i
c The Iconography of
the Archangel Michael on
Byzantine Icons
By , \.: Glenn Alan Peers
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A thesis submitted to 1 the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research . . ' 1n partial fulfillment of the requ1rements
for the degree of Master of Arts.
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Department of Art His,tory
McGill University
q September 1986
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Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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perm?-r.ion ha. been granted to the National Library of èanada to microfilm this thesis and to lend o~ sell
5 opi;es C?~ the f!lm.' l •
<' 1' .. "',--; .. The.author (copyright owner)
r' li a s r e~s e r v e dot h e'r publica'tion rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extrac~s from it May .be printed Or othe.rwise reproduced without his/her writt.en permission.
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- 1 SBN 0-315':'38148-S
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4 The Iconography of
the Archangel Michael on
Byzantine Icons
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ABSTRIACT - '
Certairi~character1stics of the Archangel Michael that are found on • "9
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B'yzànt1.ne and post-Byzantine icons contribute 'ta our understanding10f l '
the importance of Michael's cult. These icons describè,to a ·large
e'xtent tne role of, the Archangel in or'thodox belief. Hé i8 1dentlfied
as a member' of tt celest"ial court, and a1so as the leader of the '"
heavenly host:' hus, he ..1. th,' 'protector of the fà1thful 'and' the . . \
performer of miracles on ,their behalf. oOn yet another g~f icons
he 1s the angel psychopomp, or the bearer of the soul 'sfter death •
• These icons indicate' ~he s1gnificance of the cult of Michael anq help . .. --- d
,U8 understa~d better'his place 1~ doctr~ne~ liturgy and pçpula;.be11ef.
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ABREGE "
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.. . ' . Certaines c"ara,cteris,tiques de l'Archange Miçhel, qui sont
. . d~crites sur les i'c8,nes .... de l' ~poque B~antine et post-Byzantinè',
contr!butent à notre connaissance du cul te de st. -Michel. !>
ces ic8nes l , \
d8crivent dans une .large m~sure le r6le de l'Archange dans la croyance . orl:hodolC@' •
. ~ Il est represent~ comme un membre de la cour céleste et
comme.' ~hef de 1" h8te c61este. . Aussi 1 il est le protecteur', des
G:royants et i~ accomp;li t des 41\iraéle.s pour eux. En outre f dans une ,
groupe d' ic$nes ~ 'il est i ' ange Psychopompé on le porteur de 1 ï âme , . (lprê, la mort.
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Ces ic6nes indiquent la portEe du culte de St. Michel
et nous aident ,cl mieux comprendre sa'p~ace dans la dq,ctrine, la
11. ~urlgi.e et la \Croyance pop~laire. 0
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.. Ackn~wlejlg~ments.
. '1 wish to thank Professor' G. Galavaris without whose adv!ce and -guidance this tnesis would not have been possible. 1 would a180 Itke
1 ~ to thank- Profellsor R. Bertos for his encouragement. 0
...L. The assistance of the Department of ArtoHistory Slide'
Lil:\ratian, Carol Jackman, was invaluable and 1 should llke to thank.
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/' > LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
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. 1. London" British Museum, Leaf of an ivory diptych with an " , , -arch~ngel. First half of the sixth century. 42.8 x 14 .3em.,
(Source: Weitzmann, The Age of Spirituality.] ,
2. Veniee, Pala d'Oro~ Detail: the Arch§ngel Michael on cloisonn~
enamel ~th precioùs stones. Tw~lfth eentury. Cen'..ral plaque of
the upper reg~""eri~he 'high d tar of San Marco. 34 .6"'x 34. 6cm •
[Source: M. Muraro, and A. Grabar. Treasures of Venice. Geneva,
1963·1
3. Ven1ee, Treasury of San Marco. Full 1ength Arehanse~ Mic,haft.
~,Rêpoussê reU.ef in gold, with en8{Dels. Tenth or eleventh eentury. "
,.40'.'18 x 'JO.9cm. [Source: M. Muraro, and A. Grabar. Treasures of
Veniee. Geneva, 1963.]
4. Berne, Private collection. Full length ~rehangel Michael •. 1749.
·83.5 x 3i.Sem. [Source: M. Chatzidakis. Les 1c8nes dans les <
collections suisses. Bern. 1~68.)
5. Veniee, Hellen1e Institute. Full ~ength Arehangel Michael. End
of the s1xteenth century. 62.S x 47;Scm. [Source:
M. C~atzidakis. IcOnes de St-George-des-Grecs et la collection de , l'institut. Veniee, n.d.] , .
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6. Sinal, Monastery of St.-Catherine's.Miracle of Michael at ChoQe.
, " , Firat half of twelfth century. 37.5 x 30.7em. [Source:
. We1tzmann, The,Icon.] -l '
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7. Venice, Hellenic Institute. Full len'gth Archangel 1>lichael.
Etghteenth centu:~ 32.5 x 2~Gm •• [SQtfrce: M. Chatzidakis.
IcOnes de St-George-des-GrecS .e.t. la collection de l r institut.
'ienice, n. d.]
8. Pisa, 'M'uSeo Civico. full length Archangel Michael. "'ôurteenth
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centuty. 28.6 x 21.65cm. [Source: V. Lazare'ff. "Ducçio and t •
Thirteenth. Cent ury Gree kr Icons. .. Bur fington Magazine 59 (1931)
154-li9. J
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Saglio
Dionysius of Fourna.
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G&lavaris, The Icon 'in theLife of the Church
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ABBREVIATIONS~
Acta Sanctorum. Ed. J. Bollandus et al. 64 vols. Paris, 1863 - 1910,
Dictionnaire dt arcMo1ogie chrêtlenne et de li turgie. Eds.- F. Cabrol and H. Leclerq. 15 vols. Paris, 1924-.
.. Dictionnaire des antiquids Grecques et Romains Q,
iprtis les texts et les monuments. Eds. c.v. Daremberg, E. 5aglio. 5 vols. Paris, 1877-1917 • ..
(.',,., -, Dionysius of Fourna EPlJTlVEI.-Cl Tf1!; Zwypaqll.xns Texvns. ed. A. Papadopoulos - Kerameus St. Pet'ersb~rg, 1909.
Dictionnaire de tht!010gie catholique. Eds. A. Vacant .. E. ,Mangenot. Wi vols. Paris, 1899-1950 •
• G. Galavaris. The Icon in The LHe pf The Church. Doctrine, Liturgy,'llevotion. Leiden, 1981.
Ginzberg, Legends L. Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, 7 vols. Phll~del phia, 1913. •
Goodenough, Jewish Sols
Grabar, L'Empereur
, Kitzinger, Byzantine Art ~ ,
P.w. -RAC -RBK -Sotirièru
1:CODS •
E. R. Goodenough. Period,. 13 vols.
Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman New York, 1956.
A. Grabar. L'Empereur dans l'art byzantin,. Strasbourg, 1936. Reprinted in 1964.
E. Kitzinger. Byzantine Art in the Makins,. Main l1nes of st listfc develo ment in Mediterranean
t.3rd to 7th Ce~tury. Cambridge, Mass., 1977. o
Paufyl s Real - encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft': Eds. A. F. Paul)"') G. Wissowa. 24 Vols. Stuttgart, 1894-1963,.
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Realléxikon f~r Antike und Christentum. Ed. T. Klauser. 12, VQls!,\.teipdg, 1941 .!.
Reallexikon zur byzantlschen Kunst. to date 4 vols. Stuttgart, 1963 -.
, , ., "" -G. & M./ Sotiriou. EI..XO·'ES Tns MO\)Tl~ Iwa. 2 vol~~ Athens, 1956.
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Wei tzmann, ~ of 'Spirituality ... ~
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K. Weit.zmann ed. ASe of Spirituality. LatJ Antique and Earll Chris-tian Art, Third to Seventh Century. Catalogue of the Exhibition a1: The Metropol1tan M~seum of Art, November 19, 1977
. Through February 12 t 1978. New York, 1979.
Wei1:zmann et al., K. "Weitzmann et aL Icons from Southeastern IcoDs Europe and 5ina1. London, 1968.
Wei tzmaun, "Classical"
Weitzmann, (
The Icon (1978)
Weitzmann et al., The Icon (1982)
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K. Wei tzmann. "The Classical in By-zantine Art "".. . as a Mode of Individual Expression. Byzantine,
Art. An European Art. LectuFes. Athens, 1966. pp.~ 149-177.
K. Wei tzmann ... ' "
The Icon. London, 1978. ~ "
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K. Weitzmann et. al. The Icon. ~w York, 1982.
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c PREFAM
In this thesis l shall attempt. to describe the figure of t'he 1
Archangel Michael by means of t'he lco~ography found on Byzantine and
post-Byzantine icons. In order ta analyze the context of these icons '" ,
it i8 nec,ssary ~o sJpplement my discussion with examples from other
media, 'and to see these .... representations in the light of the doctrine . '" (
and l1turg,y of, ~he Orthodox Church. The Judaic and Greco-Roman
traditions .. to whi,ch the Chrisr-ian cult of Michael is related, will
also bè examined~
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-T~e scope of this thesis will not allow a discussion of Russian-----
" icons. The subject 18 vast and it offers added comp-Iexities to the
toa!.c h~"::.-lll:'l~ of tht'! Inany' variations found in the R~ssian Church. j , However, l have added examples to the notes and at two occasions l have
. found it useful to mention Russian icons within a Byzantine contexte
By n~cessity &Ome j.cons of the post-Byzantine pe"rioà-h-ave been <&
tnalud.~d because the continuity of t~e .orthodox faith ensures a
constancy of ~iconography that can be c-onsiderec;i within this thesis.
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Tnis Is -aIl the mo're nece';'Sllry. on account of the :l.ack,.., of early icons of
Michael still extant, but these ~ate icons bear testimony to the
. enduring importance oJ the Arc~arigel Hlchael in the Church.
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The division into chapters in tlii:s' thesls is determihed by the . ,
dist:fJnct functions a,ssigned tO Mlc~ael and whic!l, are described on
icons. Under sep~rate headings l will discu~ss t;he various
iconoaraRhical elements that together comprise the c~ar~cter of
Micha~l within the iâf$ér historieal and religious contexte
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CHAPTER 1 -- MICHAEL IN THE eELESTa,L HIERARCHY
The ce~tral role of the ~ion of angels and archangels was the
service of God,' the supreme power of the universe, and the performance
of His will bath in heaven and on earth. This order of l..mI1latenal
beings existed to perform this service, ad rninisterium Dei. 1 Th~s
service can be expressed in an endless varl.ety of ways: to form the
court of heaven, to adore and praise God, and to serve God in the
performing of the manifpld functions of tue divine government in the
material world. ,
The archangeis and angels are the messengers of Gad as part of
their service. This involves not only the delivering of divine
revelation but aIso, the carry..inç- out of the commands of God in the J'
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world of men. And it ls by these very acts that the angels were known \
to exlst and this broad role of the messengers ot Gad became the basls
of their work, as perceiv~ by men. As ~tHe angels and archangels
appear in both the Old and th~' New Testaments "at moments when God
.i.ntimates His will, it was naturally ~~ messengers that 'they wcre #'
described by men. 2 The pagan pantheon had messengers, too', èf
, course. 3 Q \
Hermes was considere~ the gods 1 herald and .N~·ke, El
personification of victory, ~eliverêd messages of t~iumpn. 4 The
wlngs, seen invariably on the Christian angels froIn the. 4th or 5th
centur~ on 1 were borrowed from the Nike types 5, but this was not ta -
indicate an analogy of func.tion. Rather, despite the appar~nt
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similarity of appearances, the angels were involved in a myriad of
- -act~vities 'that were initiated by the COIIIIMlld of God and not
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\ '. consisting in the deliver~ng of the message of victory. The angels
-we~e not;, as Nike was, gods ànd therefore d,eserving of worship in
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themselves. 6 The angels were the .. ministers of the one Gad and thus
subject to His will. -The role of the Archa~gel Michael wi thin this order Qf angeltc
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beings' is fopnulated by the writings on the hierarchy of heaven. This
~fo'rmulation of a hierarC~y was attempted J',bY many Christian writers in.
~ order to present in a comprehensive manner the orders of divin~ beings
that were believed to exist. 7 In the Celestial Hierarchy ol pseudo-. (,
Dionysius tl)e Areopagi te, Michael i ,along wi thF'other Archangels ,~is
pla~ed in the choir of angels. The first order or hierarèhy,
according to DionysiJs, consi~ted ~pse nearest to Gad, the
Thrones, Ch~rubim, and seraPhim;)n the secQnd rank are the Powers,
DOminions, and virtuesi and in the third were ~~e Angels, Archangels, ~ ~ , ,y
'and Principalities. 8 The beings'of the first and second r~ks in this
system ~re closer to the illumination and perfection of God, but they
have not the contact w~th the world of men which theoArchàngels and
• Angeis have. The Archangels and Angels are still near to Gad and also
privy to His will, and they are the active members of the government
of God ill the mundane realm. ,Among this corps of angel:i;c beings it Is
Michael who ia admitted t? he of the first r,al.lk. .For Michael Is the " . ..
Leader of,the'Heave~ly Host, the P~ince of Heaven, and
, . In Jewlsh ,~adition,_and subsequently in the Christian
- tradition, Mic~ael was ëhos~n by God to be the special protector of
the nation of Israe1 10 and sQ,bis 'pre-éminent position in the host of
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angels is indicated: The election' of the people of Israel as the
'chosen people of ,Gad, 'and the belief that they were the object 'of
specia'l assistance, was an anc.i:ent Jr:wish tradition. 11 Sa, in onê of
the visions of Daniel, Michael appears· \rii th a si90 of Gad as the grea t .
prince ta defend Israel. 12, In, ancient legend it ls always Michael who
intervenes on behalf of -):Si."ael at Gad' s behest. 13 According to one
such legend, Michael commanded the seventy angels to)-teach the sevénty
languages unto the seventy families of Noah. . On the sarne day Michael
went to each nation and delivered to them the message with which God
. While the other angels were allot ted na t ions, ,
Michael • s special charge was Israel. In another legend, Michael . .. _ J
initiated Enoch into the secrets of wisdom t'~at Gad had commanded
Michael to relay.14 It ws the function of Michael to effect Gad's
"'-will and to make thi$ will manifest to men, but it was a s190 of the
.pre-eminence of Michael that. his charge was God 1 s chosen peo.ple •
. Th"is "expl'aiIlS the spe~ial at:tentibn that was sought. f~om the
Archangel ~ong Christians as welle Michael not only revealed the'
favour and disfavour of GOd ta His chosen nation, Michael also turned -- - --,
hi; active attention to those favoured by God in an all etitbracing
vigilance for the followers of Christianitl'. Michael was believed ta
be in the inner court of heaven, and one of those nearest ta· Gad, as , ,
''-. he was General and Prince. And sinee the \ ArC'hangels and Angels wel:'e
genera~ly considered to be !ntermedi~rî.es between Gad and man, .
Michael's special attention was often sought as tne most 'effective ... ,.
means of gaining Gad' s inter,cession. Thue, as we sha).~ see, ~Michael
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became the protector of many of the emperors of the Byzantine Empire
. as well as the guard-ian of the Christian faithful.
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The iconography of the Archangel Michael on Byzantine icons is Il.
determ1ned to a large extent by this beHef that Michael 1s a high
attendant in the court of heaven who protects and serves the court.
TO express thi.s role, Michael, thé attendant ,in the celestial court,
1s described 1n tenns that are taken from the art of the imperial '(/
court of the Byzantine empir~. 15 Conunonly or/, icons, f.1ichael, along
wi th the Archangel Gabriel, is shown flanking the Virgin and cnild who
represent- the QUeen of he aven and her son the Pantocrator. 16 An
example of thi.s group of ieons is seen on an ivory panel of the 6th \
century in the Staatliche Museen Preussi$cher KUlturbesitz in Berlin * '
where the Virgi.n and chilp are flanke? by two Arehangels, Michael and
Gabriel,17 and again on an Egyptian ~apef!ltry ieon ;rom the 6th century
in the Cleveland Musewn of Art, ln which Michael and Gab .. 'ri~l, both 1
ideQtified by inscriptions, stand'to 'eitlrer side of the enthroned .
-.. Virgin and ehild. 18 On a numbe~of icons, medallions of the two
Archangel.:. are placed ln the ùpper corners of the icon above the ~
enthroned Virgin and child. 19, .... . , The prototype of the composition is fOWld in iniperial art
. the emperor is shown rece1ving due -respect from 'bis sUbjects or >
enemies while his attendartts S~d near his throne. ..on consular
diptychs the consul is sometimes adored by two warriors or- two ~ ; ,
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personifications placed symmetrically to either side. As a natural
'" extension of art.1stic ideas concerning the courts of he aven and earth,
,4th oentury mosaies of A,postles ~d angels "'Adoring Christ were
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inspired by the impe;rial examples. 20 The mosaic on the spandrel of . ,
the arch of sta. Maria Maggiore in Rome is an exa,mple of this tran~fer " . of types from imperial to religious depictions of the same action. 21
In this way one finds that the ic~ns de~ictirig ~the Virgin and
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child flanked by their attendants and guardians take their symbolic' " ..
value from the iconography of the official life of the empire ~ This
composition states the supreme power of God and the position of his
attendants in the workings of His power. The royal family of heaven
is depicted in ~ll its splendour while 'Cheir attendants wait on their
conunand. The status ass,llIIled by the Aj'changels on accoUft of their
positioa-in the CO~Of heaven is described by thei; place next to
the. throne of the Mother of God •
As an attendan~1 in both the roles of a minist'cr and of the
general in the, service of' Gad, Michael is presented on Byzantine icons
with ±conographical attributes that indicate his positioa and role in
the heavenly hiel\archy. It is the sum of bhese iconographical .
