Download pdf - Attentional Focus in Classical Balletoptimalmotorlearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Guss-West_Wu… · studies that are relevant to ballet perfor-mance. ... golf club,3 bean

23

Clare Guss-West BHum MA European Network for Opera amp Dance Education Zuumlrich Switzerland Gabriele Wulf PhD Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences University of Nevada Las Vegas Nevada

Correspondence Clare Guss-West BHum MA Giesshuumlbelstrasse 62e 8045 Zuumlrich Switzerland claresussed-solutionscom

Copyright copy 2016 J Michael Ryan Publishing Inc httpdxdoiorg10126781089-313X20123

AbstractFocus of attention and its effects on skilled motor performance has become an important line of research in the motor learning domain Numerous studies have demonstrated that an external focus of attention (ie on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (ie on body movements) Thus small differences in the wording of instructions or feedback given by teachers can have a significant impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of motor skill performance In this paper we review some of the attentional focus studies that are relevant to ballet perfor-mance In addition we report the findings of a survey among professional ballet dancers (N = 53) that we conducted to determine their typical attentional focus while performing certain movements The results showed that the majority adopted internal foci or combinations of internal and external foci most of the time This suggests that there is room for improve-ment for performance and teaching We provide examples of how external foci can be promoted in ballet practice

Classical ballet dancers perform some of the most complex combinations of motor skills

often under conditions of pressure An important question for dancers and

those who instruct them therefore is how performance can be optimized and how high performance levels can be maintained under pressure (eg in front of critics audience when fa-tigued injured or simply maturing) More specifically how can the effec-tiveness of instructions or feedback be enhanced How should ballet teachers direct the dancersrsquo attention What should dancers concentrate on when practicing or performing to support the sustainability of the technique Motor learning research has given a clear answer to these questions Over the past two decades numerous studies have shown that a performerrsquos focus of attention has a significant impact on the quality of movement1 an external focus of attention on the intended movement effect or out-come has consistently been found to result in superior performance relative to an internal focus on body movements Given the importance of these findings for a performing art such as ballet where a concentra-tion on body movements is arguably common the purpose of the present paper is threefold First we review experimental findings related to the effects of different attentional foci on

motor performance and learning that are particularly relevant to ballet (eg balance jumping) Second we report the results of a survey we conducted among current or former professional dancers with the goal of determining their typical attentional focus while performing certain routines Third we provide some practical suggestions for dancers and practitioners in terms of how they might direct attention exter-nally to enhance ballet performance Experimental studies examining the influence of the performerrsquos at-tentional focus on motor performance or learning have used a wide variety of motor tasks including various sport skills12 These studies have shown that when performers direct attention to the intended effect of their move-ments on for example an implement (eg golf club3 bean bag4 piano hammers5) the ground6 the water7 or a ball trajectory8 (a so-called ex-ternal focus of attention) rather than to their body movements themselves (internal focus) performance is more effective and efficient The benefits of an external focus for performance and learning are independent of the type of motor skill skill level age or (dis)ability In several studies participants were asked to perform tasks requir-ing balance and jumping which are obviously key components of ballet technique For instance in some balance-related studies participants were asked to try to stand as still as

Attentional Focus in Classical BalletA Survey of Professional Dancers

Clare Guss-West BHum MA and Gabriele Wulf PhD

24 Volume 20 Number 1 2016 bull Journal of Dance Medicine amp Science

possible on an unstable surface such as a balance platform9-12 an inflated rubber disk1314 or a solid surface1516 Depending on the task researchers measured average deviations of the platform from the horizontal or the amount of postural sway as a function of the instructed focus of attention Consistently when participants were asked to concentrate on keeping the platform or disk still (external focus) their stability was significantly en-hanced relative to a concentration on keeping their feet still (internal focus) Thus a small difference in the atten-tional focus or in the wording of in-structions had a significant influence on balance performance It should be pointed out that participantsrsquo vision in those studies was controlled by asking them to look straight ahead thus the only difference between conditions or groups was in the attentional focus or concentration Motion analyses have revealed that when performers adopt an external focus they tend to utilize to a greater extent automatic (ie unconscious fast reflexive) processes as evidenced by high frequency low amplitude movement adjustments that result in enhanced motor performance (eg balance) In contrast with an internal focus on their own move-ments performers tend to constrain their motor system by using conscious control processes that are relatively slow and interfere with automatic control mechanisms17 Consequently performance is less than optimal The greater automaticity resulting from an external focus is also reflected in reduced attentional demands That is when performers adopt an external relative to an internal focus they show better performance on secondary (eg cognitive) tasks that are performed simultaneously with the motor task By directing attention to the task goal and away from body movements an external focus reduces a focus on the self1819 A focus on the self has fre-quently been shown to impair motor performance20 Further access to the self seems to be associated with the default mode of brain activation21 and task-related activation requires switch-

ing away from the self network22 An external focus on the intended move-ment outcome prevents self-activation and thus optimizes movement coor-dination19 The effect is seen at both the inter- and intra-muscular level The result is seen in greater movement efficiency including reduced muscu-lar activity23-25 heart rate26 oxygen consumption27 greater maximum force production28 etc Studies have shown that participants jump higher or farther with an external focus and that they do so with less muscular effort This is due to a more efficient recruitment of motor units and reduced co-contractions of agonists and antagonists24 In some studies in which participants performed a stand-ing long jump they jumped farther when they were asked to concentrate on jumping as far as possible past the start line29 or on a cone that was placed at a 3 m distance from the start line30 compared to focusing on the exten-sion of their knees In other studies participants performed maximum vertical jumps3132 When instructed to concentrate on the horizontal rungs of a measurement device that they attempted to displace they jumped higher than when they were asked to concentrate on their fingers with which they were about to displace the rungs or were not given instructions (control condition) It has been shown that performers produce greater forces when they focus on the intended outcome of their jump33 It is also interesting to note that an external focus is typically more effective when it is more distal that is farther away from the body than a proximal focus close to the body such as the intended trajectory of a golf ball versus the mo-tion of the golf club8 or markers on a balance board that are farther away from the feet relative to markers close to the feet11 While the findings are clear one might wonder what a ballet dancer should focus on in the absence of implements unstable surfaces or measurement devices Instead images analogies or metaphors might be used to induce an external distal focus34 Trying to produce a certain image di-

rects attention away from body move-ments and on to the intended effect or outcome of the action Another pos-sibility is to actually attach stickers or markers to the performer which can serve as external proximal attentional cues In one recent study15 skilled 12-year-old gymnasts performed a vertical maximum jump with a 180deg turn while airborne with the hands crossing in front of the chest during the turn The skill required not only maximum force production but also high precision (eg alignment feet positioning landing) as any imper-fection resulted in a deduction When participants were asked to concentrate on the direction in which a tape marker on their chest was pointing after the turn both jump height and movement quality were significantly enhanced compared with instructions to focus on the direction in which their hands (in front of their chest) were pointing or a control condition It is noteworthy that practice devices such as markers (on clothing) do not need to be present later for example during performance on stage Rather practice with external cues has been shown to have relatively permanent positive effects in the long-term even when they are absent35

Interestingly in the vast majority of studies that included control condi-tions or groups without specific focus instructions performances under internal focus and control conditions did not differ from each other while an external focus enhanced performance or learning1 It appears that perform-ers spontaneously tend to focus on their own movements when they are not instructed otherwise636 Only in very few casesmdashthose involving elite performersmdashdid the external focus instructions not result in more effec-tive performance than control condi-tions in which performers used their ldquonormalrdquo focus of attention In one of those studies world-class balance acrobats (Cirque du Soleil) performed a relatively simple balance task (ie standing on an inflated disk)37 In this case balance was controlled more automatically in the control condition than with external (ldquokeep disk stillrdquo)

