Anchor of an Unknown LOLA class Chola ship,excavated by the Indian Navy divers off the coast of Poombuhar.

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritimeactivity, extending their influence overseas to Chinaand Southeast Asia.[111] Towards the end of the 9thcentury, southern India had developed extensivemaritime and commercial activity.[112][113] The Cholas,being in possession of parts of both the west and theeast coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront ofthese ventures.[114][115][116] The Tang dynasty ofChina, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelagounder the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat atBaghdad were the main trading partners.[117]

Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassyfrom Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the

year 1077,[118][119][120] and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[121] It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was

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highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes,including glass articles, and spices'.[122]

A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa TisaiyayirattuAinnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchantguild in the Chola country.[113] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas tradeduring the Chola period.[119]

Chola societyThere is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign.[123] The stability inthe core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instanceof civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign.[124] However, there were reports of widespread faminecaused by natural calamities.[125][126]

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education in the society. The text inthese inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sensewas not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organisedschools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,[127] although there is no evidence of systematiceducational system for the masses.[128] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the fatherpassed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha orgatika) were centres of learning and received government support.[129][130][131]

Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of theThanjavur Temple

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellencein art, religion and literature.[132] In all of these spheres, the Cholaperiod marked the culmination of movements that had begun in anearlier age under the Pallavas.[133][134] Monumental architecture in theform of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached afinesse never before achieved in India.[135]

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and theircontinued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled themto influence the local cultures.[136] Many of the surviving examples ofthe Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asiaowe much to the legacy of the Cholas.[137][138]

Art

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallavadynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian templedesign.[139] They built a number of Siva temples along the banks of theriver Kaveri. These temples were not on a large scale until the end ofthe 10th century.[133][140][141]

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With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detailand richly sculpted walls, the Airavateswaratemple at Darasuram is a classic example of

Chola art and architecture

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and thegenius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[142] Thematurity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolvedfound expression in the two temples of Thanjavur andGangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur,completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the materialachievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of allIndian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indianarchitecture.[80][143]

The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram,the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel itspredecessor.[144][145] Completed around 1030, only two decades afterthe temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaborationin its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empireunder Rajendra.[139][146]

The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple ofGangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram and theAiravatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World HeritageSites by the UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great living Chola

temples.[147]

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[148][149][150] Among the existing specimens inmuseums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in variousforms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Saivaite saints.[139] Though conforming generally to theiconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Natarajathe Divine Dancer.[151][152]

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Chola bronze from the Ulster Museum

Literature

The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200) was the golden age ofTamil culture, marked by the importance of literature.[5] Cholainscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have been lost.[153]

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurredthe construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saivaand Vaishnava devotional literature.[154] Jain and Buddhist authorsflourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previouscenturies.[155] Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani byTolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors.[156][157][158] Theart of Tirutakkatevar is marked by all the qualities of great poetry.[159]

It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpieceRamavataram.[160]

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III.[161] HisRamavatharam (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a great epicin Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followedValmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not asimple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic: Kamban importsinto his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; hisdescription of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.[158][162][163]

Jayamkondar's masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary betweenhistory and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I's war in Kalinga and depictsnot only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field.[163][164][165] The famous Tamilpoet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga'ssuccessors.[160][163][164][166] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Cholaking.[167]

The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola period and the arrangement of theSaiva canon into 11 books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10th century.[168][169]

However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the later Chola period, possibly because of theapparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Later Chola monarchs.[170]

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Religion

Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at theMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout theirhistory, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism aswere the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the earlyCholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith. There isevidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola's faith in Saivism in theTamil country.[171] Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebratedin both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint.[41]

While the Cholas did build their largest and most important templededicated to Lord Shiva, it can be by no means concluded that eitherthey were staunch Saivites or followers of Saivism only or that theywere not favourably disposed to other faiths. This is borne out by thefact that the second Chola king Aditya I himself built quite a fewtemples for Siva and for Lord Vishnu. In AD 890, his inscriptions speak of his contributions to the construction ofthe Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam (now in Mandya district of Karnataka) in the country of Western Gangaswho were both his feudatories and had marital relations with him. During the time of Aditya I (871–903 AD) theGangas of Kannada country had recognized his superiority which he acknowledged by marrying into that family andmaking grant contributions to the construction of the Sri Ranganatha temple at modern Srirangapatnam. Aditya Iregularly gave many endowments to the Sri Ranganatha Temple at Srirangam around AD 896 and issued aninscriptional dictat pronouncing that the great temples of Siva and the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam to be the'Kuladhanam' of the Chola emperors.[172]

The Prambanan temple complex, built by Sanjayadynasty.