, . . elements within certain contexts that describes the character ami
functions of the Archangel Michael: oespite the many varied .. , , 1
acti vi ties in which Michael is fm.gaged in the art of the Byzantine and
. post-Byzantine periods, it is the attributes given to Michael that are
constants for his depiction in art. These attributes, his clothing ...J
and what he holds, are the visual symbols that char~terise the role
of Michael. This role is a~so indicated in ?octrine, li turgy, and <
popular belief •
. • '.t'he leaf of an ivory diptych of the first third of the s,Ï'xth
century now in the British Museum iJ1 London.provides &. seminal 'èXàmple
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of the .~conography associated with the Arch~gel Michàel( (Fig. 1) .22
'II , This 1s' not to say that th1s ivory i8 a prototype for ~l)e subsequent '. ,
. . pQrtraya~ of Michael, rather this leaf provides a relat1ve~y early and,
• complete example of the type of icon in which Michael i5 presented as
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__ the Prince of heaven and attendant to the heavenly court. 'l'he
function of this le~f was a commemora1;ive diptych which had
connéctions with the imperial cult.23 Its importance at ,this point in , \
~~is the~is is for the iconographical elements of the leaf that 'are
ndt limited to this one leaf 'but can be found as attribl!tes in" the
depictions of Michael in Byzantine and post-Byzantine art.
The Ivory leaf SROWS a handsome, winged youth stan<ifng on a
f~ight ~f six steps. It is generally a9reed that this figure i~
Michael despite the fact ehat ,he i8 not identified by the
inscription. The Archangel weârs a tunic and pallium modelled in the . . . . . classical tradition with graceful and sweeping folds. In his right
hand he holds an orb surmounted by a j ewelled cross, while in his left
he holds a long staff. His sandatled feet awkwardly overlap the line )
f) of stairs. An ~rchiteçtural faC;ade is suggested by the use of columns"
\ and an arch that frame the figure. "
The fluted columns rise on bath
F sides to intricately.carved capitals with acanthu8. The arch that
• . joins the ::wo columns encloses a ~callop shell. This scallop shell .
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holds a :-œeath wtthil1 which ls a cross 10 The refiried modelling and 1 . ,
stilled carving leave little doubt that this was a deluxe product made
by a workshop, probahly in Constantinople, for the imperial court • r
• The insignia of officé found on this leaf, the orb, the staff, . the dress, are established conventions of depicting Michael on
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Byzantine'icons. These insignia are indications of the status and
power of the Archangel, Michael in the divine realm, since they are
Dased on thë iconography of 'imperial art. 24 This interplay of 1 _
artistic ideas between imperial and religious art 1ends recognisable .-
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points of'reference because rank is assumed by the possession of these
symbols of power. To begin\with, the staff has a long history as a
symbol of authority out s,ide of imperial art., Moses, for one, is give~ .'
a s~aff by God to do his work. 25 Among the Greeks it had,.of course,
a great variety of meanings depending on,the type ot staff • ... Generally, it too ~as an attribute of a figùre in a position de~erving
of respec,t. 26 Und~r the Rom~s, the staf~ became a symbol of dignity
or command. 27 During the Rep~lican period the staff was given to
military commanders only, but in the Imperial period, 'tHe staff became
one of the symbol~ of th~ emperor's office.' In early Christian art, - "
in the hands ôf Christ, the staff is alsign of his power.- ln"the
raisfng of Lazarus, for instance, Christ uses the staff to bring
Lazarus magica11y back·to life. 28 "This idea of the author~ty of the ,
holder of the staff is found in Christian writing. 29 The staff that
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Michael holds in the B~itish Museum leaf is a ~ymbol of his celestial
'power derive,si from Christ Himself.
This de1ega~ion of power ls seen on secular diptychs of the
sarne periode On the diptych of probus of 406 in the cathedral
Treasury in Aosta, for instance, the consul Probus is shown in the . .
imperator ,~se as a Roman soldier 'holding a staff of t.l)e s~e type as
Michael holds on British Museum ivory.30 T?e scipio eburneus is the . , most" common ta tQe office of the cons~l, for example. i!'t'te symbolic
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val~ gf the staft clearly had an established lineage, althqugh a
number of otqer types of staffs can be found ,in art. As a ,s~l it
signifies the power 'and authority of its bear~r and in Chti~tian ! , .
terms, this becomes a symbo~ of Michael's office, delegated by Gad to
his envoy. , . Michael holds this st~ff of. office frequentlyon icons. There
. are sligh~variations, but·this can be accounted for by the time span .. 1.. ..
and the disper§l.on of the icoJ;l.ography over a wide area. On a 12th.
. () .-century,icon from Mt. Sinaï, for example, Michael is dressed in the , , ,
usual chlamys while in his left hand he holds a staff. 31 ,
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The half length figure of Michael found on an enamel icon trom,
'. èonstantinople ~nd now in Venice holds an elaborate staff or. ,
~ce~tre.32 Similarly, on the 6th c~ntury icon from 'tqypt in the . Cleveland Museum of Art, Michael holds this insignia of offiè~.33
These few examples indicate that tue staff was a conventiopal
attribute qf rank and authority for the Archangel. The globe that the , ~; ,
Archangel holds in his r~ght hëptd in t~e British Museum i-qory is
another symbol of the Archangel' s position of authority. This globe . ... with its., ancient traditions of sovereicpÏty belongs to Mich~el ~s a
sign of his èxalted position and ~t is 80lel}" an attr~bute of tp,e \ 1 •
Archangels Michael and Gabriel. 34 \
According to some scholars the orb surmounted by a cross is a ,
variation of the type of gloPe upon wh~ch a small victory figure , .
stands. This latter, type was common in' the Late' Antique pe.riod on . '
coins, for instance, with se~ted personifications~of cities holding a
staff, and gJ:obe wi th a Nika. 35 The g'lope and nike type is found on
" , .
1 , J , " 1
l'
r r'·
.1
l "
"
o
.(
•
. the Barbèrini\~p~ych in thé Louvre, which iSfc~ntemporary to the
British Muse~ ivory mentioned above. 36 The èross on the globe i8
simply ~ substitution for thé Nike on the globe. After the vision of
constantine, the cross becamè the nikephorus symbol that tpe winged
The orb itself,had long been a symbol of authority, but JI. '( ,
surmount~d by the cross the Iilource of .~he autQ.9rit~ was made '. ,'\ . ,explicit. For ex~ple, in secular art of the imperia1 f~i1y, the
empress Ariadne is depicted on ~n ivory in the Kunsthistorisch~s ~ \ 1
Museum, in Vienna,'possib1y of the.6th century, holding the g~obus
9
cruéifer in her .right hand and a staff" in her 1eft. 38 Thus, the
insignia of imper~al power and its .p>x:igins in heaven are displayed in
the po~vention~l manné~ of ~pe~ial art.
The Ar.changel. Michael a1so disp1ays the insign~a of his
ce+estia1 power'on icons. On a' 12th cetitury àton~ icon in the
Frieder~ch-Mu~eum in'Bêr1in, 'Michael ho1ds thé orb withr
the cross and , v
staff. 39 On,a painted icon o~e 11th century from Tsvirmi in
, Georgia i Michael is shawn wi th the same globe and staff. 40- Moreover; . .
these attr~butes are found in monumental arE as we11. 41
" The analogy of'depiction in the art of secular and religio~s
realms 1s imme4!ately apparent, and it denotes comparable statua and
~
Although, the orb w1~h a cross on top was a common
there were variations on this ,symbol. The common factor
recal1ed the source of the authority and the high
n of the holder. The cross, ~n fact, is found on certain icons
orb which Michael carries. 42 Qn an icon fram cyprus o~ the
..
c •
.. 10
. 14th èentury, Michael hol4s an orb which con tains a bust ·~f Christ
immanuel. 44 Mich~el is also shown holding an orb with the Chi-Ro ,
monoqram. 4S The orb may contain the XDK inscriptions which refers to,
it would seem, Christos Dikaios Krites or Christ the Equitable
Judge. 46 The orb may a1so he transparent. 47 The convêntions of the
significance of the orb ;ndicate~~he office ~hich Miçhael holds,
reqardless of the vàri9~ possibili~ies for presenting the orb itself. " 0
~ These ico~ographical attri~utes refer to Michael's place of (
favour 'in heaven. other details indicate t~e same privilege. The
ttinic and pallium of the British ivory 1s a1so a sign of sanctity and
high standinq. When the saints and angels. of Christiani ty were
dressed in the~e ancient robéS, it announced in some way correspondinq
to 'that of the pagan philosophera and gods, thèi~ special sanctity,.48
~è white colour symbolised ~e incorruptability 1 purlty , and ) .
immortality of the;'~arer.49 The iconogrâphical conventions of this
'-' tyJé of dres~, which was begun in pagan art and continued in that of .
, , the Chri~tians, signifiedpthat the figure portrayed in this costume
~ssessed a symbolic nature of heavenly glory • . "
In·the same manner, a type of dre~s that had its origins in /
• secular usages, the imperial loros, was frequently used to portray the
Archangels in terms wqrthy of the digl),ity and authority. of their .= station. It became increasingly common from ap,Proximately the 7th
~
century on to have the Archangels..,.Michael and Gabriel wear th1's robé .. ,'
The loros was an explicit reference to the imperial status and it was , - '"
• appropriated by artists ta state an analogy of standing between the
Ai'changels and the dignity C?f the imperial qffice.
, 1
"
, ,
".
'.
,.
11
-The loros was orlginally a consular robe'called a trabea
triumphalis or a toga plcta from its coloured edgé. It ia depiçted
frequently on consular ëllptychs as the robe of that office. 'For,
instance, on the ivory diptych of the Consul Anastasius,in the
Biblioth~qUe Nationale Ln paris, the insignia of office are the mapp~
circensis 1 the linen handkerchief "dropped by the consul to signify the
~9inning of the games, the sciPl0 eb~neus, and the loros. 50' '-
• ' 1 Eventually, the lotos was !!j!rrowed down ~to a long scarf
ù that
was richly embroidered on bath sides. The scarf can De traced from
- .. ,ankle level in front of tl'J,e body t up to the right shoulder and over
, ", it" and under the right arm; it is draped aeross the wearer's chest
and over the left shoulder; then it falls diagonally aeross the baek
and under the right arro'at theowaist; it r~sts on the wearer's lap and " ~. ,
~inally is draped loosely ,over the left arm. Thi~ rather elaborate
garment was simplifie4 ~represeptations of the 9th century and this
si~plifi~d version bec~e sta~dard by the 10tb. Tais version of the
J.. ' loros was agaln a broad embroidered scarf w9rn on the front of the
,body, but went over bath shoulders as it would, searn to have had an
openïng ~or the head. It was then brought aeross the back"and under ~ ,
the wearer's right arm, and acro~s the waist and over the right
shoUlder. ' f "-tt, ls difficult to he precise as to when the emperOr began to
~ear·the loros. It 8eems ~ikeiy that the loros was used in certain 1
ceremonies by the 7th cen1;ury. By the 9th century, when we find an . '
incr.ased number of representati6ns of this type of dress, tbls !
\
. imper.1al robe )lad become a, garment worn a:lso by the archangels. 51 ·It ..
"
. \
--
o .. j
, • 12
is tound for exaœple. in the 9th century frescoes of the. Casa di
Giovanni e Paolo beneath sin clemente in RQme where the archangels,
both wearing the loros, flank Chris~.52 Thé analogy of imperial dress
and that of the Archangels 18 made explicit by an exceptional piece, a
fragment of an ivo~y'sceptre now in the Friedrich-Museum in Berlin. 53
. On this ivory of the 9th century the Virgin is shown cro~ing the
emperor Leo VI while à,n ardhangel stands to the Virgin 1 s left. Both
the empero.r and the archàngel, bésides holding 'the same lnsignia of
i power, a staff and orb, wear the same garment', the loros. 1t is
~ ,
probablé that a piece, such as this ivory, ls responsïble for the
spread of this&type of 'representation in the west and east.
Reqardl~ss, -it is explicit about the relatlonship between the
portrayal, of the archangel and ife emperor.. . \ '
Ourinq th~ 7th century ~e loros became associated'~ith the .
religious authority of the emperor. It seems that the emperor \wore
. ~he loros in certain ceremônies such as those on the tirst of January , and Easter, ~s weIl as during tne distribut+on of largesse to the
~pulace.54 It would also have been' worn at 'certain times~ it
appears, by the Patriarch. -The loros itself may symbolise in this
religious context the winding sheet of Christ and, by its brilliant ' \
decoration, the resurrection.S~
. The loros was ~pprQpriate to the Archangels as a symbol of , 1
.their position in the hierçarchy of heaven. The 'loros sU9'gests that • . ~ . the Archangel ~e the., celestla1 equivalent to the station of the , . ... ~ .... ". .
. .~,../-t-""
this governmental fùnction tPe Archangels ~ve'à' ' - , " ~'-. ~ ,.
the celestial Church. 56 The'~calypse placJi"S -~ . \
• '1
. high position 1
t
o
1
'c
o
• 'y 5
Archangels at the head of the Church. S7 loriqen first calls the ,
Archangels the-spiritual Bishops58 and he is followed in this \1
'~iftterpretatiàn by st. Basil59 and Gregory Nazinzenus60 in the east,
Among these
,13
and in the west by St. ~rose61 and bY,St. Hilary.62
spiritual Bishops it is"Michael who holds first rank~ In one source,
God says ta Miçhael, "Thou art my priest in he aven ... 63 In the
" as the prince of paradlse. In this conte~t it
Mary, MiC~ael)appears
denotes Michael's ~
, Christian pseudepigraphic work, the passing of
f~ction as th~ high priest in the heavenly tempre, which is another
expression for paradise.64 Michael's'status in the heavenly hierarchy '\ ~
is analogous to tqe hierarchies'of the political and ecclesiastical " 0
realms fr~m which the iconography of the Aichangels derlve. 4'
The Angels and hrchangels, in fulfillment of this bellef in.
ponception of their status in heaven, were t~ought to perform the
eelestial liturgy that p~rallels th~ mundane in its adoration of God.
one factor in this conception of Michael and th~ angelic host
participating in the celestial liturgy was the description of the
angels by pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite as the missing ontologicai
link between the visib!e and invisible worlds. 65 In addition to this ,
philosophical contention there was the practical liturgical
. -.. Wlderstandinq that the body of the Church worshipped Gad in the
company of the angelie ~ost.66< The liturgy lent c~ntinual
understandinq to. this sense. In the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom it .
ls expressed in this way; "
.. ' "
.. ~ 14
Holy ie God l who i8 worshipped and glorified by a multitude of hQly angels and archangels invisibly trembling before him. Holy i.s God, who looks with unsleeping sight upon the many-eyed cherubim and ceaseless sound ~. •• and mounted upon the six winged serfPhim. 67 .
And eimilarly in the Liturgy of Basil, Gad is called the one who had
"established brigades and armies of angels and archangels for the , >
service of thy glory.~168 The angels were con~ijered fellow , '
worshippers. According to MaximUf3 the Confessor, the rituals and
sac~ents performed by men on earth were an imitation of the hea,venly
.hierarchy.69 And so himitating the angels in heaven, we are found to
be worshipping Gad through all things. n70 In this respect the liturgy
is found to he more explicit than dogma: J
Thua, on the icons mentioned above the Archangels standing in -.. attendance on the Virgin and chilà are also acting as fellow
worshippers in that they too worship the divinity of God made
manifeste The ~change~s can ~ depicted on icons in the~perfo~ce I\f
of the celestial equivalent to the earthly liturgy. In one'such role, ,
Michael is allegorically represented as the Deaèo~-who takes part in ., tha'Agios section of the.liturgy. On an icon from the Monastery of
Vlattadon in Thessaloniki of the 14th century, there is su ch an
~llegorical saene. 71 The icon is divided into two registers. The
upper register shows Christ Pantocrator worshipped by two angels. .
Below is the Virgin ~lanked by Micha~l and John the Baptist. According
to Andreas XyÙgopoulos, this lower register i5 a symbolic .. '
representéfotion of the proscomidie. Th~ Virgi'n symbolises the
offering, John "fs the'sriest who celebtates mass, and Michael is the
deacon who assists him.
-,
, .. c
li
.. ..
( i
-
1.0 \
15
\ Since, the church where the 1.i turgy ~ enacted ls 'the
terrestrial heaven,72 the hierarchy of heaven applies equally to the -urçh. Thus, Michael . in his role as prince of hea ~en f
lace' among the heavenly worshippers as the priest and deacon ,
hold plac.e ,among the worshipping body. On icons, and in monumental
\
art, Michael is represente~ as the Deacon who reci tes the Trisaghion
of the liturgy. This 'is the invocation 'of the Prothesis office and
" precedes the,Little Entrance at the Mass. The Greek ve~slon runs ~n . "
translation: Holy Gad, Holy power J Holy Undying One, save us. 73 To
represe~t his invocation Michael, as weIl as the other archangels,
holds ,a staff wlth a banner reading Agios,. Agios, Agios, whlch ls
termed the Trisaghio~.
This standard, the Trisaghfon, 19 modelled on the labarum. The i ~
labarum was originally a Roman military standard to which'Constantlne. "
added' thé C?:i:.-RO symbol. This nikephorus 'sign wils associated with the
• word~ ;:;een by const~n ttn:1 0 Conquer by this r sign • The Trlsaghion also
Qecomes a symbbl of the vlctory of the truth inherent in the liturgy. • • , Co ."
For instance, in the Menologion of Basil II Michael is shown hoiaing
~ thé Trisaghion whil.& beneath him a small devil. falls ,into an abyss at
his feet. 74 Michael is"not active in defeating the devil rather it is ,
the victory of the power of the standard and i ts symbole
The sYmbolism of the Trisaghion was applied prima'rily ta the
11turgy: The angels, par~icularly Michael, participéJted. in the
li turgy and' by their standards and by their presence invoke the
. witness of Goa.. 75 This liturgical symbolism is found on th~ cloisson6
enamel icon of the 12th century on the High Altar of San Marco in " ,
)
(
16
Venice (fig. 2).76 On this icon Michael, wearing the loros, P91ds the
staff with the Agios banner in the company ~f seraphim and saints.
The angelic host is entitlej to thi~ office since ip the liturgical
invocation it is the angels who are called upon. 77 On another icon of , .
the mid 15th century' posf~ibly from Thessaloniki, Gabriel is shawn • r
car~ying-the Trisaghion. 78 Michael stands to the right of Gabriel bu~
the fragmentary condition of this icon does 'not allo~one to state his
action.
