Chapter 10

What is Persuasion Persuasion-process of influencing ones attitudes, beliefs,

values, and behaviors.○ Increases understanding and awareness but at same time seeks to influence

audience choices.

Characteristics of Persuasion Not Coercive although you need to take a stance Topics always have 2 alternative viewpoints Subjective/Often one sided Incremental-persuasion is a process-happens over time Interactive Key is change Can be ethical

Two Components of Persuasion Convincing-changing the way audience

members think

Actuating-changing or moving audience members toward a specific behavior

Succeeding in Persuasion

Relevant message

Establish common ground with listener

Listeners should feel that changing will benefit them

Seek minor change-more successful than seeking major change

More likely to persuade people if speaker’s position is only moderately different from audiences

Recognize that decision is ultimately audiences

Classical Persuasive Appeals

Vs.

Contemporary Persuasive Appeals

Classical Persuasive Appeals Aristotle believed persuasion could be

brought about through use of 3 means - forms of rhetorical proofs

1-Logos2-Pathos3-Ethos

Logos Has to do with actual nature of message-the

logic and reasoning used to build argument

The appeal to audience’s reason and logic

Builds arguments for or against an idea

through two main types of appeals… 1. Syllogism

2. Enthymeme

Logos Cont..

1. Syllogism

-three part argument that consists of 1. a major premise (general case)

2. a minor premise or (specific case), and

3. a conclusion.

• Syllogism - form of deductive reasoning • Moves from general condition to specific instance• Absolute and Constant

– Ex. *Major Premise: All men are mortal *Minor Premise: Socrates is a man *Conclusion: Therefore Socrates is a mortal

*Syllogism can sometimes make overgeneralizations-attempt to support a claim by asserting that a particular piece of evidence is true for everyone concerned.

 

Logos Cont.

2. Enthymeme

-A syllogism presented as probability rather than as an absolute

-One premise is always missing in an argument but is implied

-Useful because arguments are rarely based on absolutes

Pathos• Has to do with audience’s feelings

• Appeal to audience emotion-requires creating a certain outlook in audience, painting image

• Aristotle thought there are 4 sets of emotions that you can appeal to-

-anger and meekness-love and hate-fear and boldness-shame and shamelessness

• 2 general ways of invoking pathos: -vivid description -emotionally charged words.

• Relying solely on pathos in an argument will fail-must be combined with sound reasoning.

Ethos Has to do with qualifications and personality of

speaker

The appeal through the nature of the speaker’s moral character and personality which consists of three elements:

Good sense or competence Moral character Goodwill

Contemporary Persuasive Appeals

Aside from classical approaches, there are also contemporary ways of appealing and persuading

A-Persuading Listeners By Appealing To Their Needs

B-Persuading Listeners By Appealing To The Reasons For Their Behavior

C-Persuading Listeners By Focusing On What’s Most Relevant To Them

D-Persuading Listeners Through Speaker Credibility

A. Persuading Listeners By Appealing To Their Needs

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs -contemporary form of motivation

States that each person has 5 basic needs hierarchically embedded. Physiological Safety Social Self-Esteem Self-Actualization

Lower level needs must be met before higher level

B-Persuading Listeners By Appealing To The Reasons For Their Behavior

Expectancy-Outcome Values Theory

-Consciously evaluating the potential costs and benefits associated with taking a particular

action

C-Persuading Listeners By Focusing On What’s Most Relevant To Them

Elaboration Likelihood Model - theory of persuasion that suggests that people process persuasive messages by one of 2 routes, depending on their degree of involvement in message

1. Central Processing- People who are motivated and able to think critically about a message are said to engage in this

2. Peripheral Processing-People who see the message as irrelevant or too complex and thus don’t pay close attention are said to engage in this

D-Persuading Listeners Through Speaker Credibility

Audience’s perceptions and attitudes toward the speakers’ perceived expertise, trustworthiness, similarity to audience members and attractiveness.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EP2fBWrH46M

PERSUASION INVOLVES USING REASONING AND ARGUMENT

What is Reasoning?

1- “The power of comprehending, inferring, or thinking in orderly rational ways.”

2- “The process of building arguments created to change people’s opinions, influence behavior, or justify the arguer’s beliefs or actions.”

What is an argument?

Argument

Argument: stated position with support for or against an idea; consists of proposition and evidence

Persuasive speeches use arguments to present one alternative as superior to other.

Core elements of argument & persuasion consist of proposition and evidence

3 parts to an argumentCore elements of an argument….

• Proposition/Claim-the conclusion the speaker is attempting to prove. or proposition being made-Thesis statement.

• Evidence-material that provides grounds for belief. Examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics

• Warrant-links claim and evidence together. Provides reasons that evidence supports the claim.

Proposition (Part 1)

There are 3 types of propositions1. Proposition of fact

2. Proposition of value

3. Proposition of policy

Propositions- different types of propositions require different kinds of supporting evidence.