25Journal of Dance Medicine amp Science bull Volume 20 Number 1 2016

or internal focus (ldquokeep feet stillrdquo) instructions It is probable that the highly trained performers adopted their habitually used and more ef-fective (external) focus than the one provided Another study with expert performers demonstrated though that not all experts adopt an optimal focus Interviews with expert swim-mers who had many years of competi-tive experience indicated that their ldquonormalrdquo focus (ie in a control con-dition) differed among participants7 While some swimmers reported hav-ing more of an internal focus (eg hip rotation spinning arms high elbows) others focused more externally on the overall outcome (eg speed tempo going fast swimming hard) Interestingly those with an internal focus swam significantly more slowly in the control condition than those who adopted an external focus These findings are consistent with the no-tion that an internal focus interferes with automaticity and efficiency and results in poorer performance They also suggest that some experts appar-ently had already discovered the value of an external focus and adopted one habitually whereas others had not In summary there is overwhelm-ing evidence showing that focusing on body movement is detrimental to motor performance as well as the learning of new skills In contrast focusing on the intended movement effect (external focus) enhances au-tomaticity movement effectiveness and efficiency Given that many prac-titioners such as coaches38 or physical therapists39 often provide their clients with instructions that promote an internal focus and that most per-formers either spontaneously or as a result of those instructions38 typi-cally focus on body movements we deemed it important to find out what ballet dancers focus their attention on Therefore we conducted a survey with current or former professional ballet dancers to determine what they typically focus on when performing certain traditional movements We hypothesized that although many of them would report internal foci some may have realized intuitively the ef-

fectiveness of focusing externally

MethodParticipantsParticipants were 53 international professional ballet dancers from Aus-tralia Canada Finland France Ire-land Monaco Sweden Switzerland the United Kingdom and the United States who were actively dancing or used to dance in a professional com-pany Of those who indicated their present status 11 stated that they were current dancers and 19 said they were former dancers

Procedure Key professionals were contacted via e-mail and social media and in-vited to fill out an online survey (via SurveyMonkeyreg) and also asked to share the survey with colleagues from within their professional network The survey which was approved by the universityrsquos institutional review board consisted of four questions ldquoWhat do you focus onimaginethink when preparingexecutinghellip a balance in fifth demi-pointe or pointerdquo ldquoa balance in arabesque demi-pointe or pointerdquo ldquoa pirou-ette en dehorsrdquo ldquoa grand jeteacute en avantrdquo The questions were chosen for their increasing motor complexity (two-foot sustained balance one-foot sustained balance one-foot dynamic balance plus more complex rotation and explosive long-jump) It was assumed that all professional ballet dancers would understand the motor actions implicit in these movements so that the survey would reflect ldquolike for likerdquo and given the universality of the technique they would to a great extent be preparing and execut-ing the same technical movements Both investigators classified the responses that were received (53 for fifth position 50 for arabesque 45 for pirouette and 47 for grand jeteacute) by consensus using three categories internal focus external focus and combination (of internal and external foci) If clear reference was made to body movements (eg ldquoPulling in my stomachrdquo ldquoFocus is on short foot and gluteal engagement of the push

off leg for thrustplieacute accentuated as the ignitionrdquo ldquoRelaxing Pushing the knee around and turning with the backrdquo) the response was classified as an internal focus We categorized as external focus responses that did not include body-related words but rather referred to the intended movement outcome often in the form of an im-age (eg ldquoReacting to the floor in a crossed chain sensation imagining the least resistancerdquo ldquoPushing a balloon under water in the plieacute the balloon continually rising in the balancerdquo ldquoPush and flyrdquo) Finally a number of responses included both references to body movements and images and those were categorized as combination (eg ldquoLift lightness fly stretching legs and feetrdquo ldquoLengthening diagonals in upper body and quick push offrdquo ldquoPulling up the body and pushing into the floor at the same timerdquo) As different numbers of responses were given for each question we calculated the percentage of responses in each category These are presented in the results section

ResultsRepresentative responses in each cat-egory (internal focus combination and external focus) for each of the four movements are provided in Table 1 The relative frequency (in percent) of each type of response can be seen in Figure 1 Overall internal focus (361) and combination (361) responses accounted for the majority of replies whereas an external focus (277) was reported less frequently However different types of focus appeared to be more prevalent for different skills While for the fifth position no particular focus category was prevalent an internal focus was predominant for the arabesque (50) Most combination responses were seen for the pirouette (511) and an external focus was most often reported for the grand jeteacute Possible reasons for this pattern of results are discussed in the next section