It was Aditya I's dictat which was faithfully carried out by hisillustrious son Parantaka I and his successors wherein it was declaredin edicts that the Siva Temple of Chidambaram (at that time the grandSiva temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram were not inexistence) and the Sri Ranganatha Swami temple of Srirangam werethe 'Kuladhanams', i.e., tutelary (deities) treasures of the Cholaemperors. This dictat was repeated around 300 years back when thelast great Chola King, Kulothunga III, the builder of the greatSarabeswarar Temple at Tribhuvanam on the outskirts ofKumbakonam, hails Lord Ranganatha at Srirangam in an inscription inthe Srirangam Koil, as his 'tutelary deity'. As per findings of Dr.Hultzsch, the great epigraphist, in this inscription acknowledgment is

made to the earlier great Chola king Parantaka about declaring the Chidambaram (Siva) Koil and the Srirangam(Vishnu) Koil as 'Kuladhanams' of the Cholas – a pointer to the fact that the Cholas were secular and patronizedequally all religions and sub-sects within the same religion. Another proof of this is the existence of as many as 40Vaishnava Divyadesams out of 108 such temples in the Chola country, which are functioning and flourishing eventoday.

Chola king Sundara (Parantaka II) was a staunch devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil in the banks of Cauvery on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments, and prayed before him by keeping his sword before the deity, beforeo his proceeding for war for regaining the territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka).[173] Parantaka I and Sundara Chola endowed and built temples for Siva and Vishnu.[174]

Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara (a Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya Sailendra king.[33][175][176][177] While it is true that the

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biggest and grandest temples of the Cholas were dedicated to Lord Siva, all Chola kings especially from Aditya toRajendra IV built great temples for Lord Vishnu and gave numerous grants and gifts to them.During the period of Later Cholas, there were supposedly instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites,[178]

especially towards Ramanuja, the acharya of the Vaishnavites.[179] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Saivite, is said tohave removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram, though there are no epigraphical evidencesto support this theory. There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples who had socialintercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. However, this is more of a direction to the Saivitecommunity by its religious heads than any kind of dictat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built their largesttemples for Siva and even while emperors like Raja Raja Chola I held titles like 'Sivapadasekharan', in none of theirinscriptions did the Chola emperors proclaim that their clan only and solely followed Saivism or that Saivism wasthe state religion during their rule.[180][181][182]

In popular culture

Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11thCentury.

The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors toproduce literary and artistic creations during the last severaldecades.[183] These works of popular literature have helped continuethe memory of the great Cholas in the minds of the Tamil people. Themost important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (Theson of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by KalkiKrishnamurthy.[184] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story ofRajaraja Chola.[185] Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading upto the ascension of Uttama Chola to the Chola throne. Kalki hadutilised the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after thedemise of Sundara Chola.[186] This book was serialised in the Tamilperiodical Kalki during the mid 1950s.[187] The serialisation lasted fornearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with greatinterest.[188]

Akilan's Vegaiyin Maindhan, a novel narrating the events surroundingthe capture of Lankan King, Mahinda V and the building ofGangaikonda Cholapuram by Rajendra Chola I won the sahityaAkademi award for the year 1963.Kalki's earlier historical romance Parthiban Kanavu deals with the fortunes of an imaginary Chola prince Vikraman,who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. Theperiod of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Chola in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola revivedtheir fortunes.[185] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.

Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weeklyKumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, afterhe was denied the throne. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan'searlier work Yavana Rani written in the early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola.[189] More recently,Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of theBrihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[190]

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Shivaji Ganesanacted in a screen adaptation of a play titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the Worldboard game, produced by Avalon Hill.

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Notes[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:Chola[2] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 5[3] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 157[4][4] Kulke and Rothermund, p 115[5][5] Keay, p 215[6] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158[7][7] Majumdar, p 407[8] The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama

Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 211–220[9][9] Meyer, p 73[10] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 192[11] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 195[12] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 196[13] Vasudevan, pp 20–22[14] Keay, pp 217–218[15] The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by

ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 106[16] name=tirukkural>Tirukkural poem 955[17] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 19–20[18] Archaeological News A. L. Frothingham, Jr. The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar.,

1888), pp. 69–125[19] "The name Coromandel is used for the east coast of India from Cape Comorin to Nellore, or from point Calimere to the mouth of Krishna.

The word is a corrupt form of Choramandala or the Realm of Chora, which is the Tamil form of the title of the Chola dynasty". – Gupta AN,p 182

[20] The period covered by the Sangam poetry is likely to extend not longer than five or six generations – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 3[21] The Periplus refers to the region of the eastern seaboard of South India as Damirica – The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (http:/ / www.

fordham. edu/ halsall/ ancient/ periplus. html) (Ancient History source book).[22] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 23[23] Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form Khaberis) – Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (1978), vol. 122,

No. 6, p 414[24] Mahavamsa eText – http:/ / lakdiva. org/ mahavamsa/[25] The Asokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in plural, implying that, in his time, there were more than one Chola – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri,

The CōĻas, p 20. However, this analogy is doubtful because the same inscription, all the kings either friendly or subordinate to the MauryanEmpire have been referred to in plural for eg. subordinates like the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, thePitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas or friendly empires have been called 'Cholas' and 'Pandyas' (and as far as Tamraparani or modern SriLanka – significantly the word 'Tamraparani' does not clearly mean territory ruled by one or more kings. It is indeed a known fact that formost of their history though, the Pandyas ruled their dominions with members of the same family dividing their empire into various parts andcontrolling various aspects of administration of their territories. The Cholas too followed the same practice with sons of the Chola emperorscontrolling various parts or aspects of their territories or administration along with their relatives or allies who bore the common title 'Chola'.This knowledge about the friendly empires of both 'Pandyas' and 'Cholas' must have prompted Ashoka to refer to them thus. Link: http:/ /www. cs. colostate. edu/ ~malaiya/ ashoka. html

[26] The Edicts of Ashoka, issued around 250 BCE by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, mention the Cholas as recipients of his Buddhistproselytism: "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where theGreek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the southamong the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)". S. Dhammika, The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering (http:// www. cs. colostate. edu/ ~malaiya/ ashoka. html)

[27][27] Smith, p viii[28] The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to an end with the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son

Athirajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 170–172[29] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 19–20, pp 104–106[30] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 18[31] Chopra et al., p 31[32] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 104–116[33] South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 3[34][34] Tripathi, p 457[35] Manimekalai (poem 00-10)[36] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 67

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[37][37] Manimekalai (poem 22-030)[38][38] Majumdar, p 137[39][39] Kulke and Rothermund, p 104[40][40] Tripathi, p 458[41] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 116[42] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 105–106[43] The only evidence for the approximate period of these early kings is the Sangam Literature and the synchronization with the history of Sri

Lanka as given in the Mahavamsa. Gajabahu I who is said to be the contemporary of the Chera Senguttuvan is determined to belong to the 2ndcentury. This leads us to date the poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries to belong to this period.

[44] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 113[45] Gnanaprakasar, Nallur Swami. "Beginnings of tamil rule in ceylon" (http:/ / www. lankalibrary. com/ geo/ ancient/ tamil rule. htm).

lankalibrary.com. . Retrieved 2006-12-05.[46] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 130[47] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 135, 137[48] Majumdar, Ancient India. p 139[49][49] Thapar, p 268[50] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 135[51] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 133. Quote:"The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this

debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the period in Rayalaseema – the Telugu-Chodas, whose kingdom ismentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century A.D

[52] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 102[53] Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king – Nilakanta Sastri,

The CōĻas, p 102[54] Periyapuranam, a Saiva religious work of 12th century tells us of the Pandya king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola

princess. Chopra et al., p 95[55] Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman(late 4th century) mention that the king as the 'underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of

the Chola army'. – Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 104–105[56] Simhavishnu (575–600) is also stated to have seized the Chola country. Mahendravarman I was called the 'crown of the Chola country' in

his inscriptions.[57] Chopra et al., p 95[58][58] Tripathi, p459[59] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 4. Quote:"it is not known what relation, if any, the Telugu-Chodas of the Renadu country

in the Ceded District, bore to their namesakes of the Tamil land, though they claimed descent from Karikala, the most celebrated of the earlyChola monarchs of the Sangam age"

[60] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country.The northward migration probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri also categorically rejects the claims thatthese were the descendants of Karikala Chola – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 107

[61] Tripathi, pp 458–459[62] The Chola inscriptions followed the practice of prefacing the intended text with a historical recounting, in a poetic and ornate style of Tamil,

of the main achievements of the reign and the descent of the king and of his ancestors – South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 2[63] Chopra et al., p 102[64] The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga Pritvipati and the Pandya

Varaguna. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158[65] Vijayalaya invaded Thanjavur and defeated the Muttarayar king, feudatory of the Pandyas. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India,

p 158[66] Kulke and Rothermund, pp 122–123[67] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Advanced History of India (1955), pp. 174[68] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Advanced History of India (1955), pp. 191[69] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri,The Colas,pp 194–210[70] Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat – The Archaeology, History and Legends of a Southern Thai Town, p 18, ISBN 974-7534-73-8[71] Chopra et al., pp 107–109[72] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India[73][73] 'A History of South India', K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (2003), p.184[74] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 180[75] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.179[76][76] "Kulottunga fought successful wars against the Cheras and Hoysala Ballala II and performed Vijayabhisheka at Karuvur in A.D.1193." K.

A. Nilakanta Sastri,'Advanced History of India', p.295[77] "After the second Pandya War, Kulottunga undertook a campaign to check to the growth of Hoysala power in that quarter. He re-established

Chola suzerainty over the Adigaimans of Tagadur, defeated a Chera ruler in battle and performed a vijayabhisheka in Karuvur (1193). His

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relations with the Hoysala Ballala II seem to have become friendly afterwards, for Ballala married a Chola princess". K. A. Nilakanta Sastri,'A History of South India', p. 178

[78] Chopra et al., p 107[79] Chopra et al., p 109[80][80] Keay, p 216[81][81] Majumdar, p 405[82] Chopra et al., p 120[83][83] Majumdar, p 372[84][84] Tripathi, p 471[85] South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 12[86] Chopra et al., pp 128–129[87] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 194[88][88] Tripathi, p 472[89][89] Majumdar, p 410[90][90] Tripathi, p 485[91] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 197[92] Chopra et al., p 130[93] The Buddhist work Milinda Panha dated to the early Christian era, mentions Kolapttna among the best-known sea ports on the Chola coast.

Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 23[94] Nagaswamy, Tamil Coins – a study (http:/ / tamilartsacademy. com/ books/ coins/ cover. html)[95] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 107[96] Chopra et al., p 106[97] The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence was during the Vijayanagara

Empire (1336–1614)[98][98] Stein, p 26[99] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 448[100] "Thanjavur" (http:/ / www. thanjavur. tn. nic. in/ default. htm). .[101] There were no legislature or controls on the executive. The king ruled by edicts, which generally followed dharma a culturally mediated

concept of 'fair and proper' practice. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 451, 460–461[102] For example, Rajaraja is mentioned in the Layden copperplate grant to have issued an oral order for a gift to a Buddhist vihara at

Nagapattinam, and his orders were written out by a clerk – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 461[103][103] Keay, p 218[104] Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the

settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. – Keay, pp217–218

[105] Tripathi, pp 474–475[106][106] Stein, p 20[107] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 185[108] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 150[109] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 465[110] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 477[111] Kulke and Rothermund, pp 116–117[112][112] Kulke and Rothermund, p 12[113][113] Kulke and Rothermund, p 118[114][114] Kulke and Rothermund, p 124[115][115] Tripathi, p 465[116][116] Tripathi, p 477[117] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 604[118][118] Keay, p 223[119][119] Kulke and Rothermund, p 117[120][120] See Thapar, p xv[121] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 316[122] The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros horns, ivory, rose water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves,

etc. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 173[123] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 284[124] —during the short reign of Virarajendra Chola, which possibly had some sectarian roots.[125] Chopra et al., p 125[126] Chopra et al., p 129[127][127] Scharfe, p 180

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[128] 17th century Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (1623) has given a vivid account of the village schools in South India. These accountsreflect the system of primary education in existence until the morder times in Tamil Nadu

[129] Rajendra Chola I endowed a large college in which more than 280 students learnt from 14 teachers – K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History ofSouth India, p 293

[130] The students studied a number of subjects in these colleges, including philosophy (anvikshiki), Vedas (trayi – the threefold Vedas ofRigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda. The fourth Atharvaveda was considered a non-religious text.), economics (vartta), government(dandaniti), grammar, prosody, etymology, astronomy, logic (tarka), medicine (ayurveda), politics (arthasastra) and music. – K.A. NilakantaSastri, A History of South India, p 292

[131] Scharfe, pp 172–173[132][132] Mitter, p 2[133] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 418[134][134] Keay, p 174[135][135] It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen excelled, producing images rivalling the best anywhere. Thapar, p 403[136][136] Kulke and Rothermund, p 159[137] The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. K.A. Nilakanta

Sastri, The CōĻas, p 709[138] Kulke and Rothermund, pp 159–160[139][139] Tripathi, p 479[140][140] Harle, p 295[141][141] Mitter, p 57[142] Vasudevan, pp 21–24[143] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 421[144] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p423[145][145] Keay, p221[146] Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram[147] "Great Living Chola Temples" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 250). UNESCO. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.[148] Chopra et al., p 186[149][149] Mitter, p 163[150] Thapar, pp 309–310[151][151] Wolpert, p174[152][152] By common consent, the finest Cola masterpieces are the bronze images of Siva Nataraja. Mitter, p 59[153] , including Rajarajesvara Natakam- a work on drama, Viranukkaviyam by one Virasola Anukkar, and Kannivana Puranam, a work of

popular nature. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 663–664[154] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 333[155] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 339[156] Chopra et al., p 188[157] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 339–340[158] Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 2, p 1195[159] Chopra et al., p 196[160] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 340[161] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 672[162] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 341–342[163] Chopra et al., p 116[164] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 20[165] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 340–341[166][166] Majumdar, p 8[167] Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, p 307[168] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 342–343[169] Chopra et al., p 115[170] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 681[171] Purananuru (poem 224) movingly expresses his faith and the grief caused by his passing away.[172] http:/ / www. whatisindia. com/ inscriptions/ south_indian_inscriptions/ darasuram/ kulottunga. html[173][173] Tripathi, p 480[174][174] Vasudevan, p 102[175] The name of the Sailendra king was Sri Chulamanivarman and the Vihara was named 'Chudamani vihara' in his honour. K.A. Nilakanta

Sastri, The CōĻas, p 214[176] Keay, pp 222–223[177][177] Majumdar, p 406[178][178] Stein, p 134

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[179][179] Vasudevan, p 104[180] K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 176[181] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 645[182] Chopra et al., p 126[183][183] Das, p 108[184] "Versatile writer and patriot" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ 2001/ 03/ 20/ stories/ 13200178. htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved 2008-05-29.[185][185] Das, p 109[186] Das, pp 108–109[187] "English translation of Ponniyin Selvan" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ thehindu/ lr/ 2003/ 01/ 05/ stories/ 2003010500100100. htm).

The Hindu. . Retrieved 2008-05-29.[188] "Lines that Speak" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ 2001/ 07/ 23/ stories/ 13230766. htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved 2008-05-29.[189] Encyclopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, pp 631–632[190] "Book review of Udaiyar" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ br/ 2005/ 02/ 22/ stories/ 2005022200101501. htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu.

2005-02-22. . Retrieved 2008-05-30.

References• Chopra, P.N; Ravindran, T.K; Subrahmanian, N (2003). History of South India ; Ancient, Medieval and Modern.

New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. ISBN 81-219-0153-7.• Das, Sisir Kumar (1995). History of Indian Literature (1911–1956) : Struggle for Freedom – Triumph and

Tragedy. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-7201-798-7.• Gupta, A.N; Gupta, Satish (1976). Sarojini Naidu's Select Poems, with an Introduction, Notes, and Bibliography.

Prakash Book Depot.• Harle, J.C (1994). The art and architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.

ISBN 0-300-06217-6.• Hermann, Kulke; Rothermund D (2001) [2000]. A History of India. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-255717-7.• Majumdar, R.C (1987). Ancient India. India: Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 81-208-0436-8.• Meyer, Milton Walter (1997). Asia: a concise history. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

ISBN 0-8476-8063-0.• Mitter, Partha (2001). Indian art. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-284221-8.• Nagasamy, R (1970). Gangaikondacholapuram. State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu.• Nagasamy, R (1981). Tamil Coins – A study. Institute of Epigraphy, Tamilnadu State Dept. of Archaeology.• K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A (1984) [1935]. The CōĻas. Madras: University of Madras.• K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A (2002) [1955]. A History of South India. New Delhi: OUP.• Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). Education in Ancient India. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12556-6.• Smith, Vincent H (2006). The Edicts of Asoka. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4286-4431-8.• "South Indian Inscriptions" (http:/ / www. whatisindia. com/ inscriptions/ ). Archaeological Survey of India. What

Is India Publishers (P) Ltd. Retrieved 2008-05-30.• Stein, Burton (1998). A history of India. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20546-2.• Thapar, Romila (1995). Recent Perspectives of Early Indian History. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books.

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External links• UNESCO World Heritage sites – Chola temples (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ pg. cfm?cid=31& id_site=250)• Art of Cholas (http:/ / www. indianartcircle. com/ arteducation/ page_14_artofCholas. shtml)• Chola coins (http:/ / tamilartsacademy. com/ books/ coins/ chapter02. xml)• Chola coins of Sri Lanka (http:/ / lakdiva. org/ coins/ medievalindian/ rajaraja_chola. html)• Devotion in South India: Chola Bronzes, Asia Society Museum exhibition (http:/ / sites. asiasociety. org/ chola/ )

