Download pdf - BARLEY - GRDC

SOUTHERNSEPTEMBER 2018

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BARLEY

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NationalFeedbackTable of ContentsBArley - Contents

A IntroductionA.1 Crop overview ................................................................................................. xivA.2 Malting barley and malt ................................................................................... xviA.3 Southern Barley Agronomy project .................................................................xvii

1 Planning and paddock preparation1.1 Agronomy tips at a glance ..................................................................................11.2 Paddock selection ..............................................................................................11.3 Paddock rotation and history .............................................................................2

1.3.1 Benefitsofbarleyasarotationcrop ...................................................21.3.2 Disadvantagesofcerealsasarotationcrop .......................................2

1.4 Fallow weed control ............................................................................................31.4.1 Double-knock strategies .....................................................................3

1.5 Fallow chemical plant-back periods ...................................................................31.5.1 How do herbicides break down? ........................................................41.5.2 HowcanIavoiddamagefromresidualherbicides? ...........................5

Group B. The sulfonylureas ........................................................................................ 5Group B. The triazolopyrimidines (sulfonamides) ....................................................... 5Group B. The imidazolinones (IMIs) ........................................................................... 5Group C. The triazines ............................................................................................... 5Group D. Trifluralin ..................................................................................................... 6Group H. The isoxazoles ............................................................................................ 6Group I. The phenoxies .............................................................................................. 6Group K. Pyroxasulfone ............................................................................................. 6

1.6 Genetic controls .................................................................................................61.7 Seedbed requirements .......................................................................................61.8 Soil moisture .......................................................................................................7

1.8.1 APSIM-Barley ......................................................................................71.8.2 Dryland ................................................................................................7

Technologies to support decision-making ................................................................. 7Subsoil constraints ..................................................................................................... 9Effect of strategic tillage ............................................................................................. 9

1.8.3 Irrigation ..............................................................................................91.9 Yield and targets ...............................................................................................10

1.9.1 Variety yield comparisons .................................................................101.9.2 Seasonal outlook ...............................................................................101.9.3 Fallow moisture .................................................................................11

HowWet?—a climate analysis tool ........................................................................... 111.9.4 Water-useefficiency ..........................................................................12

The French–Schultz approach ................................................................................. 121.9.5 Nitrogen-useefficiency .....................................................................131.9.6 Otherfactors .....................................................................................13

1.10Diseasestatusofpaddock ...............................................................................131.10.1 Soiltestingfordisease ......................................................................141.10.2 Croppinghistoryeffects ....................................................................14

1.11Nematodestatusofpaddock—testingofsoil ..................................................141.12Insectstatusofpaddock ..................................................................................15

1.12.1 Insectsamplingofsoil ......................................................................15Soil sampling by spade ............................................................................................ 15Germinating seed bait technique ............................................................................. 15Recognising soil insects ........................................................................................... 16Detecting soil-dwelling insects ................................................................................ 16

1.13 Snails ................................................................................................................161.14 Mouse management .........................................................................................16

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2 Pre-planting2.1 Varietalperformanceandratingsyield ...............................................................1

2.1.1 Selecting barley varieties ....................................................................12.1.2 YieldingabilityandGRDC-fundedNationalVarietyTrials(NVT) .........12.1.3 Maturity ...............................................................................................12.1.4 Malting and other quality traits............................................................2

Malting varieties ......................................................................................................... 2Food-grade varieties .................................................................................................. 3Feed varieties ............................................................................................................. 3

2.1.5 Other varietal traits ..............................................................................3Frost ratings ............................................................................................................... 4

2.1.6 Varieties ...............................................................................................42.2 Planting seed quality ..........................................................................................8

2.2.1 Seed size .............................................................................................82.2.2 Seed germination and vigour ..............................................................9

Disease ..................................................................................................................... 102.2.3 Seed storage .....................................................................................102.2.4 Saferatesoffertilisersownwiththeseed ........................................11

3 Planting3.1 Seed treatments .................................................................................................1

3.1.1 Choiceofseedorin-furrowtreatments ..............................................23.2 Timeofsowing ...................................................................................................23.3 Targetedplantpopulation ...................................................................................4