DiscussionProfessional ballet dancers showed a high degree of creativity and diversity


Table 1 Representative Responses in Each CategorymdashInternal Focus Combination and External FocusBalance in Fifth PositionInternal Focus Combination External Focusbull Two legs equally balanced through the

feet growing through back muscle are well engaged relaxed and well supported spine through the head

bull Balancing bones and wrapping musclesbull Core engagement and engagement of

muscles of pelvic floor oppositional forces through the spine strong fifth position at top of legs

bull The pressure of the legs into one another as if they were oneglued and spiraling in opposition

bull Ideally a spiral upwards instead of a static frozen position with the two legs spiraling outwards from each other

bull Pulling up without tucking arms in front of shoulder chin liftedthinking of floating rather than pushing down into the floor

bull A sense of energy in two directionsmdashdown in to the floor and internally lifting up in an opposing direction

bull Reacting to the floor in a crossed chain sensation imagining the least resistance

bull I imagine elevating myself like a balloon

Balance in ArabesqueInternal Focus Combination External Focusbull I imagine the two arms elongated the

malleolus points to the ceiling the arabesque leg moves away from the body

bull Foot muscles and straight legbull Divide the body in two halves (spine

in the middle and both sides) to be able to get a correct alignment of the arabesque Supporting leg is growing through and also into the floor (like in Yoga) Working leg is lengthened away from the hip joint Arms and neck are relaxed and placed

bull A lengthened curvemdashthe upper body traveling forward through space while the gesture leg curves away from the center

bull I imagine dancing on a big stage and dancing with a lovely partner or doing the balance on the top of the Tour Eiffel focus on stretching my knees proper placement soft armsI usually hope for a great balance

bull Feeling my center controlled over my supporting leg The big toe of my arabesque floating away and up Both pushing into and lifting out of the floor as the movement expands

bull Energy expanding out in all directions

bull Going forward feeling like a swanbull I imagine stretching like a star in all

directions

Pirouette en dehorsInternal Focus Combination External Focusbull Relaxing Pushing the knee around and

turning with the backbull Putting more weight into the

supporting leg in plieacute prep keeping width through shoulders using forward arm first in take off then feeling the opposite side of back in conjunction with passeacute knee and supporting glute

bull Rotation from hip socket squared off hips coordination of head back and arms in takeoff use of the floor and appropriate amount of torque

bull High on the standing legfast to the position

bull Just goingtoo much thinking doesnrsquot help keep the body square

bull Complete eye focuspin point spot on floorcarriage of armsthe end of the turn

bull On a whirligigbull Climbing up a corkscrewbull Spiral

Grand JeteacuteInternal Focus Combination External Focusbull Focus is on short foot and gluteal

engagement of the push off leg for thrustplieacute accentuated as the ignition

bull Knees in correct alignment when landing

bull Releasing the air from my lungs to prevent the shoulders from going up turning the head to the public

bull In preparation going down into the floor for push into the air imagining staying in the air for two counts while pushing legs up higher

bull Keeping heel down on plieacute allowing the music to help find the pause in the air

bull Jump over a puddlemdashsuspensionmdashsoar and glide with pelvic initiation at top of jump

bull On jumping above the lakebull I imagine jumping over somethingbull Travellingachieving air time in the

jeteacutegliding through air


in their attentional foci Over many years or even decades of their active careers they presumably developed certain preferred foci based on what seemed to ldquoworkrdquo for them or on instructions they received from their teachers Given the nature of ballet and its emphasis on the movement form it is not surprising that many dancers reported concentrating on the coordination of their movements Almost three quarters (72) of the responses referred to body movements to at least some degree (internal fo-