Propositions of Facts

Focus on conditions that exist, once existed, or will exist in the future.

whether something is true of falseWhether something will or will not happenRequire often factual evidence

Propositions of Value

Deals with issues of judgment Why something is right/wrong, good/badNot attempting to prove truthRequire evidence but more subjective rather than

factual

 

• Propositions of Policy

– Recommend that specific course of action be taken, or approved of by audience.

– Proposes that certain outcome will be realized if the proposed condition is met

• Ex-Property taxes should be increased to fund classroom expansions at local elementary schools

Evidence (Part 2)

• What speaker’s use to persuade audience to believe their claims-supporting material

• External evidence-any information in support of claim that comes from sources aside from speaker (examples, narratives, testimony, facts, statistics)

• Audience’s knowledge, expertise and opinions can be evidence-will only work if audience believes speaker has credibility

Warrants (Part 3)

Help support a claim and substantiate in the audience’s mind link between claim and evidence

There are 3 different types of warrants-or reasoning that speakers can use in arguments

Organizing the Persuasive Speech

Problem-Solution Pattern

• Most common format in persuasion

• Usually for propositions of fact and propositions of policy

• This pattern organizes speech points using following format

• A) Problem-Define it• B) Solution-Offer ways to overcome problem

Problem-Solution cont…

Example- Speech Purpose-Arguing for a reduction in the price of gasoline (Proposition of ?)

Problem-How high gasoline prices present a problem

Solution-Way or ways in which prices can be lowered

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Pattern of Arrangement

• Uses problem-solution format

• Five step process that begins with arousing listeners’ attention and ends with calling for action

• Effective when you want audience to do something-ex. buy a product, donate time, donate money

• Also effective when you want audience to reconsider present way of thinking about something

Step 1

Attention – Gain audience’s attention– Arouse curiosity about what speaker is

going to say – Makes speech highly relevant to audience

Step 2Need critical step Isolate and describe issue to be addressed Identify unfulfilled needs-needs that audience

members have that must be satisfied - problem that must be solved

Establish clear, urgent, and unfulfilled need in the mind of audience

No solutions should be proposed

Step 3

Satisfaction Propose solution that satisfies the needs of

audience -solution to problem Offer proposal to change attitudes, beliefs,

and values regarding problem Identify and eliminate possible objections to

this solution.

Step 4

Visualization Visualize resulting satisfaction and anticipated

outcomes Intensify audience’s desire for solution by

getting them to visualize what their lives will be like once they’ve adopted it

Use vivid images and verbal illustrations to support benefits of proposed solution.

Step 5

 Action• Define specific actions-make direct

request to audience• Turn audience’s agreement and

commitment into positive action• Tell audience what they need to do to

obtain described solutions and its benefits

Comparative Advantage Pattern Speaker viewpoints or proposal shown as

superior to opposing viewpoint or proposal- --Comparing/Contrasting

effective when audience already aware of issue or problem and agrees that need for a solution exists

used in claims of value speeches

Refutation Pattern of Arrangement Each main point addresses and then

refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to speaker’s position

Idea here is to bolster your own position by disproving the opposing claim

Effective if you are confident that the opposing argument is weak and vulnerable to attach

Addressing the other side of the argument

• All attempts at persuasion are subject to counter-persuasion.

• Inoculation Effect-speaker can induce resistance to counterclaims by acknowledging them. • By anticipating counter-arguments and then

addressing or rebutting them, you can help listeners ignore other viewpoints.

Fallacies in Reasoning: Pitfalls of arguing

• Logical Fallacy-false or erroneous statement or an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning-these harm quality of speeches

Types of fallacies

1-Begging the question-claim with no substance○ speaker assumes the statement under examination to be true.

It involves using a premise to support itself and if the premise is questionable, then the argument is bad

Examples Freedom of speech is important because people should be able

to speak freely. The death penalty is wrong because killing people is immoral. Ghosts are real because I have had experiences with them

myself.

2-Bandwagoning-assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, logical or desirable

Examples 7 in 10 doctors say acupuncture works, therefore it must work The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy;

after all, the polls show 60 percent of the people support him Everybody knows that talk radio is our primary link to a free and

democratic society

3-Either-or Fallacy-Poses argument in terms of 2 alternatives only, regardless of other options

Examples Either we build a new high school or children in this

community will never get into college The government must either raise taxes or reduce services

for the poor

4-Ad hominem-Attack opponent instead of attacking arguments

Examples The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals

but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family Tony is an awful musician and is not sensitive enough to chair

the parking committee

5-Red herring-Relying on irrelevant information in order to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Examples How dare my opponent accuse me of political corruption at a

time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States?

6-Slippery-Slope-Speaker assumes that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a second step and so on down the slope to disaster

Examples Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on

television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression

7-Causal Fallacy-occurs when the speaker claims a causal relationship simply because one event followed another event.

Examples As long as you wear this lucky rabbit’s foot, you will never have

an automobile accident Rap music ought to be boycotted. After all, the number of

assaults on police officers went up right after rap became popular.

8-Hasty Generalization-Occurs when conclusion is based on too few examples or on isolated examples. Stereotyping.

Examples The city does a terrible job of taking care of the elderly-my

grandmother lives in a city-owned nursing home, and the floors there are always filthy.