3.3.1 Seeding rates .....................................................................................43.3.2 Plant population ..................................................................................43.3.3 Calculating sowing rate .......................................................................5

Crop establishment .................................................................................................... 5How to measure your plant population ...................................................................... 6

3.3.4 Row-spacingeffects ...........................................................................6Effect on yield ............................................................................................................ 6

3.4 Sowing depth ......................................................................................................73.4.1 Barleyvarietiesdifferincoleoptilelengthandemergencefromdeepsowing ..........................................................................7

Dubbo Update 2010—seeding depth responses ....................................................... 7

3.5 Sowing equipment ..............................................................................................93.5.1 Usingpre-emergentherbicideswithdifferentseedingequipment ..10

4 Plant growth and physiology4.1 Germination and emergence ..............................................................................1

4.1.1 Germination .........................................................................................1Phase 1: Water absorption (GS01*) ............................................................................ 1Phase 2: Activation (GS03)......................................................................................... 1Phase 3: Visible germination (GS05–GS07) ............................................................... 1

4.1.2 Emergence(GS07) ..............................................................................1Coleoptile formation ................................................................................................... 2

4.2 Factorsaffectinggerminationandemergence ...................................................24.2.1 Dormancy ............................................................................................24.2.2 Moisture ..............................................................................................2

4.3 Effectoftemperature,photoperiodandclimateonplantgrowthand physiology ....................................................................................................34.3.1 Temperature ........................................................................................3

Germination ................................................................................................................ 3Emergence ................................................................................................................. 3Establishment ............................................................................................................. 3

4.3.2 Oxygen ................................................................................................44.3.3 Seed quality ........................................................................................44.3.4 Coleoptile length .................................................................................4

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4.3.5 Nutrition ...............................................................................................5Nitrogen ..................................................................................................................... 5Phosphorus ................................................................................................................ 5

4.4 Plant growth stages ............................................................................................64.4.1 Plant growth stages ............................................................................64.4.2 Zadoks Cereal Growth Stage Key .......................................................6

Early stem elongation GS30–33 (pseudostem erect—third node on the main stem) 7Leaf dissection at GS32 and GS33 ............................................................................ 7

5 Nutrition and fertiliser5.1 Organic matter ....................................................................................................15.2 Decliningsoilfertility ...........................................................................................25.3 Balanced nutrition ...............................................................................................2

5.3.1 Paddock records .................................................................................35.4 Understanding soil pH ........................................................................................3

5.4.1 Soil pH in calcium chloride..................................................................45.4.2 Soil pH in water ...................................................................................4

5.5 Hierarchyofcropfertilityneeds ..........................................................................55.6 Crop removal rates .............................................................................................55.7 Soil testing ..........................................................................................................6

5.7.1 Typesoftest ........................................................................................65.7.2 Sampling depth and achieving representative samples .....................75.7.3 Critical values and ranges ...................................................................75.7.4 Fertiliser test strips ..............................................................................85.7.5 Rulesofthumb ....................................................................................85.7.6 Soiltestingfornitrogen .......................................................................9

Forms of N fertiliser .................................................................................................... 9Calculating N fertiliser application .............................................................................. 9

5.7.7 Soiltestingforphosphorus .................................................................9Colwell-P (bicarbonate-extractable P) ....................................................................... 9Phosphorus buffering index ..................................................................................... 10Soil available P by DGT (diffusive gradients in thin-films) ........................................ 10Depth of testing for P ............................................................................................... 10

5.8 Plantand/ortissuetestingfornutritionlevels ..................................................105.9 Nitrogen ............................................................................................................11

5.9.1 SouthernBarleyAgronomyProjectandNationalVarietyTrials ........11Gerogery .................................................................................................................. 12Parkes ...................................................................................................................... 12Condobolin............................................................................................................... 12

5.9.2 Nitrogen supply and grain protein content......................................135.9.3 Nitrogendeficiencysymptoms .........................................................15

Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 16Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 16

5.9.4 Nitrogenvolatilisationanddenitrification ..........................................175.9.5 Nitrogen-useefficiency .....................................................................185.9.6 Plant-available(nitrate)-Nintheroot-zone .......................................185.9.7 Effectivenessoflatenitrogenapplication .........................................19