cus and combination) Interestingly though about 28 percent of the reported foci consisted mostly of im-ages with no mention being made of body movements (eg ldquofeeling like a swanrdquo ldquoenergy expanding out in all directionsrdquo ldquospiralrdquo) thus represent-ing external foci As shown in a study with highly skilled Cirque de Soleil performers37 this may result from the fact that some dancers through their training and practice intuitively discover the benefits of thinking of metaphors rather than focusing on

their body movements It is also interesting that the pre-dominance of a certain type of focus appeared to be a function of the type of skill For instance a complex static balance over a relatively long duration as seen in the arabesque might promote an internal focus and entice performers to consciously try to maintain their balance and alignment by focusing on legs arms shoulders etc In contrast a pirouette where balance demands are combined and coordinated with dynamic rotation appears to lend itself to combinations of internal and external foci such as ldquolengthening diagonals in upper bodyrdquo ldquospiraling and openingclosing the armsrdquo or ldquopush off the floor and use your whole body to turnrdquo Finally the dynamic and ballistic motion of the grand jeteacute which leaves little time for conscious control likely explains the predominance of external images such as ldquogliding through airrdquo ldquoimagine jumping over somethingrdquo or ldquoreach for the skyrdquo Nevertheless even for the grand jeteacute more than half of the respondents (57) indicated that they partially adopted internal foci (internal focus or combination) Thus the results of our survey suggest that while some professional dancers seem to take advantage of the ldquopowerrdquo of an external focus by using metaphors analogies or other images not all dancers seem to have an optimal focus of attention at all times Indeed more often than not they tend to concentrate on their body movements which as reviewed in the Introduction has consistently been shown to result in less-than-optimal performance12 While it may seem daunting to give up conscious control attempts or even think of alternative appropriate external focus cues for certain skills we are confident that both dancers and teachers will im-mediately see the benefits and will use their creativity to generate appropriate foci or instructions Finally it should also be pointed out that benefits of an external com-pared to an internal focus have been shown for a variety of skills ranging from pressing piano keys or ham-

Figure 1 Percent of responses suggesting the adoption of internal or external foci or a combination of the two for various movements

Figure 2 Exercise to encourage the extension of five lines of the arabesque out into space (external focus)


mers5 to driving golf balls40 although the advantages of an external focus are especially pronounced when the skill is difficult or complex214 and advantages of an external focus have been demonstrated in situations that involved pressure including audience presence841 Furthermore instructions promoting an external focus have been found to enhance not only the perfor-mance of experienced athletes but also of beginners38 people of age groups ranging from children42 to older adults43 healthy people and those with injuries1044 motor impairments caused by stroke45 or Parkinsonrsquos dis-ease13 or intellectual disabilities4 If dancersrsquo focus and ballet teach-ersrsquo instructions are similar (internal versus external ratio) to those used by athletes sport coaches38 and phys-iotherapists39 then there remains ample bandwidth for adjustments to be implemented in ballet practice including the developing fields of dance practice for older adults and dance for people with Parkinsonrsquos disease Research findings suggest that simple modifications to the wording of instructions can lead to immediate enhancement of performance and have a long-term impact on the sus-tainability of the technique In dance there are several potential external foci to which attention could be directed such as the relation to the floor a dance partner the music the sound of a movement the surrounding air or the movement of a prop Thus a shift to an external focus could be as simple as a return to a focus on the musicality of the movement or the relationship and communication with another performer Yet external foci employed in a ballet context can also be imaginary Imagining the effect of onersquos move-ment on the air or the universal energy field or imaginary surrounding water would constitute an external focus Also when imagining a continuation of the limbs and their movements and shapes out in space like a laser light extending out through the limbs and crown to facilitate lengthening and extension in adage the whole movement effect is traced multi-

directionally in space in the imagina-tion of the dancer Figure 2 shows a ballet exercise designed to promote an external focus to encourage the si-multaneous extension of the five lines of the arabesque out into space The dancerrsquos proprioceptive sense of the external proximal touch of her peers provides both an immediate effective external cue and a lasting recall cue for the dancer Anecdotal evidence also suggests that a more distal external image such as ldquoreach down into the rock and up to the rainrdquo rather than ldquopress the floor away and reach for the ceilingrdquo (external proximal image) can promote additional vertical stabil-ity to facilitate the one-foot dynamic balance and coordinated rotation of a pirouette en dehors for example These benefits experienced in practice are commensurate with the findings of the extensive research literature on attentional focus and motor skill learning of the last two decades1 and with the key role an external focus of attention has in a new theory of motor learning46

References1 Wulf G Attentional focus and motor

learning a review of 15 years Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 20136(1)77-104

2 Wulf G Attention and Motor Skill Learning Champaign IL Human Kinetics 2007

3 Wulf G Su J An external focus of attention enhances golf shot accuracy in beginners and experts Res Q Ex-erc Sport 2007 Sep78(4)384-9

4 Chiviacowsky S Wulf G Aacutevila L An external focus of attention enhances motor learning in children with intel-lectual disabilities J Intellect Disabil Res 2012 Jul57(7)627-34

5 Duke RA Cash CD Allen SE Focus of attention affects performance of motor skills in music J Res Music Educ 201159(1)44-55

6 Land WM Tenenbaum G Ward P Marquardt C Examination of visual information as a mediator of external focus benefits J Sport Exerc Psychol 2013 Jun35(3)250-9

7 Stoate I Wulf G Does the atten-tional focus adopted by swimmers affect their performance Int J Sport Sci Coach 20116(1)99-108

8 Bell JJ Hardy J Effects of at-tentional focus on skilled perfor-mance in golf J Appl Sport Psychol 200921(2)163-77

9 Jackson BH Holmes AM The ef-fects of focus of attention and task objective consistency on learning a balance task Res Q Exerc Sport 2011 Sep82(3)574-9

10 Laufer Y Rotem-Lehrer N Ronen Z et al Effect of attention focus on acquisition and retention of pos-tural control following ankle sprain Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007 Jan88(1)105-8

11 McNevin NH Shea CH Wulf G Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning Psychol Res 2003 Feb67(1)22-9

12 Wulf G Houmlszlig M Prinz W Instruc-tions for motor learning differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention J Mot Behav 1998 Jun30(2)169-79

13 Wulf G Landers M Lewthwaite R Toumlllner T External focus instruc-tions reduce postural instability in individuals with Parkinson disease Phys Ther 2009 Feb89(2)162-8

14 Wulf G Toumlllner T Shea CH At-tentional focus effects as a function of task difficulty Res Q Exerc Sport 2007 Jun78(3)257-64

15 Abdollahipour R Wulf G Psotta R et al Performance of a gymnas-tics skill benefits from an external focus of attention J Sports Sci 201533(17)1807-13

16 McNevin NH Wulf G Attentional focus on supra-postural tasks affects postural control Hum Mov Sci 2002 Jul21(2)187-202

17 Wulf G McNevin N Shea CH The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus Q J Exp Psychol A 2001 Nov54(4)1143-54

18 McKay B Lewthwaite R Wulf G Nordin A The self your own worst enemy A test of the self-invoking trigger hypothesis Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 201568(9)1910-9

19 Wulf G Lewthwaite R Effortless motor learning An external focus of attention enhances movement ef-fectiveness and efficiency In Bruya B (ed) Effortless Attention A New Perspective in Attention and Action Cambridge MA MIT Press 2010 pp 75-101

20 Baumeister R Choking under pressure self-consciousness and


paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance J Pers Soc Psy-chol 1984 Mar46(3)610-20

21 Buckner RL Andrews-Hanna JR Schacter DL The brainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance to disease Ann NY Acad Sci 2008 Mar11241-38

22 Northoff G Qin P Nakao T Rest-stimulus interaction in the brain a review Trends Neurosci 2010 Jun33(6)277-84

23 Lohse KR Sherwood DE Healy AF How changing the focus of attention affects performance kinematics and electromyography in dart throwing Hum Mov Sci 2010 Aug29(4)542-55

24 Lohse KR Sherwood DE Healy AF Neuromuscular effects of shifting the focus of attention in a simple force production task J Mot Behav 201143(2)173-84

25 Vance J Wulf G Toumlllner T et al EMG activity as a function of the performerrsquos focus of attention J Mot Behav 2004 Dec36(4)450-9

26 Neumann D Brown J The effect of attentional focus strategy on physi-ological and motor performance during a sit-up exercise J Psychol 201327(1)7-15

27 Schuumlcker L Hagemann N Strauss B Voumllker K The effect of attentional focus on running economy J Sports Sci 2009 Oct27(12)1242-8

28 Marchant DC Attentional focusing instructions and force production Front Psychol 2011 Jan 261 210

29 Porter JM Ostrowski EJ Nolan RP Wu WFW Standing long-jump per-formance is enhanced when using an external focus of attention J Strength

Cond Res 2010 Jul24(7)1746-5030 Porter JM Anton PM Wu WFW

Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances standing long jump performance J Strength Cond Res 2012 Sep26(9)2389-93

31 Wulf G Zachry T Granados C Dufek JS Increases in jump-and-reach height through an external focus of attention Int J Sport Sci Coach 20072(3)275-82

32 Wulf G Dufek JS Lozano L Pet-tigrew C Increased jump height and reduced EMG activity with an external focus of attention Hum Mov Sci 2010 Jun29(3)440-8

33 Wulf G Dufek JS Increased jump height with an external attentional focus is due to augmented force production J Mot Behav 2009 Oct41(5)401-9

34 Wulf G Lauterbach B Toole T Learning advantages of an external focus of attention in golf Res Q Exerc Sport 1999 Jun70(2)120-6

35 Wulf G Weigelt M Poulter DR McNevin NH Attentional focus on supra-postural tasks affects balance learning Q J Exp Psychol A 2003 Oct56(7)1191-211

36 Pascua LAM Wulf G Lewthwaite R Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expec-tancy for motor learning J Sports Sci 201533(1)58-66

37 Wulf G Attentional focus effects in balance acrobats Res Q Exerc Sport 2008 Sep79(3)319-25

38 Porter JM Wu WFW Partridge JA Focus of attention and verbal instruc-tions strategies of elite track and field coaches and athletes Sport Sci Rev 201019(3-4)199-211

39 Durham K Van Vliet PM Badger F Sackley C Use of information feedback and attentional focus of feedback in treating the person with a hemiplegic arm Physiother Res Int 2009 Jun14(2)77-90

40 An J Wulf G Kim S Increased carry distance and X-factor stretch in golf through an external focus of atten-tion J Mot Learn Dev 201312-11

41 Totsika V Wulf G The influence of external and internal foci of atten-tion on transfer to novel situations and skills Res Q Exerc Sport 2003 Jun74(2)220-5

42 Wulf G Chiviacowsky S Schiller E Gentilini Aacutevila LT Frequent external-focus feedback enhances learning Front Psychol 2010 Nov 111190

43 Chiviacowsky S Wulf G Wally R An external focus of attention enhances balance learning in older adults Gait Posture 2010 Oct32(4)572-5

44 Rotem-Lehrer N Laufer Y Effects of focus of attention on transfer of a postural control task following an ankle sprain J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2007 Sep37(9)564-8

45 Fasoli SE Trombly CA Tickle-De-gnen L Verfaellie MH Effect of instructions on functional reach in persons with and without cerebro-vascular accident Am J Occup Ther 2002 Jul-Aug56(4)380-90

46 Wulf G Lewthwaite R Optimizing performance through intrinsic moti-vation and attention for learning the OPTIMAL theory of motor learn-ing Psychon Bull Rev January 29 2016 httpdxdoiorg103758s13423-015-0999-9


possible on an unstable surface such as a balance platform9-12 an inflated rubber disk1314 or a solid surface1516 Depending on the task researchers measured average deviations of the platform from the horizontal or the amount of postural sway as a function of the instructed focus of attention Consistently when participants were asked to concentrate on keeping the platform or disk still (external focus) their stability was significantly en-hanced relative to a concentration on keeping their feet still (internal focus) Thus a small difference in the atten-tional focus or in the wording of in-structions had a significant influence on balance performance It should be pointed out that participantsrsquo vision in those studies was controlled by asking them to look straight ahead thus the only difference between conditions or groups was in the attentional focus or concentration Motion analyses have revealed that when performers adopt an external focus they tend to utilize to a greater extent automatic (ie unconscious fast reflexive) processes as evidenced by high frequency low amplitude movement adjustments that result in enhanced motor performance (eg balance) In contrast with an internal focus on their own move-ments performers tend to constrain their motor system by using conscious control processes that are relatively slow and interfere with automatic control mechanisms17 Consequently performance is less than optimal The greater automaticity resulting from an external focus is also reflected in reduced attentional demands That is when performers adopt an external relative to an internal focus they show better performance on secondary (eg cognitive) tasks that are performed simultaneously with the motor task By directing attention to the task goal and away from body movements an external focus reduces a focus on the self1819 A focus on the self has fre-quently been shown to impair motor performance20 Further access to the self seems to be associated with the default mode of brain activation21 and task-related activation requires switch-

ing away from the self network22 An external focus on the intended move-ment outcome prevents self-activation and thus optimizes movement coor-dination19 The effect is seen at both the inter- and intra-muscular level The result is seen in greater movement efficiency including reduced muscu-lar activity23-25 heart rate26 oxygen consumption27 greater maximum force production28 etc Studies have shown that participants jump higher or farther with an external focus and that they do so with less muscular effort This is due to a more efficient recruitment of motor units and reduced co-contractions of agonists and antagonists24 In some studies in which participants performed a stand-ing long jump they jumped farther when they were asked to concentrate on jumping as far as possible past the start line29 or on a cone that was placed at a 3 m distance from the start line30 compared to focusing on the exten-sion of their knees In other studies participants performed maximum vertical jumps3132 When instructed to concentrate on the horizontal rungs of a measurement device that they attempted to displace they jumped higher than when they were asked to concentrate on their fingers with which they were about to displace the rungs or were not given instructions (control condition) It has been shown that performers produce greater forces when they focus on the intended outcome of their jump33 It is also interesting to note that an external focus is typically more effective when it is more distal that is farther away from the body than a proximal focus close to the body such as the intended trajectory of a golf ball versus the mo-tion of the golf club8 or markers on a balance board that are farther away from the feet relative to markers close to the feet11 While the findings are clear one might wonder what a ballet dancer should focus on in the absence of implements unstable surfaces or measurement devices Instead images analogies or metaphors might be used to induce an external distal focus34 Trying to produce a certain image di-

rects attention away from body move-ments and on to the intended effect or outcome of the action Another pos-sibility is to actually attach stickers or markers to the performer which can serve as external proximal attentional cues In one recent study15 skilled 12-year-old gymnasts performed a vertical maximum jump with a 180deg turn while airborne with the hands crossing in front of the chest during the turn The skill required not only maximum force production but also high precision (eg alignment feet positioning landing) as any imper-fection resulted in a deduction When participants were asked to concentrate on the direction in which a tape marker on their chest was pointing after the turn both jump height and movement quality were significantly enhanced compared with instructions to focus on the direction in which their hands (in front of their chest) were pointing or a control condition It is noteworthy that practice devices such as markers (on clothing) do not need to be present later for example during performance on stage Rather practice with external cues has been shown to have relatively permanent positive effects in the long-term even when they are absent35

Interestingly in the vast majority of studies that included control condi-tions or groups without specific focus instructions performances under internal focus and control conditions did not differ from each other while an external focus enhanced performance or learning1 It appears that perform-ers spontaneously tend to focus on their own movements when they are not instructed otherwise636 Only in very few casesmdashthose involving elite performersmdashdid the external focus instructions not result in more effec-tive performance than control condi-tions in which performers used their ldquonormalrdquo focus of attention In one of those studies world-class balance acrobats (Cirque du Soleil) performed a relatively simple balance task (ie standing on an inflated disk)37 In this case balance was controlled more automatically in the control condition than with external (ldquokeep disk stillrdquo)





























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