Writing a Writing a Literature ReviewLiterature Review

SourceSourceGalvan, J.L. (1999). Galvan, J.L. (1999). Writing Literature Reviews.Writing Literature Reviews.

Los Angeles: Pyrczak PublishingLos Angeles: Pyrczak Publishing

Identify LiteratureIdentify Literature

Select a preliminary topicSelect a preliminary topic

Establish your purpose Establish your purpose Who is your audience?Who is your audience?

Why are you writing?Why are you writing?• a chapter in a thesis or dissertationa chapter in a thesis or dissertation• a stand alone paper such as a research papera stand alone paper such as a research paper

SearchSearch

reference lists from textbooks or articles reference lists from textbooks or articles from classfrom class

library databases (ask librarians for help)library databases (ask librarians for help) most current references and work most current references and work

backwards backwards theoretical and review articles in addition theoretical and review articles in addition

to empirical research to empirical research landmark or classic studieslandmark or classic studies

Narrow the topicNarrow the topic

command terms and functions command terms and functions scholarly journals or peer reviewed onlyscholarly journals or peer reviewed only date of publication (generally last 5 years, date of publication (generally last 5 years,

except for classic studies)except for classic studies)

Searching is a circular process. Searching is a circular process.

Search/Scan articles/Search /ScanSearch/Scan articles/Search /Scan

Read and Analyze Your Read and Analyze Your ReferencesReferences

ScanScan the articles the articles Read abstract Read abstract

Read first few paragraphs and the Read first few paragraphs and the paragraph right before “Method” section paragraph right before “Method” section

Read “Discussion and Conclusions” Read “Discussion and Conclusions”

GroupGroup articles by categories articles by categories

By topics and subtopics and then By topics and subtopics and then chronologicallychronologically

• Organizing the articles into categories Organizing the articles into categories before reading will help you synthesize the before reading will help you synthesize the information for each topic and subtopic. information for each topic and subtopic.

..

Example of topics & subtopics Example of topics & subtopics

Affirmative Action in Higher EducationAffirmative Action in Higher Education Background IssuesBackground Issues

• General historical backgroundGeneral historical background• History of Affirmative Action in higher educationHistory of Affirmative Action in higher education• Philosophical basisPhilosophical basis• The law and Affirmative ActionThe law and Affirmative Action

The Effects of Affirmative ActionThe Effects of Affirmative Action• Effects on minority enrollmentEffects on minority enrollment• Effects on academic achievementEffects on academic achievement• Other effectsOther effects

Criticisms of Affirmative ActionCriticisms of Affirmative Action Alternatives to Affirmative ActionAlternatives to Affirmative Action

completely in each topic togethercompletely in each topic together

Take notesTake notes in an organized manner: computer in an organized manner: computer files, note cards, etc.files, note cards, etc.

Include all bibliographic info, especially page Include all bibliographic info, especially page number when quoting!number when quoting!

Flag like information with same color post-its Flag like information with same color post-its across articles.across articles.

Read the articlesRead the articles

SummarizeSummarize

main purpose (research questions)main purpose (research questions) methodologymethodology

qualitative/quantitative qualitative/quantitative subjects, controls, treatmentssubjects, controls, treatments

findingsfindings relevant detailsrelevant details

varying definitions of key termsvarying definitions of key terms methodology usedmethodology used

size & generalizability of subject pool size & generalizability of subject pool innovative methodology innovative methodology

enough evidence?enough evidence? findings consistent with those of similar findings consistent with those of similar

studies? studies?

AnalyzeAnalyze

AnalyzeAnalyze

currency: lit review shows the latest work currency: lit review shows the latest work done in subject area. (last 5 years on done in subject area. (last 5 years on average)average)

Include older articles if: Include older articles if:

• landmark study landmark study

• only evidence on a topic only evidence on a topic

• helps explain the evolution of the helps explain the evolution of the research research

Synthesize the LiteratureSynthesize the Literature

Use organization tools. Use organization tools.

How does each article relate to your topic How does each article relate to your topic and purpose?and purpose?

Define your argument/thesis.Define your argument/thesis.

Identify major trends or patterns emerging Identify major trends or patterns emerging from your reading.from your reading.

SynthesizeSynthesize

Reassemble your notes based on results of Reassemble your notes based on results of reading, using organizational aids such as post-reading, using organizational aids such as post-its, flags, etc.its, flags, etc.