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Article Sources and ContributorsChola dynasty  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=512028785  Contributors: 12pavan34, ABCD, Abecedare, Algri, Allens, Alphaomega29, Alren, Amberrock, Ambi saba,Ambuj.Saxena, Anbu121, Andrew Levine, Anir1uph, Anjanamurugan, Annalis97, AnsarParacha, Arafath.riyath, Arcturus, Arun1paladin, Arunram, Ashwatham, Astynax, Avedeus, BaF,Babbage, Balster neb, Balthazarduju, Barticus88, Bawantha, Blacksun, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bollyjeff, Boris Allen, BradBeattie, BrightStarSky, Brighterorange, Bulldog73, Butros,Caeruleancentaur, CaliforniaAliBaba, Caltas, CanisRufus, Castelgard, Cenima6, Chanakyathegreat, Chedorlaomer, Chelianmallan, Chola, ChrisCork, Chunky Rice, Citicat, Closedmouth,Colonies Chris, Corlyon, CradLeRcker, Crazytales, Cribananda, Crust, DBaba, DaGizza, Dangerous-Boy, David Kernow, Daydreamer302000, Dbachmann, Deb, DerHexer, Deville, Dewan357,Dineshkannambadi, Dirkadirka1, DrKiernan, Dreadstar, Dvavasour, Dwaipayanc, Earth, Ego White Tray, Elcobbola, Elektra Eloi, Enlil Ninlil, Esurnir, FaerieInGrey, Fconaway, Filippusson,Fjsdajkbn, Fr.ta, Fratrep, Fredrik, Fuzzie, GIGA SID 97, Gaius Cornelius, Ganeshk, Ganeshkrishnamurthy, Gdo01, Generalboss3, Ghirlandajo, Gimmetrow, Goethean, Gokulseshadri, GoodOlfactory, Gopalan evr, Gphoto, Grammatical error, Guettarda, Gurch, Harikishore, Headbomb, Heynow07, Hmains, Hohum, HongQiGong, Hybernator, Ian Pitchford, Idleguy, Igiffin, Igodard,Imc, Improv, Iustinus, J.delanoy, J04n, Jagannath Iyer, Jagged 85, Jay Kana, Jeltz, Jevansen, Jguk, Jimbo Jones144, Joelr31, John Smith's, Jookoomoo, Jptwo, KNM, Kanatonian, Kanonkas,Kansas Bear, Karthikndr, Kasper Holl, Kbdank71, Keladino, Kenotaph, Keyan20, KillerChihuahua, Kingsleyj, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Kotuku33, Kralizec!, Ksyrie, Kulothunga Cholan,Kumarrao, Kwamikagami, Kww, LOL, Lagrange613, Leolaursen, Leszek, Lifebonzza, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LittleOldMe, Llywrch, Lord Voldemort, Luna Santin, MAoriridersssss, Madanus,Maelnuneb, ManimaranSydney, Maoriridersssss, Matt 314, Mattis, Mattisse, Meredyth, Michaelas10, MoRsE, MonoAV, Mpbabaji, Mr. Lefty, Mr. Wikipediania, Ms2ger, Mycroft.Holmes,Nandesuka, Naniwako, Nat Krause, Nayansatya, Neutrality, Nick, Nick Number, Nicke L, Nihiltres, Nirvana888, Nmadhubala, Nobleeagle, Notafly, Npnkumar, Nvcbl1, Nvvchar, Ohconfucius,Omicronpersei8, OptimusOne, Orionganga, Pancho Fierro, Pavel Vozenilek, Paxse, Per Honor et Gloria, PiMaster3, Plau, Pobbie Rarr, Poweroid, Praveen pillay, Prince Godfather,Proudtobeindian007, Pubuman, QuartierLatin1968, R honk 14, Rajananand456, Rajarajancheetak2010, Raju 123, Rama's Arrow, RashmiPatel, Ravichandar84, Redhome, Redtigerxyz, Riana,Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Rickard Vogelberg, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Robertxs, SBC-YPR, Saileshganesh, Sam Korn, Samsara, SandyGeorgia, Sanjeeth, Saravask, Sarvagnya,Scottywong, SebastianHelm, Senthilkumaras, Sharmalan, Shash, Shyamsunder, Silly rabbit, SimonP, Sindian15, Sivaraj, Sniperz11, Soewinhan, Sophus Bie, Southernstar, SpLoT,SpacemanSpiff, Sreekanthv, Srini81, SriniG, Srirangam99, Srkris, Srnec, Sskumarece, Ssri1983, Steffv, SteveM123, Sundar, Sundar2000, Tamilanbanc, Tamilstyle, Tanthalas39, Tassedethe,TenOfAllTrades, The Haunted Angel, The Ogre, The Phoenix, TheRanger, Thumperward, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tobias Conradi, Tony1, Topbanana, Tormozko, Treisijs, Tuncrypt, Turnteeth,Utcursch, Vadakkan, Vandal07, Vbvijayanand, Vellala, Vensatry, Venu62, Vijay Periasamy, Vijay shreedhar, Vijayalaya, Vssun, Vsundar, Vyaghradhataki, Wackymacs, Welsh, Wiki Faerie,Wiki Raja, Wikiality123, Wimt, Winston786, Wknight94, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wubbabubba, Yasirian, YellowMonkey, Yogagates, Zachorious, Zfbddd, Zscout370, Zuggernaut, Æthelwold,కిరణ్మయి, రవిచంద్ర, 401 anonymous edits

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