5.10Currentgeneralin-cropnutritionallevelsfornitrogen ......................................205.10.1 Barleynutritionandagronomy—doweneedsulfurandnitrogen? ..20

Introduction: Why the interest in sulfur? .................................................................. 20Importance of nitrogen and sulfur ............................................................................ 20Decisions on N and S fertiliser ................................................................................ 21Sulfur responses in 2012 .......................................................................................... 21Nitrogen responses in 2012 ..................................................................................... 22Timing and form of nitrogen and sulfur application ................................................. 22Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 23

5.11 Phosphorus ......................................................................................................235.11.1 Phosphorusdeficiency ......................................................................24

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Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 255.11.2 Cropdemandforphosphorus ...........................................................255.11.3 Phosphorus availability .....................................................................265.11.4 Reduced tillage .................................................................................265.11.5 Phosphorus budgeting ......................................................................275.11.6 Formsofphosphorus ........................................................................27

Manures ................................................................................................................... 28

5.12Sulfur .................................................................................................................285.12.1 Deficiencysymptoms ........................................................................28


5.13 Potassium .........................................................................................................305.13.1 Deficiencysymptoms ........................................................................30


5.13.2 Critical levels and inputs ...................................................................315.14Micronutrientdeficiencies .................................................................................32

5.14.1 Zinc ...................................................................................................32Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 33Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 33

5.14.2 Copper ..............................................................................................34Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 34Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 34Alleviation ................................................................................................................. 37

5.14.3 Boron .................................................................................................37Boron deficiency ...................................................................................................... 37Boron toxicity ........................................................................................................... 38

5.14.4 Iron ....................................................................................................39Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 39Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 39

5.14.5 Manganese ........................................................................................40Manganese deficiency ............................................................................................. 40Manganese toxicity .................................................................................................. 42

5.14.6 Molybdenum .....................................................................................42Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 43Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 43

5.14.7 Magnesium .......................................................................................43Similar symptoms ..................................................................................................... 43Contributing factors ................................................................................................. 44

6 Weed control6.1 Integratedweedmanagement(IWM)..................................................................2

6.1.1 Review past actions ............................................................................36.1.2 Assess the current weed status ..........................................................46.1.3 Identifyweedmanagementopportunities ..........................................46.1.4 Fine-tuneyourlistofoptions ..............................................................46.1.5 Combine and test ideas ......................................................................4

Ryegrass integrated management (RIM) .................................................................... 5Weed Seed Wizard ..................................................................................................... 5

6.2 Agronomy ...........................................................................................................66.2.1 Crop choice and sequence .................................................................66.2.2 Improving crop competition ................................................................76.2.3 Crop type ............................................................................................96.2.4 Improving pasture competition .........................................................106.2.5 Fallow phase .....................................................................................106.2.6 Controlledtrafficforoptimalherbicideapplication ...........................10

6.3 Key weeds in Australia’s cropping systems ....................................................116.4 Stopping weed seedset ....................................................................................12

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6.4.1 Seedset control tactics .....................................................................126.4.2 Selective spray-topping ....................................................................126.4.3 Weed wiping ......................................................................................136.4.4 Crop desiccation and windrowing ....................................................136.4.5 Manuring,mulchingandhayfreezing ...............................................14

6.5 Pasture seedset control ....................................................................................146.5.1 Pasture spray-topping.......................................................................146.5.2 Silage and hay ...................................................................................156.5.3 Grazing to manage weeds actively ...................................................15

6.6 Herbicide resistance .........................................................................................166.6.1 Testingservices .................................................................................16

6.7 Managing the weed seedbank..........................................................................186.7.1 Burning residues ...............................................................................196.7.2 Encouraginginsectpredationofseed ..............................................196.7.3 Autumn tickle ....................................................................................206.7.4 Delayed sowing .................................................................................20

6.8 Managing weed seedlings ................................................................................216.8.1 Killing weeds with tillage ...................................................................21

Benefits .................................................................................................................... 22Whole-farm benefits ................................................................................................. 22Issues with tillage ..................................................................................................... 22