Revise original outline of categories Revise original outline of categories

Create a detailed topic outline Create a detailed topic outline begin with your “argument” or claim begin with your “argument” or claim present evidence from articles researched that proves present evidence from articles researched that proves

your claimyour claim

Do not string together a summary of articles. The outline is Do not string together a summary of articles. The outline is topic driven.topic driven.

Sample topic outlineSample topic outline Topic: Psychological Aspects of Organ Topic: Psychological Aspects of Organ

Donation: Individual and Next-of-Kin Donation: Individual and Next-of-Kin Donation DecisionsDonation Decisions

I. IntroductionI. Introduction A. Establish importance of topic (cite A. Establish importance of topic (cite

statistics on scarcity of organs).statistics on scarcity of organs). B. Delimit the review to psychological B. Delimit the review to psychological

components of decisions.components of decisions. C. Describe organization of the paper, C. Describe organization of the paper,

indicating that the remaining indicating that the remaining topics in topics in the outline will be discussed.the outline will be discussed.

II. Individual decisions regarding II. Individual decisions regarding posthumous organ donationposthumous organ donation

A. Beliefs about organ donationA. Beliefs about organ donation B. Attitudes toward donatingB. Attitudes toward donating C. Stated willingness to donateC. Stated willingness to donate D. Summary of research on individual D. Summary of research on individual

decisionsdecisions III. Next-of-kin consent decisionsIII. Next-of-kin consent decisions A. Beliefs about donating others’ organs.A. Beliefs about donating others’ organs. B. Attitudes toward next-of-kin B. Attitudes toward next-of-kin

donations.donations. C. Summary of research on next-of-kin C. Summary of research on next-of-kin

consent decisions. consent decisions.

IV. Methodological issues and directions for IV. Methodological issues and directions for future researchfuture research

A. Improvement in attitude measures and A. Improvement in attitude measures and measurement strategy.measurement strategy.

B. Greater differentiation by type of B. Greater differentiation by type of donation.donation.

C. Stronger theoretical emphasis.C. Stronger theoretical emphasis. D. Greater interdisciplinary focus.D. Greater interdisciplinary focus. V. Summary, Conclusions, and ImplicationsV. Summary, Conclusions, and Implications A. Summary of points I-IV.A. Summary of points I-IV. B. Need well-developed theoretical B. Need well-developed theoretical

models of attitudes and decision models of attitudes and decision making.making.

C. Current survey data limited in scope C. Current survey data limited in scope and application points to need for and application points to need for more more sophisticated research in sophisticated research in the future.the future.

D. Need more use of sophisticated data D. Need more use of sophisticated data analytic techniques.analytic techniques.

E. Conclusion: Psychology can draw from E. Conclusion: Psychology can draw from various subdisciplines for an understanding of various subdisciplines for an understanding of donation decisions so intervention strategies donation decisions so intervention strategies can be identifiable. Desperately need to can be identifiable. Desperately need to increase the available supply of donor organs. increase the available supply of donor organs.

Note on your topic outline relationships among Note on your topic outline relationships among studies: which researchers, what page, etc. support studies: which researchers, what page, etc. support each point? each point?

Note consistency of results from study to study. If Note consistency of results from study to study. If only ½ of your articles found similar results, note only ½ of your articles found similar results, note that. that.

Note discrepancies among studies and provide Note discrepancies among studies and provide possible explanations such as dates of studies, possible explanations such as dates of studies, different methodologies.different methodologies.

SynthesizeSynthesize

SynthesizeSynthesize

Note landmark studies and if replicated.Note landmark studies and if replicated. Note how individual studies help illustrate Note how individual studies help illustrate

or advance theoretical notions.or advance theoretical notions. Note gaps or areas needing more Note gaps or areas needing more

research.research. Make sure your detailed outline follows a Make sure your detailed outline follows a

logical sequence of topics and subtopics. logical sequence of topics and subtopics. This will give your lit review the coherence This will give your lit review the coherence it needs.it needs.

Write the First DraftWrite the First Draft Introduction should funnel down from broad problem Introduction should funnel down from broad problem

area to your specific problem, but don’t start too global. area to your specific problem, but don’t start too global.

ExampleExampleToo broad:Too broad:

Education is important to both the economy of the Education is important to both the economy of the United States and to the rest of the world. Without United States and to the rest of the world. Without education, students will be unprepared for the next education, students will be unprepared for the next millennium….millennium….