The,liturgical symbolism of ~nis type of icon is explicitly
stated by the representa~ions of Archang~ls holdinq the Trisaghion 1. ,
placed on the sanctuary walls. The sanctuary is where the offering is ,
p"'epared and i 't:: la rese.rved for the clergy only'. Symboli.eally i t
represent!~the "heaven 'of h~avens" accordi~g to St'. symeon of
Thessalo~iki.7.9 In the Ghurch of the Do~ition, at Nicaea there were .
eight Archangels, all wearing the loros, who held the Trisaghion.90
Th~se mosaics, placed on the wall of the sanctuary, are meant to
accompany a specifie momentof the liturgy. The words of the'
standards echo, in another realm, the words of the li turgy in whioh the
ceiest~al host of angelsïs see~ worshipping in all eternity. Théy
-~re the ~upernatural equivalents to the mortal worshippers. The icons
of Michael with the Trisaghion refer to the same moment in the •
liturgy, "and refl~ct the bellef in the Archangel's participation as ..
de{lcon or priest. Dressed in the aumptuous loros with its imperial . and patriarchal lineage, Michael is removed to a perfect and peaceful , wo~ld where he ls seen 'to have a primacy of place, in the adoratJ..on "of "
God.
'.
ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 1. .. 1. E. Schnewels, ~ngels and Demons Accordlng to Lacçantius
(Washington, D.C., cl944) 23-,24; A. Vacant, "Anges," B!f, l, 1212ff. -
2. Deut. XXXIII, 2; Jub l, 27; Gert. XXII, 15~18; Judges,X~II, 3; 1 Kings XIX,' 5; MI!-th. l, 20; Il, 13; VIl.I, 2, 5; Luke l, 11, 26; XX, 43; Joa. XX, 12; Acts V 19; VII, 53; VII, 26; X 3; .Xll, 7; XVII, 23; 9'a1. III, .19; Heb. IX, 2; J. Daniêlou, Les ange's et leur mission (Chevetogne, 1951) 14ff.; DTC, I,·1192ff.
3. F~ Cumont, "Les anges du paganisme," R~vue de l'histoire des religions 71 (1915): 163ff., and Schneweis, op. cit., 7ff.
>
_4. ~, l, 2111f!. Il
17
5. Thè subject of th:ts interaction is vast and lies outside of thisessaye The most important work Is A.C.M. Beek, '"{;enien und Nlken aIs Engel in der altchristlichen Kunst (Düsseldorf, 1936). cf" also F. Landsberger, "The Origin of the Winged. Angel ln Jewish Art," Hebrew Union College Annual 20 (1947): 227-254, and G. Beréfelt, A Study on the Wlnged Angel (Stockholm, 1968), and l. E. Ellinger, "Winged Figures," Studies Presentèd to David Moore Robinson, 2 vols. (St. LOtlis, 1953) Il, 1185-1190.
" 6'. For instance cf. Lactant1us, De di v. Ins,t., l, 7, 8.
i. For a general discussion cf. B!f, 1., 1206ff. and ~, 1, 20'83ff.
8. The Mystical Theolo~y, and the Celestial Hierarchies of~Dionysius the Aredpaglte, trans, Shrine of Wlsdom (Firrtry, Eog1and, 1965) 37ff.
9. M. Bonnet, ed., Narratio de Miraculo a Michele ArcRppgelo Chanis Patrato (Paris, 1890) 3.
o 10. Hier. coel. J • IX, 2 • •
Il. Dan1êlou. op. cit., I1ff.
12. »an. X, 13, il; XII, 1; cf. al50 The Interpreter's Bi~, ed. G. A. Battr-ick, 12 vols. (New York, 1951-57) V1, 506, 510, 1 ~ _
541. '
--
\
c
'. ,
, •
,
,
14.
...
~, VII', 129; ,C. KaPlan,~gels in th~OOk of Enoch,f Anglican 1,',heological Re.v.!,e_"!. 12 (1930): 4 33; cf. also Ginzberg" Legends, I, 303" VI, 183. ,
~
. 18
15. Grabar, L'Empereur, 192ff. ~
, . 16 •. Dionys iu.s of Fourna, 216.
typ~ in his' guide. Dionysius menlions this iCbnographicar
17. Weltzmann, Agê of Spiritua1ity, 528, n. 4 747.
18. Ibid, -;32 n 474; Galavaris, Th!! .I.cp.n .. i~_tÈ.e_L..il.e of the Church, pl. viih.
19.
20.
." ,.,~. Th. Provatak~Buçavt~va xaL M€taBuçavt~va K€ypnÀ~a tns I. M. (Thessaloniki, 197~) pl. K, KA, KB, KG, KD, KE. For ,the archangels with Christ cf., for instance, Br~hier, La sdblpture ~_a.!.~~ . .m.!.n.e..~r.s....J!Y.~nt1nes (Paris, 1936), pl. XXXI. In mbnumental art medal1ions of Michael and Gàbr1el are so~etimes placed on either side of Christ. cf. M. Chatzidakis, "Tol..xoyocPte:ç aT" Movn tns; -Ayi,aç At)CattPtvas; aTo tl.vCi." - . - '" ' Ae, .. dov T~S XPl.o1'l.ovl.)(nS; APXal.o).oyl. S ,ETal.1:)tl.as, ,
1 0-1 :~ p. , , ,or on e t er side of the Virgln, d. M. Sotiriou "At TOI.Xoypaqil,at.. TOu Buçavt\..Vo'V ~ vaü6p'l.ou TWV Taf; l.apxwv AtC1Cjl'C v 1'\ ~ • " Ad,:r ~ov
'Al'\s; Xpl.aTl.aVl.lCns: • Apxal.o),oyl.xQs ETal..pe:Las;, Pero 4 Vol. J ~ (1962-1963): 198" pl. 59.
Grabar, L'Emaereur, pl. XXXIV; and later at Torcello,' pl. XXXIX, are ~he r~mnants of the same type found at,St. A~ollina1re at, Classe 6net S. Mi'chele at Affricesc1).
21: ~,205ff.·
22. . -Weltzmann,. Age of Selrl.t.u.~1..1.tJ.., 536-:-63"lt-, n. 481; o. M. Dalton, Catalogue of the Ear ly Chris t1a"!....!!ltl~\tri.e~!,!.\.d_ .o.b.j~c.t!!. .~.t'Qm the Christian East in the Brït1sÈ. . .fut..s~!~ (London, 1901) 53ff.
"
23. A. A. Vasili~v, Justin the First (Cambridge, Mass.) 1950) 418-426.'
24. Grabar, L'Emper~~~, 189ff.
25. DACL, II, 621-623; Ex. IV J 17, 20; Ex. VII, 7 j 12; PSI CIX and El. y •
26.
27.
28.
. . Daremberg and Sa8110, l, 639ff., IV, 1115
.ill.!!., I; 639 ff. \
, -DACL, II, 621ff.; for example cf., Weitzmann, Aie of Sp1r1t~i~. 50Q, n. 450. ..
1 9 \ .
...
ï
·1·
-
l'
-..
o
""- " .-
..
29. . ,
IFor exam~le, cf. Cyril of Alex~ndria, Glaphyr:, II; cf. a~so Clement of Rome, PG, t.- I, col. 240, and St. Paulin of NO,le, Ep. XLII, Ad FlorëDtinum, fb, t. LXI, col. 380.'
30. Kitzinget, Byzantine Art, ,fig. 70.
31. Sotiriou, .=I.;.;.ko.;;.n;;,;;.s;;." 1, 87ir II; fig. 72 ... 1
32. Weitzmann, The Icon (1978), 66, pl. 14; Weitzmann et al., The ~ (1982) J 15, fig. p. 42
~ 33. Galavarls, The Icon ln th~ Life of the Church, pl. viib. , 34. T. Klauser, "Engel X (in derKunst), ~J V, 311.
35. JI_ M. C. Toynbee, "Rom~ ànd Consj:antlnopolls in Late Antique Art from 312 ta 365," Journal of Roman Studies 37 (1947): pl. 9-13~
.36. l$itzinger, Byzant'lne Art, fig. 176. ~
37. Grabar, L tEmpere,ur, , Provenant de Mesine
39n 28
33; and A. Grabar ,'''-Ùn Medallion en or
'38. Weitzmann, The
39. -L. Br~hier, La 1936) pl. Xl.
én Cilicie," Dumbarton Ôâks Papers 6 (1951):
-Age of,SPirltua~ty, 31ff.
SculPturè et les arts mineurs byzantins (Paris,
40. W~itzmann et ~l., The Icon (1982), fig. ,p. 105. "
41., Ibid, fig. p. 105 • ... 42. H. Maguire, Art and Eloguè;ce ln Byzantium (Princeton, 1981)
fig. 59, for instance.
43. M. Ljubinkovi~, Mittelalterliche Kunst Serbiens (Berlin, n.a.) fig. 22 a~d Weitzmann, "Classical," 167, fig. 127.
\. 44. ~
A~ Papageorgiou, Ikone~ aus Zypern (M~nlch, 1969) fig. 51.
45. ~eitzmann et al., the Icon (1982~, fig. p. 118.
46. P~ A. Underwood, ed., The Karije Djami. Vol. 3 Plates 353-5~3.
19 __
'.
. {
.. "
The Frescoes. (New York, 1966) fig. 242, and Vol. IV., Studies f.n ~ the Art of the Kar1je Djami and Its Intellectual Background
(Princeton, N. J., 1975) 242-243, 324-325.' The article by M. Sotiriou on this ~ubj~ct was not accessible to me, and so l must offer this incomplete reference.
\
,.
..
i \ ..
, - 20
;
, R. J. H. Jenkins, "A Cros~ of the Patr~a~ch Michael Cerularius," with :"An Art-~istor1c4l'Commentary" by E. Kitzinger j Dumbarton Oake PApers 21 (l967): fig.' 8, and Weitzm,ann et al., The Icon (1982), fig. p. !19.
48. Goodenough, Jewish .Symbols, IX, 162.
49. ~, IX, 167. v
, .
t 50. Kitzinger, By:zantine Art, fig. ~~ cf., a1so, G. (ialavaris, "The Symbolism of the Imperial Costume as Displayed on Byzantine Coin's," The American Numismatic Society Museum Notes 7 (i958) • 99-117.
51. C. Lamy-Lasalle, "Les Archanges en costume imperiale dans la peinture murale Italienne," Synthronon 2 ,( 1968) : 189.
52.' Ibid, fig. 1.
53. ~. fig. 2; for a, later representation of the emperor w~aring the loros cf. A. Grabat, Sculptures byzantines du moyen· aae t II (XIe-XIVe si~cle~ (Paris, 1976) 142-143.
54. Lamy-Lasalle, op. ci t., p. 189 j J'. Ebersholt, Les arts somptuaires de byzance (Paris, 1923) 74ff.
" , 55. P. D. Whitting, Bxzantine Coins (New York, 1973) 297.
-56. ~, 1" 2084. .-"', '57 o.: Apoc. , II.
58. In Num., homo XX, !:Q., t. XII, col. 726.
59. , In Isaiam, I,,46,~, xXx, col. t. 205.
60.' Orat. ILII, 9i !:Q., t. ,xxxvi" col. 469. -61. De paenlt. , l, XXI, !.!:" t. XVII, col. 1083.
E
~
62. In Psalm. CXXX~~ f&, t. IX, col. 728.
,63;- Ginzberg, Lesends, l, 385.
r.
64. \
Ibid, V, 71 n 13. The pseudepigrapha are a, large group of Jewish ~ings outside the Old Testament canon and the Apocrypha, which were composed orlginally in Hebrew, Arama!c, and Greèk getween 200 B.C~ and 200 A.D • .
65. Coel.·hier. VI, 2, YG, III, col. 200-201; cf. J. Pelikan, The S irit of Eastern Chr1stendom (600-1700 (Chiêago, London,~4) 44ff.
'.
"
'1
o
:,...21
66. For example, Romanus the Melod1st, Hymns, XXIV, 1, XXVIII, 2, Sources chr6tiennes (Paris, 1940", - ,) 114: 110, 236. "
'67. Pelikan, op. cit, 142; cf. F. E. Brigptman,.ed., Liturgies Eastern and Western. Vol. 1: Eastern Liturgies (Oxford, 1896) 313.
68. Pelikan, op~ cit~, 142; ef. Brightman, op. cit, 312-323 • •
69. Schol1é! on the "Mystic.al Theology" Qf Dionysius the Areopa6ite, l, 3 , fi, IV, 33.
70. Maximus the Confessor 1 Brief Exposit1on of the Lord' 5 Prayer, PG, XC, 896. ..
71. Byzantine Art. A Européan Art. Catalogue., Zappeion Exhibiticin_ Hall, Athens, 2nd ed. (Athe~s, 1964) 253, fig. 199~ The text Is
.. written by A. Xyngopoulos. ~~. "1!ne icone byzantine a • Thessalonique," Cahiers arch~ologique 3 (1948) '114-128, also by A. Xyngopoulos. cf., also Galavaris, Tne Icon in the Life of the Church, 6. -
. 72. Pseudo-Germanos, f2., XCL, 384. •
73. R. L. Langford-James, A Dictionary of the Eastern Orthodox Church (New York, 1923) 132. ,
74. o. Wulff, "Ein Byzantischer Ikonentypus in Nordrussischer Nachbildung," L~art byzantin chez6'les Slaves. L'ancienrte Russie, l~s Slaves catholiques. Deuxieme recueil dédié a la mem~ire de Theodore Usp~nskij (Paris, 1932): fig. 73;- The Ulanuscript 18 gr. 1613 in the Vatican and lt dates to about 985. .~
. 75. " , M. Tatic-Djuric, Da9'Bild der Engel (Recklinghausen, 1962) 69ff.
76. H. Muraro and A. Grabar, Treasures 'of,Venlce (geneva, 1963) fig. p. 53.,
77. 'c.f. Brightman, op. cit., 312-32.3
78. Hasterpieces of Byzantine and Russian Icon Painting. Twelfth to Sixteenth Century.(London, 1974) fig. 8. The catalogue.does rtot state where this icon can be'found.
79. ,~. Ouspensky, Theology'of the Icon (Crestwood, N. Y., 1978) 29.
80. " P. A. Underwood, "The Evidence of Restorations in' the Sanctuary HOBaies of the Chureh of' the Dormi tion a c Nicaea," Dumba'rcon Oaks' Papers 13 (1959): figs. 6, 7, 8, 9.
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Chapter 2 - Michael as Guardian
, 1
In hls rOle as the warrior of God and the,. defender of the .
fa1th, the Archangel M1chael, 16 dep1cted on icons generally as a
- sold1er in the recogn1sable gear of the warrior saint. 'dn an enamel
icon of the late Ilth or early 12th century from Constantinople, now'
1n Venice, Michael Is depicted in the manner of a Roman general __ 't
(fig. 3)~1 Michael stands on the elaborately decorated center field,
wearing the cuirass and the skirt with pteryges that is th~ normal 1
outftt of the soldier. The cuirass and skirt in Roman~~rt was the
o drfi!ss of the leade~ of the army and the emperor is often depieted in·
the Imperator mode. lt was also common that divine ,or demqnie
·'protagonists be givÊm the costume of Ro~an armour. 2 This manner of
deplction allowed the funetion to'be i~ediately apparent.
On this 1con Michael Is poised in readiness. He holds an <
upralsed sword' in his right hand, while in his left he holds the orb ~
crucifer, ~ sywbol of his' leadership. lt ls also a symbol of the \
source of his power. The source 1s fourd in a medallion at the top of .
the lcon directly above Michaél w~ieh cantains a bust o( Christ
Pan~craeor. It 16 Christ who'1nvests Michael with his strength and
purpose. Michael 1s specifled in the inscription as the leader of the
. heavenly nost, b' APXI.OT,p<$'tnroSHl.xan).. ,~d Michael,' s amy ls found 1n
abbreviated form on each of the side margins in.the medallions of . ' . , , \ ~.
military saints_ Michael in-ehis guise 1s the first soldler of God, . . .\
'the ~1ve d,efender of the true Ï'faith and the true bel1evers.
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'Michael the military commande~ Is a common representation on
icons Of the Byzantine and the post-Byzantine periods. The'popularity ~
of this type is att~sted by the multiplicity of examples :that are ~
spreaq. over a long period of Ume and a large area, and not just, on ...
icons, 'but ~lso on othe'r media-. For example, M~chael is represented
ln. thiS, way on a fragmentary ico~ of the, lSth c~ntury fr~~ _
Thessaloniki witb bis çuirass and a cloak over his shoulde~.3~~ meaning, consistent with·a long established tradition, ~s. explicit on
a lat€" icon of the 18th century from Greece, now, in a private , .
collection in Switzerland (tig.4). On this icon ~ael stands . brandishing a sword in his right hand;while in his l~ft he holda an
unfurled scroll. The scroll reads, in translation: "r am the general
of God. l br~ndish and hold hi~~ this sword. For the fear- of God l
strike fear in those who scorn him ... 4 This 18 the f~ll Import of çhe . •
f1~ure of Michael who is the guar.dian of the word of God. Agaln, this '"
18 an ancient tradition. When Michael appear8 to Asenath, Michael
saya, "1 am the chief captain of the Lord God and commander of the . ~
_ Host of the Most High."S Mls;:hael Is reportedly accompanied with the
Inacriptio~, Victoriosus, ln a Palermo church of early date' 1
Thoughout bis existence in both Christian and Jewish belief Michael i5
the guardlan of the .faithful and their acttve defender. ~ .
This ancient tradition of Michael the warrior archangel takes a
number of forms over 'the couFse of tlme. Michael 15 considered in
" . " ( some wr~tings as the guardian of Paradis'e t Praepo,situs Paradis1 ~ 7 The
belief ln the angels of'paradise is :ncien~,8, and Michael's
pre-éminence the;e 18 an aspect of bls ra le as tbe leader of the 'li
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> heavenly hast. Michael is,the guardian of pa~adise where the faithf~l 1
rê8Ide, and in some traditions it is Michael who exp~ls Adam and Eve
from'Paradise, the Garden of Eden, for their 8ins. 9 In the Book of
Adam and Eve of the lst century.AD, Adam tells Seth that it was .
Michael who troze the river of paradise so that the y coul~ leave
Eden. 10 [
In ~onumental cycles there is a group of sc~nes that comprise
the "Life" of the Archangel. The list of Dionysius of Fourna that
describes the "Life" of Michael gr()ups a number of scenes of ahgelic
'~appearance that are thematically fsimilar. l1 .That is. ~t would havé
been convenient ta group scenes of angelic p~otection under Michkel .
because this was entirely in keeping with his character. Thus the
·angei who wrest!es Jacob12 or the ange! who re8cues the three youths •
from the furnace13 was normally considered to be the Archangel
·Michael. However, Michael 1s not usually_depicted performing these
aC.ts on Byzantine icons.
_ An _ flngel is represented in the Vienna Genes1s expelling Adam
and Eve. 14 The'pngel, though, is not speclf1ed but h~ Is young and
winged and wears a pallium and sandals that are standard in early • ~representations of angels. lt ought to be Michael considering he is
presented as the guardian of Paradise in other media. On an amulet
'Michael spe~ifically is !dentified as the guar4ian if not in the
Vienna Genesis. The inscription on this amulet i8 in Greek and
Michael is shawn holding a lance and standing-by a tree. The tree,
. accordirig' to Goodenough, symb_o,lises the Garden and Michael is the .. . guard stationed thete. l5. 'On a f"gment of an Ivory casket in the
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British Museum froID between the lOth to 12th century the Archangel ls
performing this funétion. Mi~hael, identified by an inscription,
advances to the right whlle holding a staff in his left hand and
raising his righ~. The piece that would have accompanied this
fragment would have had the departing Adam and Eve .16 Stuhlfauth
be!ieved that the British Museum Ivory discussed abov~ would have ,
. shoWn Michael in thi!? raIe, also. 1? This identification', though,
involved a misreadlng of the insct'iption and 1s now generally' , , .
disregarded .18 ,
On occasions, as we have seén, Mieha}!l ean be depicted' f;> 'c '1 .
as the Lord of Paradise, the guardian who may or may not allow ,q
admittance» but the British Museum i vory i5 certainly not of 't'his
group. .~
In addition to this celestial guardianship and attendance ta
the cour~ of heaven, Michael an~ ~the other angels have mundane
responsib\lities of protection.19 lt Is' God Awho has pl'omise~ ,
. a~s1stance ta the naçions ~f the world and it·le the angels, ~
.'
ministerium Dei, who ~arry Out this promfse. This is in effeet'
.connected to the ancient tradition, Jewish in origi~, that God had
cômmitted an,angel to each nation. T~is is eeh~e~in the Greek
tradition in DeuteronomyJ XXXIl,8. The Book of Da~el speaks of angels -- ,
of Isr~el and ,Perda 1 _ the former being Michael himself. 20 This belief
in angels as- the ~uardi~ns of· nations is substantiated in èhristian ,
writinga on ang~l.s; and it would seem to have been a common bel1e-f .2"1 "" . .
Michael 1a generallr, cons1dered the guard1an of Israel, Gpd 'f s ,
, , \
chosen peop~e. The proof Is normally found' in Danie7l, XII" l, where
Michael is spec~fied aS' the ange! of Israél. ~2 1 Rere" Mlcilae,l. agpear,s ~
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to Joshua to aid the cause of the people of Israel in bat tle. When \ '
this scene la deplcted Michael appears bearing hl"s sword, his
-instrument of battle, and ls normally equipped in the gear of the
soldler .23 Joshua is' shown kneeling ih aw.e of this terrible
apparition and he i8 shown shoeless according to the commands of the
Archange1. 24 On a Russian icon a smaU fi,gu~e of Joshua -'is shown
, kneel1ng 'in the position common in donor scenes, before the immense
.figure.,of the Archange1. 25 In rather abstract terms, Michael is
considered the patro~ 'of the nation, its guardlan, and, if needs be,
its warrior in battle. lt must bé stressed that the significance oi ,
Michael' s mis§ion is primarily. &piri t~al. ,God rewards the pi0!ls 'and "
. just by his protection and this falls upon Michael' s shoulders. lt i8
Michael who, guards God t s c'hàsen people and av~nges wrongs do ne ,to
them. 26 In the New Law Michael 18 still the guardian of the '
raithful. ~ His importance as warrior was not lost in the Christian
-era, and 1.t became Ji widesprea~' and popular belief. ..
A,s ~uch, entreaties are made to the Archangel for his
protection by the faithf"l' throughout the Byzantine and post-Byzantine . . eras. Michael' s guardianship extended to chu!rches and manas teries,
the spci~itual homes of the faithful. 27 This guardianshlp is sometimes· ~
expressed. ~i8tinctly throu'g,h icons as opposed to otherillmedia such as . ~
fresco or, mosaic', or even ta inscrJptions or dedkations. For •
example, on' a la te icon of the end of the 16 th century now in the
Hellenic Institute ln Ven1.ce" Michael 18 presented brandishing a s-;ord
in his right band wh1.le he holds ap ope~ scroll in ~his 1eft (fig.5).
The inscription reads in translation: -. .
-.. --_ .... -------~ .. - -- --'
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Yo~ see me ready for combat. l guard this ,entrance with a sword in band, l the invincible one who protect9 this monastéry. If anyone thinks to do an injustice (to this place)' it 19 against him that l wield chis sword .28
Here ~lichael ia the guardian of a doorway, probably" the door' of the
27
Diakonikon of the church but 'he is, by extension, the guard~n of the ~ 1
buildings of the monastery and its inhabitants and visitors. 29
... Michael is poised to avenge wrongs done to the faithful and It 19 this
gesture of protectiveness that is the common f:nctio~f chese
representations.
• 1
~ Imprecations of the faithful are addressed to Michael for
individual protection â~rwell. this ia also an ancient tradition. lt
had been common for Jewish c.~arms or amulets to represent Michael on
them. 30 This traqition conttinuèd as a Christian custom. also. One
8uch amulet, Hn a pr.fvate collection, shows Mrhael in armour ~tw'een
two stars holding an orb.~l Another, from the University of Michigan J , -
~ollectio~" s~ows Michael 't'obed and ~olding an orb surmounted by a
cross. 32 Both are id~nt·Vied by inscriptions 1n ·Greek. To the same
-end' inscriptions are 'Iso commonly direct~d to Michael for chis
assistance. 33 As weIl, icons were dedicated to Ml.chael in return for 1 -
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.' his favour. One such icon, no longer extant,' was accompanled by this
inscrip~ion :
j To the same at Sos thenion (i. e. Miéhael) Aim1.lianus the Carian and with him John, Ru.rinus of Alexandria and Agathius . of Asia, hav:l:ng been admitted, o ,Chief of the angels, to the fourth year of jur!dicial studies,'have dedlcated this pa1nted image to thee, 0 Blessed One, asking thee for Ico~nued success. Mayest thou. sus tain their hopes for their fUture lifè.34
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These examples from various media reflect c~ta1n popular beliefs
among Individual wO,rshippers. It is evident that Mi-chael was
considered to be a protector of individuals and nations.
'-, There exists at Mt. Sinai an iaon of the 12th' century that ~ û \ - . ..
depicts a similar scene of ~ponsorship of an individùsl by the 1
28
Archan~el.35 Here, Michael wears a garment that seems to enshroud his
entire body. Michael diovinfwith outstretched hands receives the gift .• , !
of the donor who kneels in the lower right hand ·corner in an 'attitude
of submission ~md adoration •. Similar sc~nes of submissi~n of the
donor or d9nors occur in monumental cycles, also, where Micbael's .'
favour was sought for the donor. 36
Michael was for niany of the emper~rs of Byzantium a s~ec1al sponsor and guarcUan,' Michael- had long been known to be th~ special
, beneiactor of Israel and with the coming of the New Law, his
protecti'on was naturally extended to Christian kingd'oms. His
protection was sought by the emperors of Byzantium who were considered
fO be the special envoys of God on earth and thus due the protection
of God's warrior. For instance! on the dedication page of the
manuscript Coislin 79 of the Biblioth~que Nationale, John Chrysostom
preSenfS- a
dressed ,in
c,opy of his Aomilies to Nicephorus III while ,r;:chàel
his splendi'd tobes looks on,.37 Michael 15 ofte~
represented on coi.ns passing cfi!rtaln Insignia of power to the ,
emperors, in this way co.nveying a legitimacy of their authority from
the" celestial to the mundane. Michael is lieen passing the labarum to "
"
the emperor J the symbol of the revelation of ~ictory frdm heaven. 38,
Michael is shown crowlng the emperor on coinage.39 On a gold coin of
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the 12 th century Michael ls shawn with the empe.ror Isaac A,nge1us
(1185-1195) both of whom are clasplng the same sword. 40 ç' Thh 1-s an
, ( obvious symbol of a concession pf privilege· which has ancient <-
prototypes.41 lt is also the, gener'al comsensus""that the misslng leaf
of the British Museum diptych of the Archangel Hiçhael contained a
standing emperor. Michael represents the new iconography of the
victory type. The difference ls that }11chael ls the Christian beart:r
of the sig!;),!) of victory and the means by which victory'and legitimacy
of authority is achieved is through the aigns of God. Michael here ./'
~,
passes the orb as a sign of -sovetelgnty and addresses the inscription
to the emperor. In translation, 'the in'scriptian reads: '"Recelve ,
these gifls and having learnt the ca,us~- ~ ..... 42 The diptych was m9st <~
likely meant to commemorate the union with Rome that the~-~ror ... fI
Just1n l brought about in 519, as Vasili'ev has shown. 43
\ At the church of Osk Vask or" Oshkitt, ln northeast Turkey, a
scultytural relief provides an example af a king who sought the c
protection of God through the power of the Archang'el, thereby
indicat1ng that -Michael was sing'ied oùt by some rulers for special
veneration. Here the Archangels Michael and Gabriel stand on either
side of a window on the exterior of the church above an .inscription
that reads, in translation: Christ save our King Sunbat in
longevi ty. 44 .;
The rulers of the Byzantine empire, in fact, .gene,rally
held Michael in high esteem and Hichael VIII (1259-82) above a11 ~
venerated the Archangel' with 'particular piety. The example!3 ln art ,
are numerous although Buch a representation appears to be no-longer,
extant on iCQns. On coinage, for e~ample, -Michael presents the
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emperor to the enthroned Christ. 45 On anotiher,.Michael ànd Michael
VIII stand side by side, patron and emperor. 46 On a peplos that , Michael VIn gave to Genoa, the Qentral scene shows the. emperor
Michael being escorted into the church of St. Lawrerce in Genos ~y 0-
St. Lawrence with the Archangel between them. 47 After conquering
30
~onstantinople in 1261 Michael YIrr redecorated the Church of che Roly - . Apostles and placed a statue of the Archangel Michael on a column-like
'" .. ~ , .
pedestal. At the Archangel's feet ~ichael VIII 'kneels and presents to ,
h,im -the Ci cy wnich he holds in his hands and commends to tlfe ~
Archangel's protection. 48 The leader of the Heavenly Host ~s
presented as the pa~ron of Michael VIII who has re·conquered the ~ity '1-
for the true faith and who thus se~ks the Archangel'i protectio~ as à
fellow military commander. Michael VIII 15 presenting himself ,
sym~olica~ly as the new Constantine, and at the same tim~.by orfering ...
, the city to Michael, the emperor i8 using the traditional gesture of
Roman imagery of offering the city freed by his army to the Genius of
the city.49 Furthermore it is by the intervention of Michael, the, " ,
warr;or of God, that the victory, represented by the ~cene, was made ,
possiblEf-.50 .
This particular veneration of Michael VIII is typic~l of the
genera!' respect w-ith which the Archangel Michael was held by those in
the imperial office., Michael was the warrior of God who demanded
respect and deserved the admiration of tbose whose own interest WaS , ~. -t
the security of the empire and its Inhabitants. Michael's m111tary . , abil!ties t1ere sought after and depended upon by the emperors.
Indeed, the victory over the Saraceqs in 739 was believed to have been
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accomplished by' the aid of the Archangel. and af terwards a chapel was
dedicated to him at Akroinos-Nikopol1s. 52 The churches and
monasteries that were ded-!cated to Michael ln and around the capital
were àll patronised by the emperors at some point. lt is an
indication of the importance of the cult of Michael to the emperors. >
There were ~o less than thirty four sanctuaries, including nlne
1
monasteries, given to Michael in the srea of Constantinople, ~nd many
of these- received at one time the patronage of the emperors. 53 ,
• Justtnian res tore~ several of Michael' s churches as part of his '1
genera-l reconstruction program. Under Basil the Macedonian there was
_ a resurgence in interest in the cult of Michael.- Many sancturie,s were
built by him, p~rhaps in order to appease ~he guardlan of tÜchael Ill, ""
b
whom Basil had a1sasinated. 54 There were also a number of churc~es of
the Arch~ngel in the great palace. 55
MaU801ea were àlso dedicated to the Archangel by the. emperors. , For example, John Comnenu8 dedlcated a mausoleum to Hichael at the
, ..
'.~- Monastery of tl'le Pantocrator ln Con~ tantinople in 1136. 'This 15 where . -
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the sarchophagi of John II, his family, and his .Comnenia~ successors
... were entombéd. 56 .. ,~ ....
Michael' s' duties to the deàd will be discussed in
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the final chapter but it 18 ~viqent that the· protection that Michael,
offe~ed the empe'rors ,hile the: reigned upon the earth was extended to
the after-life as weIl. "
ln short,' Michael i8 the protector of the faithful. ln this
active rOle he saV'es the Chur ch from "all the wiles of the déVi'l +. from the darts and the desyntct1ve "rage of the demons ... 57 For the
1ndividual there exist formulae in which thê archa~gets are called
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opon. to exorcise demons. 58 Mich~e! is the Prir;tce ,of Light who defeats
the Angel of Darkness in legend: , \
Today is his appolnted cime to lay low and make fal! the prince of the dominion of wickedness; a,nd he will sénd eternsl help to the lot he has redeemed; by the' power of the angel he has made glorious for ruie to 'give light in joy to aIl Israel, peaee and blesslng to the lot of God, to exalt ainong the .godà the rule of Michael and the dominion' of Israel ov~r aIl flesn. 59
This is the active warrior of God who becomes the HQrseman of the
Apocalypse wl}o. champions the Church and its teachings. 60 On a Russlan
"icon of the late 16 th' century the A-rchangel rides the apoca).yptic
steed while spearing a tra~pled devil.61 On anothe~ Russian icon, no
doubt drawlng 'upon a long establ1shed tradition, Michael fs shown \ ~. ,
trampllng a group of devils. 62 In his ~praised hand Michael holds his , 1
flaming sword;. and. in nis left he holds an orb wlth the na me of .
Christ, in ,the abbreviated form.. The~ icons, while not strictly , /' ~
s~eaklng Byzantine, are goo~ Indica~ions of the chara~ter and r~l~~_
the Arehangél. 'It is cE!rtain-ly attested in Byzantine writings that he.
was per!!eived as the avenging angel of the Apocalypse and '01 the Last,
Judgement~ This ls an aspect of Michael the defendér of tpe falthful,
that .is often depicted on iconi ta' illumina te . Michaél' s character. .
This defence of the "Word of God and tts t'ollowers ls one ,
,,/,. element of t~e service MichJel render,8 ta God. Thls rôle Is'
$ubstantlated by writings of. the Churches and by acts of p1:ety by
individusl worsh,ippers. It 18 also' a common themè' for representatlon
on ~ons. Michael May be portrayed ln the- equipment of the Roman ~r i ,
soldi~r, typical of the,warrior saints, or in the pallium and tunic "
~
that seems to be the'common garment of Michael. #
The figure 18
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. " -'nevertheless remarkably consistent, considerlng the~r1ety of periodt!
and locations in .whicn Michael is invariably shown asAthe defender of
the {aithfui. His protection, as shown on-icons and the varioùs media
ment10ned above, -i.s all-encompass1ng and ne.Jer-rel~xing.
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ENDNOTES - CHAPTER '2
, 11. M. Muraro, and A. Gtabar, Treasures of Venice (Geneva, 1963) fig. p. 67.
2. Goodenough, jew~sh Symbols, l,lOO-lOI; C. BQnner, Studiea in Mégical Amulets Chiefly Greco-Roman (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1950) 40.
\ -3. Masterpieces of Byzantine and Russian Icdn Painting. Twèlfth fo Sixteenth' Cent ury (London, 1974) 39fÎ. The catalogue does not state where this icon can bè ·found.
1
4. M. Chatzidakis., Les ic'6nes dan! les collections suisses (Berne, 19(8) fig. 99.. Other icons of this type, a180 of late date, may be found in Ibid, figs. 193, 35, and 75, and V. H. Elbern, Ikonen .,,--aus der Frunchristlich-Byzan'tischen Sammlung der Skulpturenabt~llung (Ber~~n, 1970) fig. 5. In monumental art cf. for an example, Wei;tzmann et al, The tèon (1982), fig. p.o 386.
, , .
5., Joseph and Asenath., The Confession and prayer of Asenath
6.
'7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
. Daughter of pentephres the Pries t·, 'trans. E.' W. Brooks (London, .. 1918) XIV.
~) I.' 2098.
Ibid, l, 2132 • . "
Daniélou, op~ cit., 62ff.
Stuhlfauth,Die Engel in der altchristlichen Kunst (Leipzig, 1897) 164ff.
- - ~ c. c. Torrey. trans., The Apocryphal Li terature.o 'A Brief Introduction (New Haven, Conn., 194'5) 132.
Dionysius of Fourna, 174-175; cf. A. Bryer, and D. Winfield, The Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos (Washington, D~ C., 1985) 268ff.
Gen. XxxII, 22-32; cf. Bréhier, op. cit., pl. XLVIII for this scene on the bronze doors at the Basilica of Michael at Mont-St-Michel., cf. also A. Grabar "La porte de bronze byzantine du Mont-Gargan et le ;Cycle de l'ange,t~ Millt!naire monastigue' du' Mont-St-Michel, 3 vols. (Paris, 1971): III, 355~368.
13. Dan. III, 49., , 14. RAC, V, 277 n. 87a., Wien, Nat. Bib., thèol. gr. 31; cf. H.
GeIstinger, Die Wiener Genes1s (Vienna" 1931) •.
,-
. _.
15.
16.
\ '. 35
.. e'
Goadenough, Jewish Symbola.,_ II, 268.
1 O~ M. Dalton, Catalbgue of the Ivory Carvings Of the Christian Era ,in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography of the British Museum (London, 1909) 20. 'ln Paris, Bibl. nat.,cod. gr. 510, f. 52.v Michael is shown expelling Adam and handing him a hoe. This, though thematically eonnected, 18 unique in Byzantine art. cf. L. Brubecker, :'PoUties, Patronage,
. and Art in Ninth-Century' Byzantium," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 39 .(1985) 8, fig. 6.
17. St~hlfauth; op_ cit., 180-181. \
18. A. A. Vasiliev, Justin the First (Cambr1dg~,~ass., 1950) 419ff. , "
19. DanitHou, op. ,cit., 26ff.; DACl., I, 1083ff .. ; .Q!f, l, 121Sff.; E. Schneweis, Angels and D~mons aecordlng to Lactantlus (Washington, D.C.,' 1944) 72ff.
20. Dan. 'X. 13-21.
21. ~, l, 2084.
22.
23.
("
cf. Hier. éoe1. IX, 2. See also The Vision of Levi, in The TesÙment of the Twelve Patr,iarehs, transe W. O. E. Oe~terley (London, 1917) 35: "c:he angel who intercedeth for the nation of 1sr,ael and f~~_all the righteous ... ,
" . The fifth eentury mosaie at Sta Maria Maggiore is an exception to this rule. Bere Michael wears ttie pallium and mantle that is common before he adopts the" euirass as,the normal wear for such scene. RAC,'V, 265, n. 32a2 -and E. Kitzinger, By~antiné Art", fig. 119, and Stuhlfauth, op. cit., 163-164.
24. -for examp1e, R. J. H. Jenkins, !·A Cross of the Patriarch Michael" Cerularius," with "An Art-historiea1 Commentary" by E. KÙzinger, Dumbarton Oaks Pa~ers 21 (1967): 240, 248-2Q9, fig_ 6; K. Lassithiotaki, 1 Avo. ''E;xxÀnaCe:s oTcS NOJ,l6 ){avCwv," âEÀT~OV Tns XpLaTLavL~nç 'AD aLoÀO LH-Ç EtaLPEtaç Pere 44101. 1:.,{1962: 23-26 p. 11,2; K. Weitzman, The Joshua
: Roll. A Work"lof the Macedonian Renaissance (Princeton, N. J., 1948) 14, figs. -13,,14, 15; ~, V~ ""27'8, n. 90.
'1
25. M. V. Alpatoy, Early Russian Icon Painting (Moscow, 1971) fig. 44 •. •
• 26. ~or example; Ginzberg, Legends, l, 303-304.
·27. Diohysius of FourrJa, 231 and 238. Diony,sius lists Michael' s position near entrances as one of bis actions of protection •
• .
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28. M. Chatzidakis; Ic8nes de St~George-des-Grecs et la collection,de l'institut ~Venlce, n. d~) 119, pl. 57.
29. Michael and Gabriel are placed as prophylactics at the entrancê. to some cbur~hes. 1 For example cf; N. and J. -M.· Thierry, "Ayvali Ril1se Ou Pigeonnier de Gulli Dere "~glise inêdite de Cappadoce," Cahiers archêologiques 15 (1965): ftg. 6.
, 30. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols, II, 166.
31. Bonner, op. cit., pl. XVIII, 338.
32. ~. pl. XVItI, 336, and also 337.
33\ for instance, e~. Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua, W. M. Calder . et ,al., eds., 8 vo1~. (London, 1928) l, 30; W. M. Ramsay Cities
and)Bishoprics of Phrygia, 2 vpls. (Oxford, 1895) I~, 741-742; .B!~b 1, 2085 •
34. C. Mango, The Art of the Byzantine Empire. 312-1453. Sources and Documents (Englewood C1iffs, N. J.,'1972) 116.
35. -Sotiriou, Ikons; l, 139, 245, II, fig. 159.
36. for instance, G. Gerola, Monumenti Veneti nell'isola di Creta, 2 troIs. (Venice, 1908) II, fig ... 376. Here a donof kne!i!ls at the Archangel's feet.
. 37. Ebersholt, op. cit. fig. 44; and cf. J. Beokwith, The Art of
Constant~nop1e (London, 1~61) 116.
38. P. D. Whitting, Byzantine Coins (New York, 1973) fig: 308.
39. ~, fig. 348 •
40., Brêhier, op. cit., El:- LXXV
41. Grabar, L'Empereur, 203 j cf. also~, pl. XXIII J l, wh~re two archangels bring a staff and crown to ~asil II. The manuseript
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, la Cod. Marc. 17.) Venice,from the 11 th century.
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42. '. , O. M. Dalton, Catalogue of the Early Christian Antiquitiea and Objects from the Christian East in the British Museum (London, 1901) 53-~4; Vasiliev, op. cit., 418ff. •
43. ~, 423ff.
44. D. Winfield, "Some Early Figure "Sculpture from North East Turkey," Journal of, the Warburg and Courtauld Institute 31 (1968); 36ff., figs. Sa, Sb, 6a •
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45. Whitting, 02· ci,E., tige 378; 'Bt'éh1.et, 02· cit. , pl. LxXV, 1ii ,Grab~r, L'EmEereur, 181.
l,!>
46. Whitting, oË. cit., fig. 388. e<'
" 47. R. Macrides, "The New'ConstaI!.tine and the New Constantinqple
12611" Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 6 (1980): 35.
49.
Mângo, 'oP .• cit., 256; J. Ebersholt, Les arts somEtuaires de byzance (Paris, 1923)~ ~
Grabar, .L'Empereur, 111. .,
37
50. The result of Michael' s inabllhy to intervene on behalf of his" wards ls shown in the Jewish legend where Nebuchadnezzar was able to take Jerusalem becau.e God had bound the hands of Michael and rendere~ him powerless. 'Ginzberg, Legends, IV, ~~l.
51. This is true of the kings of Lombardy, as weIl as the- Byzanti~es, who put Mi~hael on their money and standards. ~hurches at Pavia and Lucques were construcsed by these ~ings,for the· Archangel. cf. E. MAle L'art r~ligieux du XIIe siecle en France 'Paris, 1922) 268, and also M. de Fraipont J "Les o.rigines occidentales du type de 'Saint MicheL debout sur le dragon," Révue bel~e d'arch~ologie et,d'histôire de 1 t art 7 (!937) ~~O; ~.etrucci, "Origine diffusiOne deI culto di San 'Hichele nell' ltalia , medievale,." Mi1lênaire monastique du Mont-St-Michel, 3 v?is. (Paris, 1971): 3, 344ff. For the veneration of 'Michael by Russian princes cf. V. N. Lazarev, Mosco~ Schoo~'of Icon Painting
" \
• (M~scow, 1.971) 32. . ? .
52. W •. M. Ramsay, The,Church,in the Roman Empire before 170 AD (New York', London, -1893) 477; S. Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval ~lenism in Asia Minor and thi Process of Islaminlsation from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley, 1971) 38.
53. R. Janin, "LèS sanctuaires byzantins de Saint Michel," Echos d'Orient 33 (1934): 28; Mango, op. cit., 116, n299; ~, VIII~ 49ff. '
54. Otto III also sought the Archangel's pardon when he travelled to the sbrine of Michael at Mt. Gargano to explate himself for the deatb'~f Crescentius. Mâle, op. cit., 258.
~
~55. Janin, op. cit., 29ff.
56. R. Cormack, Writing in Gold. Byzantine Society and Its Icons (London, 1985) 202; Pope Bpnifacé dedicated the tomb of Hadrian to M~chael in the 7th century, MAle, oé. cit., 259~260.
1 •
57. C1ted in ~alavar1s, Tne Icon in the Lite of the Church, 17.
---
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CJ·
J' - .
- 58. M. Simon, Versus Israel. Etudes sur l-es te1.a tions entre chrêtiens et Juifs dans l'empire Romain (135-425) (pari&; 1964) 402. ...
59. M. Burrow~, The Deaa Sea Scrolls (New York, 1955) 399.~
60~ Apoç. 'XII, 2.
61. Galavaris, The lcon in the Life of the Cnurch, pl. XXIc. ~
38
62. M. V. Alpatov, op. cit., flg. 198.~ Michael i8 often portrayed in western att as a figure tramp11ng a dragon underfoot. This i6 strictly an Occidental type that was originated at Mt. Gargano i~ the 7th Qr 8th century •. lt presents an interest1ng parallel to the St. George figure, but Michael. trampl1ng an' enemi. in the' traditional act of vanquishing i9- aIs a associated with Hichael in the scenes where he tramples the devils'and, as will be discussed below in Chapter 4, where,he stands on the pr~ne figure of
( Alexander and the dead. cf •. F. Avril, and J. R. Gaborit, "~'itlne~arium Bernardi Monachi et les pêierinage d'Italie du sud pêndant le haut-moyen-age," Mêlanges d' archêologi~ et d' histoire 79 (1969) 276-279, Fraipont, op. cit.) '289, ~le, op. cit., 258ff., F. Avril, "Int:erpretations' symb'ol1gue du combat de __ t f
Saint,Michel et du dragon," Millênaire monastique du ' Mont-S~-M1che1, 3 vols. (Paris, 1971): III, 39-52; and C. Lamy-Lasalle, "Lei rêpresentations du combat ,de l'archange en France, au début du moyen. age, Of 1.!:!.!!!, 53-64.
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Chapter 3 - Michael the Hiracle Worker
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The appearance of Michael was a truly terrible .and awful
occurence. The sight of angels in general 19 intolerable to men and
the ~iturgical texts calI them "redoubtable, terri.f.ying. "1 The
39
appearances of Michael, then, which are in order to intervene directly
ln mundane affairs, are of extraordinary import for men. The memory .. of these manifestations. either in scripture or legend. 18 the b~sis .,
. of the miracles that comprise the "LHe" of Michael. These miracles
. are concrete instances of Michael in his active role, benificent or
vengeful, in the world of men. Michael's miracles are part of his
role as the guardian vf the falth and its followers, and these .-miracles are generally associated w~~h the protection of God's own.
MIchael ls consistently in popular belief and doctrine the
intermediary 'of GOd, His w~rrior and servant, and chis ls proven by
Michaell S ,ac:ive participation ~ the affairs of men.
Many_ of Mich~el ,'s appearances, miracles 'in themsel ves, often -
oacur on ~lgh 'piases, such 8l summits or peaks. The Castel San Angelo
in Rome was dedlcated to Michael after he appeared to St. Gregory on
the Mausoleum's -highest pOint.~ Rome was then delivered from a.plague
~ which had afflicted the city. Also in 'th~West, Michael had an ;>-
important shrine on Mt. Gargano. ·In a gratta on the mountaln's peak
~e the trac~s of the Archangel's footsteps irom. when h~ wss believed
to have appeared in 492.- The gratta became a g~eat site of
pilgri~ge, and was central to the western cult of Michael,3 Michael
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'also appeared at the summit' of Mt. Tomba in Normandy which ls now
known as Mont-St-Michel..!-
In the East this pattern of Michael appea~lng on summits ls
also followed, but more to the point his cult is focusei di~ectly on
the delive~ance of aid ta the faithful. This/aspect was,absorbed
40
largely into Ille cult of the Archange~ Michael as aid èlirected towards
the healing of the s1ck. Certainly, this type of cult of Michael was
. not unknown ta the West. At Mt. Gargano the cures effected at bis
shrine were the major reason for the widespread pqpularity of }his .. shrine to pilgrims. 5 However shrines to Michael, where miracles of
healing were brought about, are found throughout the eastern
Mediterranean and were 1ntegral to Michael's cult.
" Thëre are many examples of such shrines. After Michael 'had , appeared to'Constantine, the emperor built a church ta Mluhael outside
of Constantinople on the northern shore ot~the Bosporus. lt replaced
a temple built by the Argonauts and dedicated to Zeus. 6 Here Michael
• was belleved ta appear, and work miraculous cu~ès. Lucius, writing in
the 4th cent ury , tho'ught this shrine had been origlnally of Serapis, . . ('
• and chat Michael had also taken over the old god' s function of saving "
~en from the peril of the sea, as weIl as from illness. 7 In Bithynia,
Justinian enlarged a church of Michael near the healing baths, the - ,
~thlan Baths once belonglng to Apqllo.8 On Lesbos, the sanctuary of
Michael of Mandanad~s had a reputation of ~eing an effective healing
shrine.9 And in one legend'J Michael appears tp the garrison of a . . certain Marcianos aiter this audacious man had lntro~uced medicines
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into . t~e saactuary of the Archangel. Michael appears .on horseback . -
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tr.us ting ~wn ""-,. IF'
and rebukes thé men {or not healing skills. 1O One
source tells us of an image of Michael that under Michael 111 and his
mother Theodora gave unctions of oil that healed the si~k.ll ,p
The contact m~ntioned above at Bithynia with Apollo indicates
an overlap of the cuIts but it 'is difflcult to be more specifie.
Nonethe1ess the similarities between Mic~ael and Apollp asjthe senders
and stayers of pla gue in popular belief 18 also an interesting t
parAUe1. 12 lt ought to be remarked ln passing that this healing cult
of Michael also had pQints of contact ~ith the healing centres of
Askle~ius. The fact that the shr±ne of Askleplùs at Epld~urus became
in the Christian.era a centre of the healing cult of Michael and . , St. Damian, who i5 primarily a physician saint, 15 another Inte~esting
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example of the evolution from the pagan to the Christian,cult
pract·lce. 13 'Howeve~, this Is a large and distinct area of study, and
ie ls beyond the scope of this thesis. Thus, It ls dlfflcult to state
more conclusively the influence of pagan cuIts on that o~ Michael
ainee there are also many disparitles in legend and practice, as
weIl. Yet, one would not expect exact replication since generally tne
pattern is an appropriation of certain aspects" and the ,creation of 1
others which are mor~ in keeplng wi'th Christian beliefso--
This function of Michael, then, as the healer of the sic~ was
one important reason for the popularlty of the cult of Mlchael. 14 The /~ ,
angelic power in heallng wate~ may have been Indlcated at an early
date by the story of the troubling of the water of the pool of
Bethseda by an angel and this in turn may i~dlcate the seeds of
'" Kichael's cult. 15 The most famous shrine of Michael in aIl of the
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East was at Colossaè 'in Phrygia which dated from a very early periode
Here the fount~in of Michael became one of the .. most pop,ular shrines in
the East,' Roted for its miraculous healing power. Michael is at this
shrine, as at the others, the watchful and beneficent guardian of the
faithful who through miraculous cures makes God'5 ald to man visible.
Indeed, Michael had, promised that:
Whosoever shall take refuge in this place oi faith and fear calling upon the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost and Michael the leader of the Host, by the name of God and by my name~ he shall not go forth again suffering. 16
The importance for this centre in this study lies in its
manifestations in art, particularly on icons. This depiction of
Michael' s miracle at Chone, near Colossae, became "the most popular ... \
episode of Michael's "Life" found on lcons. The depiction of ihe \
mIracle i9 based, or at least related to the same source as a written
account of the legend datins not earli\r than the 9th century. It ls "\
. ---.,..;'~e 0 foundatlon lege'nd of one of the' ,mas t famous churches, erected on
b 'the site of the earlier stirine, of Asia Minor. l7 -
• In the story the author, who i5 unknown, beglns with th~ ~J {I
predictions of the apo~tle of the nearby city Hierapolis, Philip, and
the Apostle John. From Hierapolis they had travelled ta Khairotepa,
in the vicinity of .Chone, where they worked wonaèrs and then predicted
the apparition of Michael. Afterwards, a spring began to flow on that
spo~ which had miraculous properties. A shrine was erected on the
spot soon after, when i pagan from Laodicea con,verted to Christianity
after his dumb daughter was made ta speak by the water of the
miraculou8 fountain. Ninety years.later the first guardian of the
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, spr:f.ng arrlved. This was Archippos, born at Hierapolis and at the
time ooly ten yeârs old. The hennit Arehippos practised the greatest
devoti~n and guarded the sanctuary for s1xty years. Despite the ,",
respected miracles effected by the water it wou1d seem that Archippo~-
~d had to protee t the shrine m~ny times during the period. In fact, .t
" the heathens of the area were determineg to destroy the founta!n by
turning the water of another stream into lt. The group failed ln lts
first,attempt at po1luting the founta!n but afterwards five thousand
of them came together at Laodicea and deeided ta destroy it with the
the dlverted waters of the Lykokapros and Kouphos rivers. Ta ensure
that ~hé rivers would be full -enough to work tes damage they dammed
the river~ for ten days. When they had let 100 se the combined waters
into the c~annels they had directed to the sherine, the Ar~hangel
Michael revealed himself in order to save the, ho1y shr;ine. Michael
~pp~ared upon a rock beside the sanctuary and after causing the water
, to stand still, broke the rock open so that a path ~as formed for th~
, wa:ters to flow through. The rock· split op~n as if an earthquake .had
struck, and it made the sçund of thunder. Aft;er this terrible
appearance Michael-vanished~leaving his shrine intact. , ~
, . ' , This miracle is repreaented frequently on ieons. An exquisite
example qf this type i5 an -icon from, St. Catherine 1 s at Mt Sinlti froID
the 12th century (fig, 6).18 The moment 'chosen for representation, . 1
and the one constantly usec:i by the pàinters of this scene" Is when _
Michael strlkes the rock and: causes the wa'ter to be aiverted -through
the crevice that he has created. Michael 1s dress~d in a robe ,under a
, flowing chlamys which he holds with his,left. hand. In his"'ght. hand
44
he holds the staff with which he causes the rock to be split asunder. , .
The streams of the two rivers flow from the upper corners, thus .
splitting the field of the icon into two halves. On the right side II.
---the-monk Archippos stands, smaller and more slender than the imposing .. Archangel who stands on the left. Archippos ls dressed simply in a
Behind him ~ tunic while he raises both his hands in imprecation.
stands the chur~h of th~ Archangel which ~saved by Michael's action • ..
The frequency with which this episode is represented and the
different periods cause smpll variations in the ~lements of the
story. On/ an 1con of the l4th century from Constantinople, now in
Jerusalem" the scene ia nevertheless essentially the same. The ,
Archangel strides strongly and puts the full weight of his body .>nto
the st(lff. In th_1s...... scene a rather squat Archippos kneels before his
church Whi\e upon the rocks in the background the pagans work thei~
m1schief. 19 On an another icon frdm Mt Athos of the 14th or 15th ,
century, now in Belgrade, the representatioA~ differs ia its el~~ents
on1y in that â tympanum wi th whàt would appear to be Michael is placed
on the church. The water is se en in this 1con to d1sappear ,into a
weIl.20 Indeed, despite a di~ference in style which is understandable
considering the tim~ and places, th~re is a m~rked consistency of. , , . description of the episode .. 21 Even in thè vadous media :f:n which the
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episode 18 depicted. the e~sential elements of the scène, !t,s action \,.
and the presentation of Miéhael and Archipppos, are consistently
reproduced.2~
Given then the numerous examples of represe~~ations bf the \
1l11tacle at Chone, Qot on1y on icons but also in othér media, an 1
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explanati'on ought t'O' be offered as to w~y this scene 18 50 often
45
chosen for depiction. One réason may be the wide8pread veneration of
Miçhael in the ares of Chone, sAd the ent i,re region of Phryg ia Î The
history of the veneration of MichJel in Phrygia 18 a long ~~. ln
fact, the origins·'of the cult of Hichael are' tradit:Lonally placed in
Asia 1M1no-r; and more preeisely in' Phrygia. 23 Syme<>n Metaphrastes
reported that the first apparition of the Archange! ln PhrygU was st
the end of the flrst century A.D. in lç.eeping with the pred'le t ions o~
Philip and JOhn. 24 And Paul' s injunction agalnst the worship of,
a~gels was given near Chone, at the ancient city of Colossae. 25 lt Is
aiso telli,ng that the council held at Laodicea in 363 expressed a
stern c9mmand against the overindulge~t cult following of the
an8,e18.26 Laodlcea is, of cour'se, in Phry,gla. _ This i~d~cation of the ~, ,
popularlty of the cult of the angels, and' particularly of~1:1..1ctraeî: 18
~-------borne out by the many examples of ln~tions dedicated to !,1ichael . , - ~
asking for his assistance. 27 ''Thls popularity of the Archàngel ~n
Phrygia, _a~d the rest of Asia Min~r,. explains why this legend survi ved
until lt was included in the M~nologion for sep,~~er 8 which
propagated the legend wherever there were faithfûl. ,
, , Further explanation may be soughot fro~ the locality of the
miracle' •• Michael is addressed at times as Ml.xanX 0 lJlyas , " . o EV
X~\lat.. ~ ,28 and as 29 . lt is the specifie'miracle
enacted at the site rather than a reference to the varlous acts of
hearing 80 often attdbuted to Michael. The cholce of the miracle fot'"
depiction la proof enougb of this. It is the loeality that remai~
constant; ,the place where the, Archangel. a divine being, appeared,
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interceded in 'che affaira of man~ and thus awarded and aided the
righteous. The imporeance of the apprehensibjlity of the Archangel at
this moment ls crucial for hls recognition'by the individual
worshippers as' a real be1ng., f ~ooking ai the icon described above,
'\ from Mt S1nai, one can see how formaI means are utilised to ~ake the ... figure of the Archangel more su~stantial and "real appe~ring." While "
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Michael i8 on earth he i5 given a more corporeal"appearance than he
would as a member of the heavenly court, fo~ instance. 30 On the Sinai . \ . -
icon Micha~l is shown· graceful and in his flowing robes, and ·,degant
in his gestures. He is .modelled with great plasticity and the '\
" . fullness of HiS form beneath these garments ls Indicated by the large
areaa of oloth that d~ape his body~ His physi~aiity is further . '. .. e~phasi$ed by the slightness of the figure of the monk which serves
only to make Michael appear even more substantial as a figure. This
is +ikely a key for the ~nderstanding of this group of icons •• Michael , \ .
. performs his hé~oic act on earth and the artist. with varying degrees
Df succees, most often utilises this classical mode of depiction to ï
emphasise Just this. The act on earth by a corpq~eal, yet divine,
being ~hich was the éxtraordinariness of the event. The appearance of
divinity to men who are Just and deserving of Michael's intervention .' \
ia the central tru~h to which these icons refer. AlL of Michael's
IL -~.mirac~es and ~evelations to men are essentially divinity made manifeat
in" comprehensible terms.
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.. ENONOTES - CHAPT ER 3
L. ouspensky and V. Lossky, The Meaning of Icons (Boston, 1952) 111. J.
47
2. G. F. Hill, "Apollo and st. Michael: Sorne Analogies," Journal of Hellenic Studies 36 (1915): 152ff.
3 . ~
~,- 54ff.; Male, op. cit., ~S7ff.; Avril and\Gaborit, 0E,' cit., 276-279; Fraipont, op; c~., 290.
~, 74ff.
S. Hill, op. cit., 140ff.
6. Sozomënos, II, 3, Hist. eccl. 1. l, c. III, PG, t. LXVII, col. 865; Cedrenus, II, p.210,. neither of whôm it seems mentiol') Zeus" cf. Hill, op. ci t., 156ff t1 aIso, Wiegand, op. ci t., 7, W. M. Rams!.y, The Church in the Roman Empire bafore, 170 AD. (New. York, LOnd~n, 1893) 477, Janin, op. cit., 28, and ~"'XL 903.
1
7. Hill, Op. cit, 15,7. In Ft'ance there éxists the church st-Michel-au-P~r1--1-de-la"'Mer, cf. M. Baudot, "Caracteristiques du culte de Saint MiChel, nMill~naire monastiqu~ du Mont-St-Michel. 3 vols. (paris, 1971): III, 30. --- a. procopius, De aedif., V, 3; Hill, op. cit., 146; F. W. Hasluck, "Bithynica," Annual of the British School at Athens 13 ' (1906-1907): 297ff. ,. -
9'. ,- W. H. ~D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (Cambridge, 1902) 236 and bis "-Lesbos, I·Annual bf the :British School at Athens 2 (1895'-i896): 150-151 with photographe
10 .. F. Haskin, In~dit pyzantins D'Orchrida, Candie et Moscou " (Brussels, 1963 ) 147ff.
1
11~ Jani'!, op. cit. , 29
1'2. Hill, op. cit., 147ff.
. 13 .. Ibid,- '146; W.' H. D. Rouee, Gr~ek Votiv~'Of~eri~ ( cambr idqe ,
1902') 37.
14. Hill; °E" cit. , 155. "":
, . 15 •. John, V, 4. This pass~ge is now generally omitt~d, c.f. The
. OX~qrd Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, eds'. il. G. May-anëi' B. M. Metzger (New York, Oxford, 1965) 1290 • .,
,-
,,.t •
• ''1
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. 16. Cited in Hill, op. cit., 155
17 •. W. M. Ramsay, The Chur eh in the Roman Empire before 170AD (New York, London,. 1893) 468ft. and The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygla, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1895) l, 214ff.; M. Bonnet, ed.,(o _ Narratio de Miracul0 a Michele Archangelo Chonis patrato (Paris, ,\ 1890); F~ Halkin, ed., Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca, 3rd ed. (Brussels, 1999) 118ft. 0
f
,18. Sotlriou, lkons, '1, 79-81, II, fig. 65; Weitzmann et" aL" The Icon (l98n, 18, fig. p. 757; Weitzmann, "Classical," 166,-fig. 126. ' ,
19. Galavaris, 1he Icon in the Life of the Church, XXlc.
20. Weitzmann et al., The Icon (1982), fig, p_ 276. lcon'cf. Elbern, op. cit., fig: 18.
For a simllar
t, .\
21. For Russian examplès cf. Ikonen Museum Kunstsammlungen der Stadt Recklinghausen (Recklinghausen, 1968) ?8, fig .• 37. Also cf. Weit~mann et al.~ The Icon (1982), fig. p. 216; aqd M. Chatzidakis, Et X6\1E!; 'tns. n~nloU" (Athens, 1977) 71ff.; pl 20. "
22. For an example in manuscript illuminati~nJ cf. fig. 354, London, i. Br~tishLibrary, 'Add. pS70, foL 60r, and fig. 361 .. Oxford,
Bodleian Library, Gr. th.f.l, fol. 8r, in Byzantine Art. A ,~uropean Art. Catalogue. Zappeion Exhibition Hall, Athens~ 2nd ed. (Athens, 1964); ln f reseo, cf. M. Chatzidakls, "Rapports entre la peintur~ de la Macedonle et de al'Crète au XIVe 91ècl~," rrE~D~XUEva 6LE~VOû( Buça\lTLvOÀOyLxoë tuvc6p~ôv 1 (1955): 156, fig. 13a. In metal work, cf. A. Grabar, "La Porte de Bronze Byzantine du Mont-Gargan et\le 'Cydae de l'Ange,'" Millépaire monastique du ~lont-St-Mi~hel, 3 vols. (par-.ts, 1971): III, pl. XXXVIII, and R. J. H. Jenkins,. "A Cross of the Patriarch Michael Cerularius," with .. An Ar~t-hlstor1cal . Commentary" by E. Kitzlnger, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 21 (1967): 238ff., 247ff., fig. 8. ..,-
23. ~Petrucci, Qp. cit., 340.
24. Bill.. XI, 903. 1
25.... Col0'9s., 11, 18.
26. ~. l, 2085.
. ' 27. 'Ibid, 2085; W. M. Ramsay, Clties and Bishoprics of Phryg1a, ~ls. (Oxford, 1895) Ir, 741-742.
28. J. M. Thierry, op- cit., 124-125.
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29. P. G. de Jerphanio~, Les Eglises rupestres.de Cappodoce, 2 vols. i -(paris, 1925), I, 399, ,434.
30. W. M. 'Ramsay, The Church ln the Roman Empire- before 170AD (New York; LOndon, 189~) 466-467.
31. weitzmann, "Classical," 167.
32. L. OUspensky, Theology of theClcon (Crestwood, NY: 1978) 119 ••
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{' . Chapter 4
Michael as Psychopomp ..
50
.~
, The tradition of a divinity who acts as a leader of souls after 'rp
death, or as 'UXOI0~X~~ , is an ancient'on~.' Michael in the
, .
Christian' tradition'ls the an\el PSY~hOPOmp par excellence and this
funetion is importan,t' for th~ f~te of al souls. The significance of • 1 ~ , ' .
,this role in popular belief is central t~ Michael's cult and an ,
understanding of this function' as we~l as its ,geneology' in other,
traditions ilJ'< crucial to the understanding of the cult of "Michael in \
aIl its aspects and ~ts or.ig1ns. .. \ . In Egyptian religion i~ wa~ Thoth'who ~ed the soul to the other
<\'
world. Osiris lQ sometimes deplcted enthroned and ho~ding a soul on
nis scaies while Thoth reco~ds the verdict. With considerable , .
r ... differènces, of course, ihis' saIne operatlon is acted out in Buddhis t
art.l 1
This same tradition of a conductor of souls was fo~nd in the
Iiterature, eplgraphy, and art of the Greco-Roman world. The Urst • c
;
lite'rary reference we have Is in the first lines of Book XXIV of the 'r?
Odyssey. 'There 'are many referenc~s. thereafter.2 Plat~ speaks of a
daimon who perfiorms this funetions: 3
~t ~pa t€ÀEUtnaa~Ta ÉHa~v !(71tE:P CwvTa t~À~XE:1. OliTO~
, . ~ o €'!\;Io"Cou
&YEl.V •••• . ,
And Hlerocles, writing i} the 2~d, ce~tu~ AD, speaks of a
leads souls·· after death':4 .,-Ha~ ~ET& Tnv T€ÀE~V {ÔOU llopeCa
Q . -nllWV 1l.À I1XÔTO li:
.., genius who
\ ,f
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Thanks to Clement of Alex~ndria (d. 444 AD) a fragment of Euripides
suryives,on this subjeet: 5
.~~ dEQI" ô~ lJ€
't&' l:e:l"p~VWV âës at~lpa
",
While the Hymn of Hermes, one of ,the Homeric Hymns from between th~,
8th and 6th century BC, is specifie in stating tha't this role belonged
to the god Hermes: 6
This Iast referenee indicates the mor~ generally held belief in the
being whose funct~on it was to lead souls to the underworlJ. In the 1
religion of the Greco-Roman 'wotld it ls Hermes/~lercury who performa 1
this service to the dead. , In ancient art, as weIl, Hermes i5 often pres~nted in the ~ôle
of the conductor.of souls. 7 Normally he is represented as a herald,
wearing the mantle, a hat, with a broad rim or without a brim, and
with wings at tached to the side of .the cap. He.rmes' boots, always
st~ut to facl1itate his journeys, are often winged to refer to the
extraordinary speed of his tràvel. Another attribute of Hermes Is the ,
; or tije Latin eaduceus, which 18 the god's Insignia
as a me~senger. This caduceus belongs within the large category of
sticks that possess some symbolic slgnificance or magl~al power-to
'which the staff Michael uses at Chone also belongs.8 A curious
èxample'of the use of the caduceus is found on a scene trom a lekyth08
from the Classical perfod. 9 On this vase Hermes conducts the exit of
wlnged , or from the open mouth of a
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52
half buried·pith08. The use of pithoi for funeral purposes'was a t •
common practise, found at the Dipylon are~of Athens, for iastance.
l '
This 18 a rare deplc~lon aJthough it .was still a common bel~ef.' ., ,
Hermes presides over the area of the dead and conducts the souls to
their journ'ey' s end. Hermes Is also depicted on stelai, ?r tomb
stones, ,in h-is office as psychopomp. 'Por example, a crude stele from
Asia Minor of an early pçriod shows Herm~s with his staff, a simple' , --~-
cloak, and a tap.lO This stele'was found on top of a grave ln a , ,
• burial area" and so Hermes is invoked in his special area. _
One can say categorically then that Hermes possessed a spee~fic.
function in ancient reli~ion a~d'art as a leader of :soulp. Over a
long period and througijout the Greco-Roman world,-germes was
consldered the god whose function it was to ensure the safe conduct of
'the soul "ta It~ eternal rest\ That he was SUbj~C~ to entreaty is
shown by eplgraphic evidence and this belief in Hermes the psychopomp'
. inclûded an established ~conography that described his , .
respons1bl1iti~s as th~ guide for.the passa~e of the soul to the
"'~underworld • .1 •
The Interpenetration of ideas and iconographical types between .
pagan and Christian realms is a natura~ and common, if some~hat
shadowy phenomenon. l1 Hermes would quite naturally affect the
character of the Christian p8y~opomp par excellence, the Arèhangel
Michael. The borrowing, or even the whole appropriation, of a~ entire
persona by the Christians of the Roman period can be t 'in Many cases,
very clear_~ ln this case, at Carthage, in. the Roman cisterns of
Da'r-Samiat, a bronze figurine of Mercury was· recovered. Although it
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was covered'With gnostic inscriptions that are largely in~ecipherable. ,
one can read in leglble letter& on the figurine's forearm the name,
Michael, i~ Greek. 12 This-Btatue, clearly, was absorbed by the
Christ.ian community" and the common function of both Michael and
~
Hermes is that of the,psychopomp.
It.is also important to note tbat many chapels dedica~ed to the
Archangel Michael weFe built rëport~dly on the r~ins of temples of
Nercury J m~ny of whlch occupied high places. A hill in La Vendée
still bears the na me St-Michel-Mon·t-Mercure. '\ And like the pagan "
stelai discussed above which depict Hermes, the image of Michael was &
also carved onto the tombstones' or onto the tombs themselves. 13 i ~
One can see the same overlap of function on a Roman 'gem,of
unce~tain date. 14 The gem is Inscrlbed on the left side with thè
name, Michael, in Latin letters. But the gem presents Hermes in the
attitude that -ls normally assoclated with him: the figure ls seated
facing left, while in his left hand he holds the caduceus; he wears .
the typical wlnged hat, and a cock stands qt his feet which are also .-
winged. There ls another inscription at the figure' 8 right' knee chat
in Hebraic characters signifies "time." It ls a clear ~lluslon to the
soul sfter deat;h and the com'lng judgément. Also acéordlng to
1 Goodenough, the cock was taken into Judaism as an important symbol of
J'
potency. The fact that Michael is named here suggesc8 that this ) " ..
image and characters were connected with ortality.
Aga1~, ,1t was a most obv1ous 1dentl or .
even the religlous point of v1ew conslderlng the J:'81e a88 wlth
Hermes and Michael as psychopomps.
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., This identification 'of Michael vith Hermes ind1cates that
Michael was recognised as the J~:bh ev.unterpart to the pagan --'psychopomp, at least by some Jews. 15 bne must' first realise that
there vas an already long estâblished belief within the Jewish .. tradition of Michael the psychopomp. The identification with the
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54
, pagan counterpart thus becomes more easily understood. And, in fact, ..
the Christian conce;tio~ of Michael as the angel of deatn is largely
de pendant upon the Jewish tradition, even though the Christians were
indeb~ed to pagan sources for iconographicaî and literary prototypes. ~
The tradition set by the old TestaJllent and the apocrypha! texts . / . show first a,:t urunistakable belief in the arçhangel psychopomp, and "
secondly t~t this angel J ~ven if not. named specifically, is tri b~· . '\.
1dent1f1ed as Michael. The tradition would seem to stem from the
ninth Epistle of Jude where -Michael contends with the devil for ,the 1>
body of Moses.l 6 According to Ori6en this battle was derived fro~ the
1 Apocryphal Assumption of Moses of the lst century AD.l7 The text of . . \ the Assumption reads:
Tunc implebuntur manus nuntii (i.e. Michael) qui est in 'summo constitus. qui protinqs vindicavit illos ab inimicis eorum. 18
• •
On the basis of t~e extant Greek fragments R •. H. Charles says that thi
devll sO\1ght to keep Michael from burying Moses on two counts. '*
F1rstly, that Moses' body belonged to him as Lord of the material t...-,. •
world, and, secondlYt that Moses had comm1tted murder. Michael leaves
the latter charge unrefuted, but he count"èrs the former- by stating ~
that God, not the Gev11, 1s the Lor4 of the mater1al ~orld because His
spirit fills the enCire universe. Michael, having su~cessfully ... ....,
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countered the devi1's oppositton» buries the body of Moses ln the
mountains, and carries his soul to heaven. 19
This role of Michael 15 followed in other Judalc texts, as •
weil. In the Testament of Abraham of the 2nd centuury AD from Egypt
, it Is Michael who, accompanied by an army of, Angels, envelops the soul
of the Patriarch Abraham in a celestlal shroud and carries It before .
In the B~· of6~noch it was Michael who bore .
the throne of God· 20 \
l Enoch's soul heavenward. 21
\
i In legend, it was Hlchael to whom the L~-
1 • delivered the 80ul of Adam~22 Also, Michael Is sald to have foretold
•
the redemption of. the souls of Adam ana Eve, af ter having told Ev> of
the death of Adam. 23 ~
, ÉVidently, then, Mich'ael not only del1vers the soul ln Jewish
tradition, but he is also the protector and intercessor on lts behlllf, Il
which Is only a natural extension of the character of the Archangel,
the servant and soldier of God. rh one legend, in fact, Michael
Intercedes to the enthroned God on the behalf of a soul, and 15 )
petition~n some
,
successful in his occasions Michael grc:ets the . \
soul at heaven' s gate to which, according to one source, he holds the
o', key.25 In the BoOk OF Enoch 1t was Michael who "came to me and 1
greeted me~ at the entry to heaven. 26 In another legend after Michael
has presented the soul to God; he takes it to lts place of - ./
residence. 27 For these reasons Michael 18 addressed as the angel.of
prayer» to whom ~ntreaty o~ behalf of the soul is addressed, as he had
been addressed to Intercede on behalf 'of the living. l8
The ide a of the angels, and particularly Michael, as the
conveyer and protector of the soul was absorbed and further developed "
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,./ by the Christ\tans in aft, theology, and 11turgy.29 The earli~st
l ' extant li t~ra{y reference to' the role of the angels as psychopomps
"'\.
dates to 203 AD, whe~ the martyr Saturnus of 'Thuburbo reeounts the
vision that he had 1n prison.30 The eady chureh Fàthers make
frequent mention of the angels that guard the sou1 and keep it safe
for its celest!al journey.31 And during the journey of the soul the
angel protects lt frôm demons that bar the way.32 The Roman liturgy
preserves this bel1ef in the angel1ç guide of the soul:
and,
Suseipe Domine animam servitui Il11us revertentem ad te. Ads1t ei angelus testamenti tui Michael. ,
Te supplices deprecamur: ut suoc1pi iubeas an1mam famult -tui 1l1ius per manus sanc to;rum Angelorum deducendam in sinum Abrahae. 33 ~
,The bel1ef in the angels, and particularly Michael as
psychopomp was established 1n wr1tings' of the Churcq. This bel1e'f
56
extends into popular belief, as well, which is oattes~ed by legend and
apocryphal texts'. Here, as he is ln other r6les as the leader of the
heavenly host, Michael Is the angel singled Out in texts even if other ...
. angels are invol ved. For 1ns ç,ance, 1 t is Michael' ~ho tells Mé\ry of
her approaching death. 34 There ls a1so the legend that Michael eut
off the hands of a w1cked Jewish high priest who had attempted to \,
overturn the bier of the just deceased Virgin. 35 -:And it was believed
that J,t was Michael who received the soul of the Virgin from tne bands
ot Christ, and then ~elivered.it to heaven:
. Et ecce Dominus Jesus advénit cum angelis suis et susc1piens anlmam eiu8, tradidlt Michaele arcbangelo et recessit.36
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On icons, even though Michael 18 not no~ally specified, there are
always arch~ngels present at the taking of the soul of the Vlrgin. 3? Another common legend ls the prayer that, the Carpenter Joseph
" addresses Michael ta guide hls soul. 38 Al though, in the Arab h!s tory \
of Joseph it ls Michael who takes the Boul. and Gabriel who,
intervenes. 39
Michael ~ s participation in the entry-' of Chrht into Hades, the
rescue of those inhabifing the netherworld and the rec;lemptlon of the
deserving souls, is an€lther example of his involvement in these f.:I
matters concerning the· soult s fate. The li terary reference mirrors
4
the practice of putting ,two archangels ln the background of
representations of tl~is scene. It 18 true that Mich~el was not ( ,)
specifically identifi~d but then nei ther were the other characters . , .
usually :Ln\101ved.~ It i8 ~fi:er a11 Michael ·to whôm Christ has
entrus ted the souls af Adam and Eve to dei! ver ,them CO' .... Paradi.se. 40
Afte:.: havlng considered the ancient precedents of the bellef ln
the psychopbmp and the way in whiçh these bell,efs were Inèorporated
into the éhr:tstla.n (falth ft' 18 now possible to examine the manner in
whlch these various trends manifested themselves on Byzantlne icons.
lt ~ust be said, before beginning this discu.f3sion, that the examples
are relatlvely scarce. This ls not to say that the Archangel
psycho~omp was an unpopulax: type, rather there is every reason to
believe that this type was l~portant and central to the character of
Michael iil Orthodox belief.
An 1con in the Byzantine Museum in Athens of the_post-Byzantine
period 18 a fine example of this type. 41" Despite its late date, the
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co~pleteneSSt and, in fact, the èomplexlty of the iconography leaves
little doubt that the artist was drawing upon an'already existing
# tradition of this type of scene. On this icon, the Archangel, as ,we
4 . are told by the ~nscription, Is dressed in the full gear of the
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soldier, ~ompletêwith cuirass and skirt. In his right hand he holds,
the instrument of hls might~ the sword, whlch he points toward the y
ground, in repose after the completlon of his mission rather than in
the miçlst of battle. In his upheld left hand Michael holds a small 1
mummifie~ figure, evldently the soul of the d~ceased after the . convention of painting the soul. 42 , That this i5 the soul is
substàntiated by tge' inscription:
. tpttov q,uX~ )JOU 'Tel' OPWJ,1E:W l • 43 .
. '~The outcome of th~ struggle ,iS" shown ,by the prostrate figure upon
which Michael stands. lt i8 â. nude figure, overwrought and utterly .. defeated by the Archangel.
Clearly, this 18 Michael the protector and deliverer of souls
. that finds lts source in the litetary descriptions mentioned above.
'The 1nscrlpt;1.on, while echoing the m~anfhg of the imprecation of the
dying, such as the Carpenter Joseph, for one, i8 not derived from ,
liturgieal or theoloslcal writing. 44 , .
lt i8 instead a popular motto
and~fer~ to the dread of,the soul as it approaches death and the
coming day of judgemen~. The figure below Michael's feet may
represent the body of the deceased from which the soui has been
extracttd. lt may 81so he a demon ~9ich Michae,l has co~fronted on the
road to heaven. lt Is pr.obably a reference in more generar' terms to \ .
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the defeat of the devll in tne contest for the soul, finding its
source in the battle between Michael and the devil over Hases.
1 This submission motif has ancient origins in Roman Imperial art
\ referring to the defeat of the enemy.45 That iconography was a
natural source to draw upon ln Byzantine art for warriors and vic tors
in both secular and religious"art. In chis attitude Michael is
obviously che va~quisher of death and the devil. Michael 15
represented in fhis Bame gest!lre of submission of a prostrate figure
as on the Athens icon above, but th, figure may be
Alexander, no doubt ~eaning Alexande~,the Great. 46
identified as
The significance
is simllar since Alex:ander was believed to symbôlise ~eath whom
Micha.el defeats for the welfare of the s'Ouls;47 or Alexander may
symbolise Satan, whose pride in this gesture of submlssion has brought
abo,ut the fal! of the wlck~d and the unjust. 48 lt May also be that
Michael wishes ta rescue Alexat;tder' s soul and hence redeem him. It is
a lesson for the faithf,ul ta heed and it is a~so a reminder, of
------Michael r S ability to battle 'and overéome for' the ~ake- of the mottaI
soule
Another icon of this type can be found in the collection of the '1
Hellenic lnstitute ln Venice (fig. 7).49 This icotl, simllar in Most
respects to the icon from the Byzantine Museum descri'béd above, dates
to the pogt-Byzantine period also. On this icon Michael, dressed in o
mllitary costume, holds a sword in his right hand'turn~d upwards
triumphantly. The soul, in his left hand," ia again enshrouded.
Michael stànds upon an almost nude figure. The inscrip tion again
warns the soul ta quake at . such a terrible scene. Indeed, on another
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. -icon of 1734. death is called, "p1tlless and impenitent. "50 This
ptesents the nè~d of an imPf4cable champion 'of the vulnerable soul,
the Archangel Michael, and lt also signifies the Inevitable day of
death and then, of reckoning. Michael' s raie ia boih as the . intercessor and, judge. ..1
This subject is found in fresco painting as weIl. In the
~ destro~ed church of the Prophet Elias and St. Charalambos in Athens ~ a
figure of Michael victorious over the devll occupied one of the
spandrels. 51 lt is dated to 1718 and ia very similar to the icon from
the Byzantine Museum discussed above. Michael stands with a sword -in ,
his right hand raised triumphantly while in his left he holds the soul
of .~he deceasêd. Under his feet is a bearded man; in this case
probably the deceased. The inscription is almost identical to that of
the Byzantine Museum icon.
The securing of the 80ul, while not to be found gn icons, is
1 another aspect of th~ same process of the celestial journey of the
soul w~ich illuminates the meaning of this group of icons. In the
Apocryphal Gospel of the Carpenter Joseph, Joseph prays to 111chael to .. accompany his soul to the next world, and that Michael might attend to
1
his soul and _pody until ~hey are separated. 52 This very act of
separation is found, for example, on a freseo of the 13th cent ury at
Mt~ Athos at the church of Chllandar.53 The angel, though not
i,dentified, must certainly be Michael. He extracts the soul, .again a
sID811 naked figure, from the mouth of the prostrate monk. 54
-, The soult s leaving of, the body, has its origine in "the parable
of the rich man aOO Lazarus, where It Is said t~at when{\tHe rich man 'J'
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-, ' died he "was carried by the angels into Abraham' s bosom. "55 This type
lis represeoted by tAle body of the deceased bé1os' lifted by two , '
sngels. On a freseo of H81 from the sanetuary wall of the Monastery
( of Neophytos on Cyprus, St. Neophytos is earried heavenward by Michael
. ,
and Gabriel who are identified by an ins~riptlon.S6, The next step in
, the journey of the sou1 can a1so be found on fresco. In the church of
. .
Chllandar the Archangel holds the sou1 as an ,oHering in his hands -and
presents it to Christ. 57 Michael ls at once the intercessor on behalf
of the soul, and also the agent by ~hlch, the soul has come to be
judged.o
In a pendentive of the Parecelesion of the e,hûreh of Kariye
Djami. 'a' freseo deliliets an angel and a smal1 soul both of whom stand
faeing the ·throne 0; judgment. 58 The angel places his right hand on
the soul while his left vas apparently turned upward in a gesture of
entreaty or offering. The sou1 raises both. hands in supplication • . Reading the closing paragraphs of the Address of the church t s patr~n,
Theodor.:e Metochites t the angel must be Michael whom l1etochites begs to
Intercede on his behaif .59
This duality of character,. the warrlor of God and the, ~otec~or
of the 80ul of the individual,,; Is expressed comprehénsively on an icon
of the l4th century of the Archangel Miehael-from the Museo Civico 1~
Pisa (fIg. 8).60 This icon shows Michael, identifled,by an
inscription, full length, and dressed in a tunie. and mantle. In the
Archangel' 8 lef-t hand i8 a medallion of the Christ ~manuel. From . ~
this same hand is suspended a set of scales, an attribute of Michael
that orig1nated 1n the l~th centu~y. 61 On the plate to right stands a '
small naked figure with his right hand ralsed in entreaty. 'A small 1
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winged devil trie~ to tip the balance br.stealing the small figure
that stands on the scalets lower plate. But with his spear in hls
r1ght hand Mlchae'l Impales the devll to 'emphasise his mlght, a1)d he
does, not even deign co look. at the evil' belng he has effortlessly
speared.
·62
This 18 an unusual ico'n among those extant in the combination ~
of these e1ements on one icon. There is, however, good rea~on to
be,lieve that such imagea had existed prevlously in Byzantine art .62
'FhJ:s icon was likely executed by an Italian after a Byzantine model.
The use of a Byzantine model ia suggested by the dreaa and other
attributes already' described as typical to Michael on Byzantine
lcons. The medal1i.on 18 an unusual feature but this has been fvund in
Serbian fresco cycles63 and ls not ital1anate. And stylistically, in
the handling of form and colouX', the icon points to a Greek origine
The Pisa icon is, in many ways, a summation of the idep4 , ,
.concerning the journey of the soul and Michael' s rôle in it. Michael
on the'lcons fro~ Athena and Ventee discussed atove is shown 1n tpe
same adversarlal rôle in relation to the devil. He has'received the
souls of the deceased and readies them for cheir journey co,Paradise. d
This journey Involves obstacles in the form of devi~~ or demons which
1
are haqdled easily by the vlctorious warrior, Michael. This same
trial ls presented at a more advanced stage on the lcon from Pisa.
Mlchael 18 still acting in defense of the souls as he impales the
devil, and yet this is part of a larger drama. lt 18 an indication of
t~~ judgement of aIl souls on their day of reckoning, the judgement
day represented by the medallion of Christ Emmanuel, the judge.
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Michael is the champion
'" 1 63 1
1 1 1
of Ithe just slde) Ch~ist1anity and thé 'truly
Christian soul, and as the soldier of God he defeats their enemies.
On the Piaa icon Michael is: dressed in the tunic and mancle, not che
dress of the warrior. lt ls the costume of a member of the hedvenly
court who attends the Last Judgeme~t_ and who obeys its strictures.
Michael's raIe in th~ Last Judgement ls alluded to on ieons • ... On 'an icon in the Byzantine Museum in Athens, Michael holds a staf f in
, his right hànd and in his lift an orb surmounted by a small cross and
t
inscribed with the letters chi, rho, delta, and kappa. The four , 1
cha~acters stand for .xpl.o'tch A~)(al.os KpVT~S .64 The
iQscription refers to the Lkst Judgement and the Arehangel's rôle as 1
1
the minister of God. lt lsl a1so found on a fresco of Michael, in the 1
1
, Parecc1esion of Karlye njam~, between the resurrection scene~ of the 1
bema, and immediately below! the Last Judgement.65 i
This stress on }lichakl' s rOle in the Last Judgement is a 1 1
natural extena'ion of his r8fe of psychopomp and the deliverer of the
soul to heaven. As '-- ~:
~.he genfral
minis tet -of
of GOG he ensured' the soul's safe
. . ",!.,
conduct, and aat the 1
God he processes the judgement of
Christ, the Pantocrator. TrUS, he.!s sometimes given the scales that
measure the wort"h of the so~ls, and then deems them fit or unfit for
dweIIing 1n Paradise. 1
The scale,as symbol tf' ~ud8e~ent ha~ an ancient lineage. 66 In
the Old Testament lt occurslas an lnst~~ment of measuring
worthiness. 67 And sign1flclntly there exista an antique plate that .~
shows Hermes holding a scai , in the presence of Apollo, in wh1ch he '\</,
".
-64
"
weighs the souls of Achilles and Memnon. 68, St. Augustine placed the
scale within the Christian tradition: "
Erit' tibl sine dubio compensatio bonorum malorumque et velut in statera posiea utraque pars, ijuae demeserit illa eorum, quo momentum vergitur, operarium suum pertrahl ad gehennam. Si vero mai or a fuerint opera bonorum summa vi resltent, et ~epugnaHunt malis atque operatorem suum ad re~ionem vivorum ln ipso etia~ gehennae confinio convocabunt.6 ,
lt is thus onlx fitting that Michael be given the scales as a 'slgn of
his vigilance toward the journey of tbe souls and these'so~lsi
subsequent fate. 70
Dn a Serbian icon of 1647, now in Belgrade, of_~h~ Last l ,
Judgement, Michael i8 depicted holding a~word in bis right hand-and a
scale in his left. 71 Michael is shown in a yellow and re~ mandorla in
the center of an extremely detailed icon of the vàrious actions of the,'
day of ju~gement. Michael i8 in the register between the heavenly'
gatherlng of the select and the bottom register that describes t,he . . ...
resurrection of the bodies and the sorrows of hello Michael ~y the
centrality of his position i5 integral to the action as the active
warrior and a judge delegated by God.
Michael is given other functions' in the' Second Coming.
According to the Book of Revelation it is Michael who is t~of
~he Apocalypse, and this figure can be found on Russian i~ons but nJ~ to my knowledge, on Byzantine icons. 72 Al~o, according to
legends and wrltlngs It 18 Michael who blows, the trumpet that AIIIIdliJ:l
the Last Judgement of man. 73 There 18, indeed, a sizeable
and extra-biblical tradition which attributes to Michael a large r6Ie
on the day of judgement. 74
.o.
..
o . "
65
According to che Apocalypse of John, the angels present to
Christ che judge the book that contains all the dèeds of men. 75
Michael is not specified in the text or Identified,'lt seems, on-aoy
tcon or oth~r media in this rôle. And yet, the three aogels sometimes
, wear the Imperial loros that is the rlght of the archangels,76 or - \ ...
sometlmes the tunic and chlamys.77 lt would be a likely
identification although certainly not crucial to defining Michael's
raIe. It Is a more probable identlfication when one considera an teon
from northern Greece from the end of the 17th or th~ beginning of the
lSth 'century on which Michael ia depieted holding an open seroU in r. 1
bis left hand and brandlshing a sword in his: right. 78
. As a final indication- of Michael' s' rôle in the climax. of aIl
men's journey, Michael ls placed on the Deësis range of the
1conostasis so that the1faithful might always rem~mber this specifie
r61e, among his others. 79 Micha~l ls included on account of this raie ~
~s the Archangel psychopomp, the angel upon whom.the soul will reply
during its final journey. Michael" is also the archange! upon whom the
responsibility of carrying out 'the judgements of God will reste "
Michael ~s a member of the heavenly court and this series of ima~es on . . .
the lconostasis i9 a indicatio~ of the greater cosmic reality of the
h1erarchy to wh1ch the images ·refer. Mlchael's service as the active
min~~~f and w~rri~r of God is Inseparable from the events of the Last
Judgement and the fate of each and every soul.
Ca '\ 66' <
· . NOTES
f. ~, l, 2132.
2. For e&le, Corn. 16 S 66; Diod. l, 96; EuSthath. l 1. v395. s. 361, 361 Eur., Aleestis V. 361.
3. Phaedo. 107D: "(The story goes) that when a man dies bis" guardian deity, to whose lot it fell ~o watch over the man wbile he was alive, (undertakes) tb conduet him ••• "; 108B.
4.
5.
De provident1a, ed. Needh~, p. 178: "and for the final journey beyond to- ilades the responsibility lies upon his guardian deity ~
to conduet bim."; cf. also Enneade, III, 1. IV, c. VI.
DACL, l, 2125: 'tOn the golden wings and lQvely sandals of the STrëns l am borne. l walk the many layered ether, mingling with God."
~
Hymn of Hermes, v. 572: Hades.", cf. L. preller, (Berlin, 1894) 1,404.
"and' to be appointed messenger of Grieschische Mythologie, 2 vols.
7. cf. for instance Oaremberg and saglio, III, 1802ff _Ii The Oxford Classical Dictlonary (Oxford, 1970) 502-503i P. W. 8 (1913) 789-790;, ~ l, 2132ff.; L. F. A. Maury, ~sai sur les l~gëndes pieus3s du moyen age (paris, 1843) SOff.; F. Cumont, "tes anges du pag\Lnisme," Rêvue de l'histoire des religions 71 (1915): 154-182; H. P. L'Orange, '''Eros Psychophoros et Sarehophages Romains," Archaeologium et Artium" Historiam Pertinentia 1 (1962) 41-47.
'8. Verg., Aen. IV, 242, A. S. Pease ad loe.; Eitrem, P. W. 8 (1913): 760; Boetzkes, P. W. 11 (1922): 330-342; PfëISter, P. W. 11 (1922): 2129; De Waele in P. W. 2, sere 3 (1929): 1894-1923; E. Reiss, "stu~es in Superstition and Folklore," American Journal of philology 46 (1925): 233; F. J. M. de Waele, The Magic Staff or Rod in Greeo-Italian Antiquity (The Hague, 1927) •
, 9. M. P. Nelson, Geschichte der grieschisehen Religions, 3 vols.
(Munich 1967) 111,33,3; J. E. Harrison, "pandora' s Box," Journal of Hellenie studies 20 (1900): 99-114, fig. 1; Daremberg and 54glio, III, 1812.
10. W. M. ~say, "Studies in Asia Mînor," Journal of Hellenie Studies 3 (1882): 68ff., fig.l.
,"
1
o
12.
13.
14.
..
67
J. D. Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and-Ancient Greek Religion. A Study in SurvivaIs (C~idqe~ 1910) 45, P. W. Suppl. III (1918): 1126; DACL, XI, 904ff.; for an unusual identification of Michae1 with ZeüS;-cf. C. Kaplan, -Angels in the Book of Enoch," Anglican Theoloqical Review 12 (1930): 425.
~, XI, 907.
E. Male, L'art ~~~:geus. en France du XIIIe si~~~e (pariS, ' 1931) 377, ~,. XI,
DAO., I,'2133ff. fig. 659; Goodenough, Jewish Symbols, ~24S, III, fig. 1078. •
.r.1S. ~, II, 245.
16. cf. The Interpreter's Bible, e~. G. A. Battrick, 12 vols. (New York, 1951-57) XII, 329.ff. . '-
17. De princ., III, 2.1.
18. , J
X.2, cf. R. H. Charles, ed., The Assumpbion'Qf Moses (L9ndon, 1897) 8$: "Then tlie hands ·of the messenger who is of the first rank are placed upon mm. It is thiS messenger who constantly rescues men from their foes."
19. ~, 105-110.
20. Test. Abr.~xx, J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies. Contributions to Biblical and Patristic Literature, 9 vols. (Cambridge, .1899-1922) II, no. 2, pp. 29, 103, 119, 139.
21. Kapl~n, op. cit., 43~.
22. Ginzberg, Legends, l, 100; R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigraphia of the Old Testament, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1913) II, 1511 on this subject of also A. Frantz "Late Byzantine pain.tings in the Agora," Hesper.ia 4 (1935): 447. Later the Lord delivers the souls of both ,Adam and EVe,- DACL, l, 2131.' -
23. Gin~berg, Legends( l, 94.
24 •. Ibid, l, 304ff. -25. G. Davidson, A Dictionary of Anq~ls (New York, -London, 1967) 194.
<
26. Kaplan, op~ cit., 433: Enoch, LXXI~ 14.
27. Ginzberg, Legends, l, 70~ ....
, ..
\ \
28. Ibid, V, 71, n.13; cf. Also The Greek AR9calypse of Baruch, II, 'iiidOrigen, De princ., l, 8.1.
29. Dani'lou, op. cit., 129ff.
}o-. OS> B!S!!' Ii 2122.
31. Origen, Ho. no~., V, 4; Co. Jo. XIX, 4; Pseudo-Justin, Quaest. ortho 751 Gregory of Nyssa, Ho. Ps. 6, PG, XLIV, 509A;' Chrysostom, Ho. Laz., II, 2; ~pocalypse-of Paul, XIV, M. R. James, ed., The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford, 1924).
32. Ephrem, Sec. Adv. III, 276; DACL, l, 2123.
68
33: both cited in~, l, 2123: "Take up, LOrd, the soul of your servant and return it to you. May the messenger of your word, Michael, be present." and "Let us hwnbly en~eat you: that you undertake to eleva1;.e the soul of your servant and by the hands of the holy angels lead oit in,to the bosom of Abraham."
34. Davidson, op. cit., 194.
35. A; B. J~eson, Legends of the Madonna (London, 1903) 433.
l6. Gregory of Tours, De gloria martyrum, 1. l, c. IV, PL, t. LXXI,' col. 708: "And behold the LOrd Jesus came with His-angels and taking her soul, gave it to the Archange~ Michael, and he ·retir'ed. If 1 cf. The Pass~n9 of Mary. ~econd Latin Form, A. Roberts and J. Qonaldson, eds., Anti-Nicene Library; Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down to A. D. 325 (Edinburgh, 1870) 530.
37. cf. for instance, M. Chatzidakis, Les ic8nes dans las collections spisses (Berne, 1968) fig. 10.
, 38. The Histoq_.pf JOseph the carpent~r, XIII, A. Roberts and J. Oonaldson, eds., op. cit., 67.
39. Frantzl' op. cit., 447. ,. • 40 •. ~, l, 2123.
41. Frantz, op. cit., fig. 3.
42. Maury, op. cit., 124ff.
43. Frantz, op. cit., 444.
44. ~,. 447.
o
----~------~------~----.. ~ ........... . 69 -- -
45. R. Brilliant, "Gesture and Rank in Roman Art," Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 14 (1963): f1gs. 4.80, 4.85b, 4.45a, 4.89; cf. Grabar, L'Empereur, 43ff.
46. l am unable to refer the reader to an example of this type but l am told by professor Galavaris that exam~les exist in various unpublished collections o~ icons.
47. M. Chatzidakis, IcGnes de st-George-des-Grecs et la collection de l'institut (Venice, ~.d.) 90, n .. 1.'
48. R. S. Loomis, JI Alexander the Great' s Celestial Journey," Burlington Magazine 32 (1918): 184; H. P. L'Orange, Studies on the Iconography of the Cosmic Kirlgship in the Ancient World iOslo, 1953f 118-1231 H. J. Gleixner, "Alexander der Grosse," ~, Bd. l, 96-99. ..
49. M. Chatzidakis, Le6nes de St-George-des-Grecs et la collection de l'institut (Venice, n.d.) 91, pl. 57 • ..
50. ~, 91.
51. Frantz, op. cit., 443ff.-
52. ~, 444.
53. V. J. Dj-uric "Fresques mêdiévales à Chilandar," Actes du XIIe Congr~s International d'Etudes Byzantines, 3 vols~ (Belgrade, 1961): III, 57-98.
54. Ibid, fig. 1.0.
55. Luke, XVI, 22.
56. Cormack, 0E' cit., 239, 242, fig. 93.
57. Djuri~, op. cit., fig. 14. e
58. S. der Nersessian, "program and Iconography of the Frescoes of the p~recclesion," The KaDije Djam.J.. vol. 4. Studies in the Art of the Karije Djami and ris Intellectual Background, P. Underwood, ed., (Princeton, N. J.,.1975) 324. p. Underwood, The ~rij e Djami, -vol. 1 • H:fstorical Introduction and .Description o~ the Mosaics and Frescoes (New York, 1966) 207-208.
59. P. Underwood, The Karije Dj~i. Vol. 3. plates 335-553. The Frescoes (New York, 1966) pl. 393.
60.~ Weitzmann, et al., Icons, XXXIV-XXXV, fig. 77.
61 • ·A. Rosenberg, Engel und Domonen (HÙni)' 1967) 102.
/
',.,..
\'
, 62. V. Lasareff, "l)uccio and Thirteenth century .Greek Icons," Burlington Magazine 59 (1931): 160ff.
63. ~, .16'0. -.'
'64. Nersessian, op. cit. 324; M. Sotiriou contends othervise, although l have been unable to consult her arti~le, cf. ~, 324, n. 122, for the citati~n of her article.
~ Thé 65. P.- Underwood, The Karije Djami. Vol. 3. Plates 335-553."
Frescoes (New York, 1966) pl. 472, 473. ....
66. ~I l, 2130ff.
67. Job, XXXI, 6; Dan. , V, 27.
70
68. ~, 1,0 fig. 658. The author do~s not provide a date or place.
69. { "
Sermo, l, In vigilia Pentecostes, 16, PL, t. xxxVII:I, co~. 1225: "There will he, wi:thout a doubt, a .b:rl~ncing of accounts for g09d and evil just ~s eaqb of these that ~e j:o he separated will he pl«ced on the pl~tes of the scale,4and by the motion it turns th~ deeds shall take one XO hello If their good deeds.are truly. greater, they will prevai~ and out-weigh the bad and they shall decreë his deeds in the realm of the living' aven at the very
J/ mouth of' hell." • , ,
70. - The angel holding a' scale is also a conunon theme in monUr/tental sculpture of othe Romanesque and Gothie periode in France. Examples include, the çathedrals a~ paris, -Arles, Bourges, Chartres, Autun, Amiens, Rhouen, Sainte-Cr~ix-de-saint-LÔ, ~otre-Damè de-la-Counture, and Mans. cf. Maury, op. cit., 82ff.
, ( , .
j d 71. V. J. D url.C, Ic8nes de ,Yougaslavie (Belgrade, 1961 ) 97, 122-123", i
fig. 63~ "
7-;'. Galavaris, The 1con in the Life of thé Chur ch , pl. XXXld, and M. V. Alpatov, Early Russian 1con :g~intil'lg (Mos.cow, 1974 ) fig. 1~7."
~3.. Q Ginzberg,' Legends, IV, 2341' cf Oc Thess. ,IV, 16, Tlle 0 Interpreter' s Bible, 'XI, 305tf.
74. t
cf. J. Leroy, "L'illustration de la Bible chez l;-es juifs," Rêvue de l,,'hi.stoire des re1=igion'& 138 (195'0): .1~9-1~ on Ezekiel, XXXVII/~10.particularly.
, 75 • XX, 12-15.
<:' 76. --N. and J.-M. Thierry,. op. c;it., 133, figs. 24,'25,27,31. , 1
. '
'e. i
f
.'
o
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71
77. C. oiehl, L'art byzantin dans l' Italie m~ridionale (paris, 1894) pl. ~pposite p. 104.
78. M; Chatzidakis, LeS icSnes dans les collections suisses (Berne, 1968) fig. 92 and cf. under fig. 902 as there is no pagination.
i •
. ; : 79. cf: for instance, papageorgiou, op. cit u figs. 31, 80. ~ ..
-.
"
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, 72
-CONCLUSION
The several groups of icons. ~d the attendant iconogr~phica~
• attributes that l have discusseq.\ in the preceding chapters, devoted to
specifie functions of the Archangel Michael, are together the sum of
. the character of Michael on Byzantine and post-Byzantirie. icons. All
. the functions represented on these icons cite Michael' s duties as
1
being in the service of Gad and His will. Michael is specified as the
leader of the corps of angels a11 of whom perform the endless , '
functions of the divine government • . ,
- , Michael is addi-essed à;Lways as a member of the highest rank of
heavent and as a high functionary in the c.elestial government. As we
have seen, al~
indicate this
iconographical attributes assoCir'ted with Michael
exalted status. ' He invariably po sesses the insignia of
1
his office of which the globe and the staff are!COmmOnlY symbols.
Michael is al ways found wearing garments that a~e becorning to bis
. station, and he can he shown, according to his action, in the loros,
, or in..t.he classical chlamys and tunic. These garments were sanctionea'
by imper~al usage and by ancient ~onve,ntions concerning the c'lothing 1
of venerated figures. Inqeed, every detail'on icons poin~s to
or
\ Michael' s high position. All the iconographical attributes were
systematized by ·authors such as symeon the Thessalonikan 1 and
Dionysius of Fourna into a pictorial language ~at eXPlssed the
grandeur of this figure to aU the fai thful.
In relation t~ the icono~aphical details that in 'cate
Michael' s prominence in the hierarchy 'Of he aven , part of Michael' s
(
\.
) 73
dut y as a minister of God was the zealous administration of His will
on earth. Michael, above all eIse, i8 the guardian of the fai th and
its followers and this is reflected by the active nature ot the
Archangel on icons. Thus, perhaps the i,mage most indicative of-
Michael' 8 character is the convention of showing him as the warrior of
Gad and defender of the fai th. This i8 the image of devotion par
excellance and it provides hope and inspiration f.o~ ,~he devotees. 2
o Michae~ 'is also depicted as the defenq,er of emperoX"s ~~d Kinga in
, various media and this is an extension of Michael' 5 rôle as the
guardian of the faithfui. He i8 shown on another group of icon~ as
, the agent of God. who dcfends Archippos at chone and 50 safeguards his
church and the fai thful. And in extremis i t 15 Michael who ls the
quardian of the soul and after death who battles demons that obstruct
the safe conduct of the soul to paradfse. Michael" s devotion to Gad
\
and His followers extends to the Last Judgement where the Ar,changel,
the guardian of paradise, takes part in the j udgement of men and
carries out the sentences handed down by GOd.
The extensivenesa of Michael's functions, derived from Judaic
and Greco-Roman traditions and absorbed into Christian dogma,
indicates t~e speoial, veneration with which he was held in the '"
tradition of Byzantine piety. This is evidenced by the large number
of images o,f Michael as well as the considerable body of epigraphic
and literary material concerned with Miobael of which only a small
. amount was discussed in this thesis. It is true that the healing
o springs of Michael derived their efficacy from the water but there are
legenda also associated with the miraculous power of image~-{, as we
\
\
(:
1 !
, ,
74
have seen. And it is dso true $at the shrines of Michael, at Chone
"and Mt. Gargano for instance, were of sîngular impor::tance to the
cult. In fact, the cult center at Chone was at~ended by large
paneiyreis and the church was the goal of- many pilgrimages,3 but the
icons were always the important objects of popular devo~io~ before
specifié shrines.
The icon was ,indisp~nsable to the liturgy and thus essential to
the devotion of all the devout:
The contact ••• between the faithful and the world of grace is established through the icon, for it is the ico~ the believer confronts and with which he converses.4
on one level, the ieon may parttcipate directly in the liturgy as when
Michael. holds the Trisaghion that echoes a specifie passage in the
~ites4 Furthermore, tlle icons of Michael are symbolic passageways
through which one might comprehend the magnific~nce of th~ divinity.
The contemplation and adoration of these images are a means by which
one can participa'te in the glory of God. There e~ist contemporary
testimonials to this concept of the Apprehension of the immaterial !
divine being by material images of the Archangel. For instance,
Nicep~orus Callistus xanthopoulos wrote in the early 14th century on
an icon of Z,lichael by Eulalios:
It seems either that the painter has dipped bis brush in immateriality to delineate his spirit,. or else the spirit remaining unobserved in his picture , hiding in colours his incorpore al nature. HOW i6 it that matter can drag the spirit down and encompa&s the ~aterial by means of colours? This is [a work1 of ardent love (as shown by the facts), and i t kindles the heart. 5
-\ These images in Orthodox belief embody the divinity of Michael,
and the faithful, through contemplation of these images, are
o',
o
"
o --
75
performing acts of devotion. It is a mean~ of contemplation by which
the divi~ity becomes more actual and present. As the icone of Michael
at Chone evoke the active participation of the guardia~ Michàel in
mundane ,affairs~\ so he .i,s meant to be present to the viewer of the'
scen~. This belief in the vitality and power of icons to excite
devotion is attésted by contemporary accounts: o
Th~ wax, greatly daring , has represented the invisible, {he incorporeal chief of the angels in the semblance of hie forme Yet it was no thankless [task1 since the mortal man who beholds the image directs his mind to a higher contemplation. Hip veneration 1s no longer distracted: engraving within himself the [Archangel's] traits, he tr~les as if he ,were in the latter's presence. The eyes encourage deep thaughts, and art is able by means of colours to ferry over [to its abject] the prayer of t~e mind. 6
Thus the rôles'~nd attributes of Michael on icons are
inextricably bound up with the liturgy arld popular belief. In one
sense these icons are visual equivalents of liturgy, doctrine, and
popular piety, yet in every sense these images of Michael are his
/'
divinity made corporeal and so his protection is apprehens1ble by all •
• 1
.'
f.\ 1
, ' '.
'-
(
1
76
('CONCLUSION) - ENDNOTES
1. ~I v. 155
2. J. Fourn~e , ilL· Archange de la mort et du jugement," Mill~naire monastique du Mont-St-Michel, 3 vols. (paris, 1971): III, 65 ••
:3. S. Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor ~d tpé Process of Islaminisation from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Berkeley, 1971) 30n 165, 222, 479.
4. Galavaris, The Icon in the Life of the Church, 5. 1
.5.0
Mango, op. cit., 231.
6. ~, 115.
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77
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