6.8.2 Killing weeds with herbicides ............................................................23Knockdown (non-selective) herbicides for fallow and pre-sowing control............... 23Double-knockdown or double-knock ....................................................................... 24Pre-emergent herbicides .......................................................................................... 25Selective post-emergent herbicides ........................................................................ 27

6.8.3 Spot-spraying,chipping,hand-roguingandwipertechnologies ......296.8.4 Weed-detector sprays .......................................................................306.8.5 Biological control...............................................................................30

6.9 Harvest weed-seed control...............................................................................316.10 Other non-chemical weed control ....................................................................316.11 Herbicides explained ........................................................................................31

6.11.1 Residual v. non-residual ....................................................................316.11.2 Post-emergent and pre-emergent .....................................................32

6.12 Pre-emergent herbicides ..................................................................................326.12.1 Benefits .............................................................................................326.12.2 Practicalities ......................................................................................326.12.3 Avoidingcropdamagefromresidualherbicides ...............................33

What are the issues? ................................................................................................ 33Which herbicides are residual? ................................................................................ 34How do herbicides break down? ............................................................................. 34How can I avoid damage from residual herbicides? ................................................ 34Group B. Sulfonylureas ............................................................................................ 35Group B. Triazolopyrimidines (sulfonamides) ........................................................... 35Group B. Imidazolinones .......................................................................................... 35Group C. Triazines .................................................................................................... 35Group D. Trifluralin ................................................................................................... 35Group H. Isoxazoles ................................................................................................. 36Group I. Phenoxies ................................................................................................... 36Group K. Metolachlor ............................................................................................... 36Group K. Pyroxasulfone ........................................................................................... 36

6.13 In-crop herbicides: knock-downs and residuals ..............................................366.13.1 Herbicide tolerance ratings ...............................................................376.13.2 Post-emergent herbicide damage .....................................................37

6.14 Selective sprayer technology ............................................................................376.14.1 Special permit ...................................................................................38

6.15Strategiestostopthespreadofweeds ............................................................396.15.1 Sowweed-freeseed .........................................................................39

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6.15.2 Manage weeds in non-crop areas .....................................................396.15.3 Cleanfarmmachineryandvehicles ..................................................406.15.4 Livestockfeedingandmovement .....................................................406.15.5 Monitorpaddocksfollowingfloodinundation ...................................40

7 Insect control7.1 Integrated pest management .............................................................................57.2 Aphids .................................................................................................................5

7.2.1 Oatorwheataphid(Rhopalosiphum padi) ..........................................67.2.2 Cornaphid(Rhopalosiphum maidis) ..................................................77.2.3 Rose-grainaphid(Metopolophium dirhodum) ....................................97.2.4 Thresholdsforcontrol .......................................................................10

7.3 Armyworm ........................................................................................................107.4 Helicoverpa spp. ...............................................................................................137.5 Blueoatmite(Penthaleus spp.) ........................................................................147.6 Lucerneflea(Sminthurus viridis) .......................................................................15

7.6.1 Description ........................................................................................157.6.2 Seasonal development and symptoms .............................................167.6.3 Impact ...............................................................................................167.6.4 Management .....................................................................................16

7.7 NGAtrials—managingaphids .........................................................................177.7.1 Varietal resistance or tolerance .........................................................177.7.2 Damage caused by pests .................................................................177.7.3 Thresholdsforcontrol .......................................................................187.7.4 Managementofaphids .....................................................................18

8 Nematode management8.1 About nematodes ...............................................................................................1

8.1.1 Lifecycle .............................................................................................28.1.2 Economic importance ........................................................................3

8.2 Varietal resistance or tolerance ...........................................................................38.3 Management .......................................................................................................4

8.3.1 Crop rotation .......................................................................................58.3.2 Resistancedifferencesbetweencommercialbarleyvarieties ............5

8.4 Symptoms and detection ...................................................................................58.4.1 What is seen in the paddock? .............................................................68.4.2 Belowground symptoms ....................................................................7

8.5 Nematodes and crown rot ..................................................................................88.6 Testingforroot-lesionnematodes ......................................................................8

9 Diseases9.1 Causesofcerealdiseases ..................................................................................2

9.1.1 Fungi ...................................................................................................29.1.2 Viruses .................................................................................................29.1.3 Bacteria ...............................................................................................29.1.4 Nematodes ..........................................................................................3

9.2 Thediseasetriangle ............................................................................................39.3 Variety response .................................................................................................69.4 Environmentalfactors .........................................................................................6

9.4.1 Cerealdiseaseafterdrought ...............................................................69.4.2 Cerealdiseaseafterfloodevents ........................................................7

9.5 Management options ..........................................................................................79.5.1 Strategies ............................................................................................7

9.6 Foliar diseases ....................................................................................................89.6.1 Rusts ...................................................................................................8

Key points to reduce the risk of rusts in cereals ........................................................ 9Recommended fungicides for rusts ........................................................................... 9

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9.6.2 Whattolookfor .................................................................................10Leaf rust of barley .................................................................................................... 10Stem rust of barley ................................................................................................... 10Barley grass stripe rust ............................................................................................. 10

9.6.3 Disease cycle ....................................................................................11Leaf rust of barley .................................................................................................... 11Stem rust of barley ................................................................................................... 12Barley grass stripe rust ............................................................................................. 12

9.6.4 Managementofbarleyrusts .............................................................12Resistant varieties .................................................................................................... 12Cultural practices ..................................................................................................... 12Seed treatment......................................................................................................... 12Fungicides ................................................................................................................ 12Scald of barley ......................................................................................................... 13Net blotch ................................................................................................................ 16

9.6.5 Barleyyellowdwarfvirus(BYDV) ......................................................19BYDV transmission .................................................................................................. 19Symptoms ............................................................................................................... 20Yield loss ................................................................................................................. 20Additional yield loss by aphid feeding ..................................................................... 21Predicting infection ................................................................................................. 21Management ........................................................................................................... 21

9.6.6 Powdery mildew ................................................................................22Disease life cycle ...................................................................................................... 23Disease conditions ................................................................................................... 24Choose the best variety ........................................................................................... 25Monitor the crop ...................................................................................................... 25Fungicides and treatment of crops .......................................................................... 25Fungicide resistance in the Southern Region .......................................................... 25

9.6.7 Wheat streak mosaic virus(WSMV) ...................................................269.6.8 Barley stripe ......................................................................................28

9.7 Root and crown diseases .................................................................................289.7.1 Diagnosing root diseases in your crop ..............................................289.7.2 Take-all ..............................................................................................29

Control ..................................................................................................................... 309.7.3 Crown rot...........................................................................................31

Damage caused by crown rot .................................................................................. 31Effect of sowing time ............................................................................................... 32Crown rot phases ..................................................................................................... 32Management ............................................................................................................ 33Crop rotation ............................................................................................................ 34Inter-row sowing ...................................................................................................... 34Stubble burning ....................................................................................................... 34Varietal resistance or tolerance ................................................................................ 35

9.7.4 Pythium root rot.................................................................................35Symptoms ................................................................................................................ 35What else could it be?.............................................................................................. 35Where does it occur? ............................................................................................... 35Management strategies ............................................................................................ 35

9.7.5 Rhizoctonia disease ..........................................................................36Management options ............................................................................................... 37Identifying risk .......................................................................................................... 39Why is Rhizoctonia disease a problem? ................................................................... 39Biology ..................................................................................................................... 39Key factors influencing occurrence and severity ..................................................... 40

9.7.6 Common root rot ...............................................................................409.7.7 Smut .................................................................................................41

Bunt or stinking smut or covered smut .................................................................... 41Loose smut .............................................................................................................. 42

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10 Plant growth regulators and canopy management10.1 Canopy management .........................................................................................1

10.1.1 Importanceofcanopymanagement ...................................................110.1.2 Grazing cereal crops as a management tool ......................................210.1.3 Keystagesfordiseasecontrolandcanopymanagement ..................2

10.2Useofplantgrowthregulators ...........................................................................410.2.1 Variety-specificresearchfromthenorthernregion .............................8

11 Crop dessication/spray out

12 Harvest12.1 Header settings ...................................................................................................112.2 Monitoring grain loss ..........................................................................................212.3 Wet harvest issues and management .................................................................2

12.3.1 Cost-effectiveharvestandlogistics ....................................................212.3.2 Pre-harvest weather damage on barley varieties ................................3

12.4 Fire prevention ....................................................................................................412.4.1 Using machinery .................................................................................412.4.2 Stepstopreventingheaderfires .........................................................4

12.5 Receival standards .............................................................................................512.6 Harvest weed-seed control.................................................................................6

12.6.1 Intercepting annual weed seed ...........................................................612.6.2 Burningofnarrowwindrow .................................................................712.6.3 Chaffcarts ...........................................................................................812.6.4 Bale-direct systems ............................................................................912.6.5 Harrington Seed Destructor ................................................................912.6.6 Chaffgrinding ......................................................................................9

12.7 Summary ...........................................................................................................10

13 Storage13.1Howtostorebarleyon-farm ...............................................................................2

13.1.1 Malt barley ...........................................................................................213.1.2 Storage options ...................................................................................2

13.2 Hygiene ...............................................................................................................513.3Grainprotectantsandfumigants ........................................................................613.4 Aeration during storage ....................................................................................1113.5 Monitoring barley ..............................................................................................13

14 environmental issues14.1 Frost ....................................................................................................................1

14.1.1 Whatcausesfrost? .............................................................................114.1.2 Measuring temperature .......................................................................214.1.3 ThechangingnatureoffrostinAustralia ............................................214.1.4 Howdoesfrostaffectcrops? ..............................................................314.1.5 Effectofwetordrycanopy .................................................................414.1.6 Riskmanagementforfrost ..................................................................5

Pre-season management tactics ............................................................................... 5Management tactics within season ............................................................................ 9Post-frost-event management tactics ....................................................................... 9

14.1.7 Harvestingandmarketingfrostedgrain ............................................1014.1.8 Retainingseedfromfrostedcrops ....................................................1114.1.9 Recoveringfromfrost ........................................................................1114.1.10 National Frost Initiative ......................................................................11

Useful tools .............................................................................................................. 1214.1.11Frostidentification—whattolookforandhowtolookforit .............12

Assessing the damage ............................................................................................. 12Juvenile frost damage .............................................................................................. 13

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Stem-elongation frost damage................................................................................. 13Head damage: cold damage to developing head prior to head emergence ............ 15Head damage at flowering: cold and desiccation damage during flowering ........... 16Head damage at flowering: freezing damage to head and reproductive structures 19Head damage after flowering: freezing damage during grain development and grain-filling ................................................................................... 19Stem damage after flowering: freezing damage to the peduncle after head emergence during grain development and grain-filling ................................... 22

14.2Soilmoistureissuesforbarley ..........................................................................2414.2.1 Moisture stress ..................................................................................2414.2.2 Waterlogging .....................................................................................24

15 Marketing15.1 Selling principles .................................................................................................1

15.1.1 Be prepared.........................................................................................1When to sell ............................................................................................................... 1How to sell ................................................................................................................. 2

15.1.2 Establishingthebusinessriskprofile—whentosell ...........................2Production risk profile of the farm .............................................................................. 2Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price) ..... 3Income requirements ................................................................................................. 4Summary .................................................................................................................... 5

15.1.3 Managingyourprice—howtosell ......................................................5Methods of price management .................................................................................. 5Summary .................................................................................................................... 7

15.1.4 Ensuring access to markets ................................................................7Storage and logistics.................................................................................................. 8Cost of carrying grain ................................................................................................. 9Summary .................................................................................................................. 10

15.1.5 Executing tonnes into cash ...............................................................10Set up the toolbox .................................................................................................... 10How to sell for cash ................................................................................................. 10Counterparty risk ...................................................................................................... 13Relative values ......................................................................................................... 13Contract allocation ................................................................................................... 14Read market signals ................................................................................................. 14Sales execution revised ............................................................................................ 15

15.2Southernbarley—marketdynamicsandexecution..........................................1515.2.1 Pricedeterminantsforsouthernbarley .............................................1515.2.2 Ensuringmarketaccessforsouthernbarley .....................................17

Malt v. Feed and varietal differences and premiums ................................................ 1715.2.3 Executingtonnesintocashforsouthernbarley ................................1815.2.4 Riskmanagementtoolsavailableforsouthernbarley ......................19