Better:Better:Human tutoring provided on a one-to-one basis has Human tutoring provided on a one-to-one basis has been credited as the most effective form of instruction been credited as the most effective form of instruction (Bloom, 1984; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982). It is not (Bloom, 1984; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982). It is not surprising then, that efforts to isolate and describe the surprising then, that efforts to isolate and describe the actions of expert tutors….actions of expert tutors….

Writing…Writing… Define scope of lit review in intro. Clearly state Define scope of lit review in intro. Clearly state

what will and will NOT be covered. what will and will NOT be covered.

Avoid long lists of nonspecific references. Better to Avoid long lists of nonspecific references. Better to select only most important studies and use the select only most important studies and use the words, for example or such as.words, for example or such as.

ExampleExampleNumerous writers have suggested that children in single-Numerous writers have suggested that children in single-parent households are at greater risk for academic parent households are at greater risk for academic underachievement than children from two-parent underachievement than children from two-parent households (see for example, Adams, 1991 & Block, households (see for example, Adams, 1991 & Block, 1992). Three recent studies have provided strong 1992). Three recent studies have provided strong empirical support for this contention (Doe, 1996; Edgar, empirical support for this contention (Doe, 1996; Edgar, 1999; Jones, 1998).1999; Jones, 1998).

Writing…Writing…

Be specific regarding time frames.Be specific regarding time frames. Example: Example:Bad:Bad:

In recent years there has been an In recent years there has been an increased increased

interest in….interest in….Better:Better:

Child maltreatment incident reports increased Child maltreatment incident reports increased by 50% between 1988 and 1993, totaling by 50% between 1988 and 1993, totaling more than 2.9 million reports in 1993 more than 2.9 million reports in 1993 (McCurdy & Daro, 1994).(McCurdy & Daro, 1994).

Identify landmark or very important studies as Identify landmark or very important studies as such.such.

Writing…Writing… Cite studies with inconsistent or contradictory Cite studies with inconsistent or contradictory

results immediately after the information, rather results immediately after the information, rather than at the end of the sentence. Example:than at the end of the sentence. Example:

Previous studies have found anywhere from 39% Previous studies have found anywhere from 39% of college students (Mills & McCarty, 1983; Rabow, of college students (Mills & McCarty, 1983; Rabow, Hernandez, & Watts, 1986) to 68% of college students Hernandez, & Watts, 1986) to 68% of college students (Hernandez, Newcomb, & Rabow, 1995) reporting (Hernandez, Newcomb, & Rabow, 1995) reporting intervening in an intoxicated driving intervention.intervening in an intoxicated driving intervention.

Summarize periodically. Summarize periodically.

Writing…Writing…

Distinguish between an author’s assertions (opinions) Distinguish between an author’s assertions (opinions) and findings resulting from evidence. and findings resulting from evidence.

Present conclusions on the state of knowledge of your Present conclusions on the state of knowledge of your topic. Use degrees of evidence, such as “it seems safe topic. Use degrees of evidence, such as “it seems safe to conclude…” or “it is difficult to conclude….”to conclude…” or “it is difficult to conclude….”

Present implications at end of literature review – your Present implications at end of literature review – your suggestions on what research needs to be done now, or suggestions on what research needs to be done now, or what action could be taken in light of your presentation of what action could be taken in light of your presentation of research findings.research findings.

Your lit review should justify your proposed study and Your lit review should justify your proposed study and introduce your research questions in the conclusion. introduce your research questions in the conclusion.

Writing Style TipsWriting Style Tips Use APA (American Psychological Association) Use APA (American Psychological Association)

style format for all in-text citations and reference style format for all in-text citations and reference list at end. list at end.

Use appropriate “voice” for writing in the social Use appropriate “voice” for writing in the social sciences. Refer to your research articles for sciences. Refer to your research articles for samples of writing style. Avoid using “I”.samples of writing style. Avoid using “I”.

Use headings and transitions to trace your Use headings and transitions to trace your argument, but do not overuse. argument, but do not overuse.

Writing Style Tips…Writing Style Tips…

Avoid overusing direct quotations, especially Avoid overusing direct quotations, especially long ones. Quote accurately.long ones. Quote accurately.

Avoid indirect sentence constructions such as Avoid indirect sentence constructions such as “In Smith’s study, it was found….”. “In Smith’s study, it was found….”. Instead, say, “Smith found that…” Instead, say, “Smith found that…”

Avoid using synonyms for recurring important Avoid using synonyms for recurring important words.words.

Spell out all acronyms when first used.Spell out all acronyms when first used. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions.