WORLD RELIGIONS

STUDYING THE WORLD’S RELIGIONS

GLOBAL VILLAGE

• ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY HAS DECREASED THE DISTANCE BETWEEN FORMERLY REMOTE AREAS OF THE WORLD

• KNOWLEDGE OF PEOPLE, WHO WERE FORMERLY NEVER IN CONTACT, NOW IS NECESSITATED IN ORDER TO CARRY ON BUSINESS AND AVOID CONFLICT AROUND THE WORLD

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF RELIGION?

RELIGIOUS QUESTIONS

• WHERE DID WE COME FROM?

• WHY ARE WE HERE?

• THE ANSWERS TO THESE MYSTERIES LED TO THE FORMATION OF RELIGIONS WHICH PROVIDE A WAY OF LIVING AND DYING MEANINGFULLY

WHAT IS THE HUMAN CONDITION?

• WHAT IS OUR ESSENTIAL NATURE?• OUR WE ENDOWED WITH SOME FORM

OF SOUL?• WHY IS THERE SUFFERING?

– RELIGIONS OFTEN DESCRIBE A MEANS OF OVERCOMING SUFFERING

• ARE WE BY NATURE GOOD OR EVIL?– CREATION STORIES OFTEN ATTEMPT TO

ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

WHAT IS SPIRITUAL PERFECTION?

• IS THIS ATTAINABLE NOW OR IN AN AFTERLIFE?

• IS IT ATTAINABLE WITHOUT DIVINE ASSISTANCE?

• THREE BASIC QUESTIONS THAT RELIGION DEFINES SPIRITUAL PERFECTION– WHAT IS ETHICAL?– HOW DO WE TRANSCEND THE HUMAN

CONDITION?– HOW DO WE ATTAIN SALVATION?

WHAT IS ETHICAL?

• TEACHING REGARDING WHAT IS RIGHT OR WRONG IN ORDER TO ATTAIN SPIRITUAL PERFECTION

HOW DO WE TRANSCEND THE HUMAN CONDITION?

• BRINGING ONE FACE TO FACE WITH THE HUMAN CONDITION, AND THEN RAISING ONE ABOVE IT OR TO SEE THROUGH IT.– BUDDHIST ENLIGHTENMENT

• “CONTINUING TO INHABIT A PHYSICAL BODY WITH THE USUAL DISCOMFORTS AND NEEDS WHILE MAINTAINING A STATE OF INDESCRIBABLE SPIRITUAL TRANQUILITY AND BLISS.”

HOW DO WE ATTAIN SALVATION?

• “MOST RELIGIONSTEACH THAT SPIRITUAL PERFECTION IS CLOSELY RELATED TO SOME FORM OF SALVATION FROM THE LIMITATIONS IMPOSED BY THE HUMAN CONDITION: DEATH”

• SOME RELIGIONS TEACH THIS IS ATTAINABLE IN THIS LIFE, OTHERS THAT IT AWAITS IN THE AFTERLIFE.

WHAT IS OUR DESTINY?

• THE DEGREE ONE HAS ATTAINED SPIRITUAL PERFECTION CORRESPONDS TO ONE’S REWARDS IN THE AFTERLIFE.

• RELIGIONS THAT TEACH HUMAN BEINGS LIVE MORE THAN ONE LIFETIME, BELIEVE THAT LIFE AFTER DEATH IS JUST ANOTHER STEP TOWARD THE FINAL DESTINY.

WHAT IS THE NATURE OF HE WORLD?

• QUESTIONS ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD – COSMOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING THE

NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE• RELIGIONS EITHER SUPPORT INTEREST IN

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY OR ARE SUSPICIOUS OF IT

WHAT IS THE ULTIMATE REALITY AND HOW IS IT

REVEALED?• ULTIMATE REALITY IS REVEALED TO HUMAN

BEINGS THROUGH SACRED STORIES, MYTHS AND TYPES OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES

• THEISTIC RELIGIONS– BELIEF IN GOD OR MULTIPLE GODS

• MONOTHEISM, POLYTHEISM, PANTHEISM

• NONTHEISTIC RELIGIONS– NO BELIEF IN GOD RELEVANT TO HUMAN BEINGS– HUMAN BEINGS ARE PART OF THE ULTIMATE

RELAITY

SEVEN DIMENSIONS OF RELIGION

• ALL RELIGIONS HAVE 7 DIMENSIONS (CHARACTERISTICS) THAT ARE UNIQUE TO EACH RELIGION EVEN THOUGH SOME DIMENSIONS ARE EMPHASIZED MORE THAN OTHERS IN A PARTICULAR RELIGION

EXPERIENTIAL

• RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE OF INDIVIDUALS– THEISTIC

• FASCINATION; AWE-INSPIRING

– NONTHHEISTIC• MYSTICISM; VISION QUEST

MYTHIC

• STORIES OR SACRED LITERATURE THAT CONVEY IMPORTANT TRUTHS OF THE RELIGION

DOCTRINAL

• THE BELIEF ASPECT OF A RELIGION IS CATAGORIZED AS THE DOCTRINAL DIMENSION OR BASIC BELIEFS– APOSTLE’S CREED

• THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE RELIGION WHICH MAKES SENSE OF THE MYTHS AND EXPERIENTIAL

ETHICAL

• HOW DOES A PERSON ACT IN THE LIVING WORLD

RITUAL

• WORSHIP IN FORMALIZED SETTINGS, OFTEN REENACTING MYTHS OR SACRED STORIES

SOCIAL

• SENSE OF BELONGING TO A COMMUNITY– EMPOWERING A RELIGION THROUGH

SHARED EXPERIENCE• FORTIFIES A COMMUNITY

– INDIVIDUALS WHO EMBODY IDEALS OF SPIRITUAL PERFECTION: SAINTS

MATERIAL

• BOOKS, ARCHITECTURE, STATUES, NATURAL FORMS

EMPATHY

• THE CAPACITY OF SEEING A THING FROM ANOTHER’S PERSPECTIVE

PRIMAL RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS

• THE NATURE OF PRIMAL RELIGIONS– NATIVE INHABITANTS OF AUSTRALIA,

AFRICA AND THE AMERICAS PRACTICE RELIGIONS WHICH ARE CONSIDERED PRIMAL

• PRIMAL: TEND TO COME BEFORE RELIGIONS TRADITIONS HAVE BEEN ESTALISHED

WHY STUDY PRIMAL RELIGIONS?

• PROVIDE SPECIAL INSIGHT INTO THE MYTHIC ORIENTATION TOWARD LIFE

• ALL RELIGIONS STEM MORE OR LESS DIRECTLY FROM PRIMAL BEGINNINGS

• OFTEN ARE THE TRADITIONS OF NONLITERATE PEOPLE– TEND TO BE THE TRADITIONS OF TRIBAL

PEOPLE, GENERALLY ORGANIZED IN SMALL GROUPS

RELIGION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES

• MAINTAINED TRADITIONS THOUSANDS OF YEARS OLD

• HAD NO CONTACT WITH EUROPEANS UNTIL ABOUT TWO CENTURIES AGO

THE DREAMING: THE ETERNAL TIME OF THE ANCESTORS

• AT A CERTAIN POINT IN THE MYTHIC PAST, SUPERNATURAL BEINGS CALLED “ANCESTORS” EMERGED AND ROAMED THE EARTH

• THEY GAVE SHAPE TO THE LANDSCAPE AND CREATED VARIOUS FORMS OF LIFE

• ORGANIZED HUMANS INTO TRIBES AND DETERMINED THE TRIBE’S LANGUAGE, SOCIAL RULES AND CUSTOMS

• WHEN THEY FINISHED THEY LEFT BEHIND SYMBOLS OF THEIR PRESENCE IN THE FORM OF NATURAL LANDMARKS– ROCK PAINTINGS AND SO ON

THE DREAMING

• MYTHIC PERIOD OF THE “ANCESTORS”: THE DREAMING– ABORIGINES BELIEVE THAT THE SPIRITUAL ESSENCE OF

THE ANCESTORS REMAINS IN THE VARIOUS SYMBOLS THEY LEFT BEHIND

– THESE SITES OF THESE SYMBOLS ARE BELIEVED TO BE CHARGED WITH SACRED POWER

– ONLY CERTAIN INDIVIDUALS ARE ALLOWED TO VISIT THESE SITES

– THE RITUAL APPROACH TO THESE SITES RE-ENACTS THE MYTHIC EVENTS OF THE “DREAMING”

– THIS REENACTMENT GIVES THEM ACCESS TO ENDLESS SOURCES OF SACRED POWER OF THE SITES

• ABORIGINAL COSMOLOGY PLAYS A CONSTANT ROLE IN ABORIGINAL RELIGION

THE DREAMING (CON.)

• EACH INDIVIDUAL HAS RESIDING WITHIN THEM THE SPIRITUAL ESSENCE OF THE ANCESTORS

• A CHILD IS BORN WHEN THE MOTHER OR SOME OTHER RELATIVE MAKES SOME FORM OF CONTACT WITH A SACRED SITE– THIS USUALLY INVOLVES A RITUAL THAT DRAWS THE

ANCESTOR’S SPIRITUAL ESSENCE INTO THE UNBORN CHILD

– EACH ABORIGINE IS A LIVING REPRESENTATION OF AN ANCESTOR

• THIS IS SYMBOLIZED BY A “TOTEM” : THE NATURAL FORM THE ANCESTOR APPEARED IN THE DREAMING

– TOTISM: THE SYSTEM OF BELIEF AND RITUAL BASED ON TOTEMS

ABORIGINAL SPIRITUAL PERFECTION

• HARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPERNATURAL, THE HUMAN WORLD AND THE WORLD OF NATURE

ANIMATING THE POWER OF THE DREAMING: ABORIGINAL

RELIGIOUS LIFE

• MUST RECREATE THE MYTHIC PAST IN ORDER TO TAP INTO ITS SACRED POWER

• IN ORDER TO ACCOMPLISH THIS CERTAIN RITUALS MUST BE PERFORMED

• RITUALS WERE TAUGHT TO THE FIRST HUMANS BY THE ANCESTORS IN DREAMING

TABOO: THE BASIS OF ABORIGINAL SOCIAL

STRUCTURE• TABOO: CERTAIN ACTIVITIES, OWEING TO THEIR

SACRED NATURE, ARE SET ASIDE FOR SPECIFIC MEMBERS OF THE GROUP AND ARE FORBIDDEN TO OTHERS

• AGE AND SEX ARE OFTEN THE RESTRICTIVE FACTORS

• OLDER MEMBERS OF THE TRIBE ARE IN CHARGE OF SUCH MATTERS

• THE YOUNG ACHIEVE RELIGIOUS MATURITY THROUGH THE PROCESS OF INITIATION

INITIATION

• AWAKEN YOUNG PEOPLE TO THEIR SPIRITUAL IDENTITY (TOTEM)

• THIS RITUAL BRINGS ABOUT THE SYMBOLIC DEATH OF CHILDHOOD AND A SPIRITUAL REBIRTH INTO ADULTHOOD

• YOUNG ABORIGININES LEARN THE ESSENTIAL TRUTHS ABOUT THEIR WORLD AND HOW TO ACT WITHIN IT

• THESE RITUALS MAY SEEM NONSENSICAL TO US, BUT TO ABORIGINES THEY ARE ESSENTIAL TO GIVE MEANING TO THEIR LIFE

AN AFRICAN TRADITION: THE RELIGION OF THE

YORUBA

• RELIGION OF 10 MILLION AFRICANS THAT HAS EXISTED OVER ONE THOUSAND YEARS

THE YORUBA AND THEIR UNIVERSE

• LOCATED IN THE WEST-CENTRAL PORTION OF AFRICA IN THE COUNTRIES OF NIGERIA, BENIN AND TOGO

• ORIGINATED WITH A COMMON CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

• GENERALLY IN URBAN AREAS; IFE HAS BEEN THE MOST IMPORTANT CITY, SINCE IT IS BELIEVED THE GOD ORISHA-NLA FIRST BEGAN TO CREATE THE WORLD

YORUBA COSMOLOGY

• HEAVEN– INVISIBLE HOME OF THE GODS AND

ANCESTORS

• EARTH– NORMAL EXPERIENCE, VISIBLE HOME OF

HUMAN BEINGS WHO DESCENDED FROM THE GODS

– ALSO POPULATED BY PERVERTED FORMS OF HUMAN BEINGS SUCH AS WITCHES AND SORCERERS

• CAUSE DISASTROUS HARM IF NOT CONTROLLED

PURPOSE OF YORUBA RELIGION

• MAINTAIN THE BALANCE BETWEEN THE HUMAN BEINGS OF EARTH AND THE GODS AND ANCESTORS OF HEAVEN, WHILE GUARDING AGAINST THE EVIL DEEDS OF THE SORCERORS AND WITCHES

GODS AND ANCESTORS: THE INHABITANTS OF HEAVEN

• SUPREME GOD: OLORUN

• LESS POWERFUL GODS: ORISHAS

• ALL THESE GODS INHABIT HEAVEN

OLORUN, THE HIGH GOD

• CHARACTERISTICS– ORIGINAL SOURCE OF POWER IN THE

UNIVERSE– DISTANT AND REMOTE– NOT INVOLVED IN HUMAN AFFAIRS– OTHER GODS, ORISHAS, FUNCTION AS

MEDIATORS BETWEEN OLORUN AND HUMAN BEINGS

ORISHAS

• SOURCES OF ALL SACRED POWER WHICH CAN HELP OR HARM HUMAN BEINGS, DEPENDING HOW WELL RITUALS, DESIGNED TO APPEASE THEM ARE CARRIED OUT

• HUNDREDS EXIST• SOME ARE WORSHIPPED BY ALL YORUBA• SOME WORSHIPPED ONLY BY ONE FAMILY

GROUP

SIGNIFICANT ORISHAS

• ORISHA-NLA– CREATOR OF THE EARTH

• OGUN– GOD OF IRON AND OF WAR– ORIGINALLY A HUMAN BEING– INHABITS THE BORDER AREA BETWEEN THE ANCESTORS

AND THE REST OF THE ORISHAS

• ESU– CONTAINS BOTH GOOD AND EVIL PROPERTIES– MEDIATES BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH– HAS A PLACE AT EVERY SHRINE– TRICKSTER FIGURE

• SIGNIFICANT IN MANY PRIMAL RELIGIONS

THE ANCESTORS OF THE LIVING

• DECEASED HUMANS WHO ARE ACQUIRED SUPERNATURAL STATUS

• CAN HELP OR HARM HUMANS

• TWO TYPES OF ANCESTORS– FAMILY ANCESTORS– DEIFIED ANCESTORS

• KNOWN THROUGHOUT YORUBA SOCIETY AND NOW WORSHIPED BY LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE

CONNECTING HEAVEN AND EARTH: RITUAL PRACTITIONERS

• ALL PLAY THE ROLE OF MEDIATION AND MAINTAINING THE BALANCE BETWEEN HEAVEN AND EARTH

• SEVERAL PRACTITIONERS MEDIATE BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ANCESTORS DEPENDING UPON WHAT THE WORSHIPER WANTS FULFILLED– HEAD OF A FAMILY– DIVINERS

• DIVINATION– THE PRACTICE OF PREDICTING THE FUTURE BY WISDOM

STORIES– RITUAL SPECIALISTS

• TRANSMITTING MESSAGES FROM THE DECEASED TO THE LIVING AT FESTIVALS

RELIGION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN PLAINS INDIANS

• “NATIVE AMERICANS” MIGRATED FROM SIBERIA OVER 20,000-30,000 YEARS AGO

• MORE THAN 30 TRIBES, SPEAKING SEVEN DISTINCT LANGUAGES, RESIDED IN THE REGION OF THE GREAT PLAINS

• THEIR CULTURE WAS GREATLY AFFECTED BY THE INTRODUCTION IF THE HORSE BY EUROPEANS IN THE 16TH CENTURY

• THEIR RELIGION TODAY SERVES AS A MODEL PAN-INDIAN RELIGION, WHICH IS UNITING TRIBES FROM ACROSS NORTH AMERICA

LAKOTA PEOPLE

• LAKOTA (SIOUX)– KNOWN BEST FOR “CUSTER’S LAST

STAND” (1876), WOUNDED KNEE (1890)– ABOUT 100,000 CURRENTLY LIVE ON

RESERVATIONS

BASIC BELIEFS

• SUPREME REALITY: WAKAN TANKA (GREAT SPIRIT)– NAME REFERS TO 16 SEPARATE DEITIES– NUMBER 16 IS SACRED NUMBER TO THE

LAKOTA

COSMOLOGY

• CREATION AND APPEARANCE OF HUMAN BEINGS EXPLAINED IN DETAILED MYTHS CELEBRATING SUPERNATURAL BEINGS INVOLVED

• KEY DEITY: INKTOME-”SPIDER” (TRICKSTER)• BELIEF THAT, IN DEATH, FOUR SOULS DEPART

FROM A PERSON AT DEATH– ONE JOURNEYS TO THE “SPIRIT PATH” (MILKY WAY”– ONE MEETS AN OLD WOMAN WHO JUDGES IT

• ALLOWS IT TO CONTINUE TO THE OTHER WORLD OF ANCESTORS OR SENDS IT BACK TO EARTH AS A GHOST

– OTHER SOULS ENTER UNBORN CHILDREN AND ARE REBORN IN NEW BODIES

THE VISION QUEST

• COMMON TO MANY PRIMAL RELIGIONS• PRIMARY MEANS FOR AN INDIVIDUAL TO GAIN

ACCESS TO SPIRITUAL POWER IN ORDER TO ENSURE GREATER SUCCESS IN HUNTING, WARFARE AND CURING THE ILL.

• BOTH MEN AND WOMEN EXPERIENCE THE QUEST• OVERSEEN BY A MEDICINE MAN OR WOMAN

– ISSUES SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS BEFOREHAND AND INTERPRETS THE CONTENT OF THE VISION AFTERWARD

– PARTICIPANT UNDERGOES A RITUAL PURIFICATION IN THE SWEAT LODGE BEFORE THE QUEST

VISION QUEST (CON.)

• SWEAT LODGE: REPRESENTS THE UNIVERSE• PROCESS OF PROFUSELY SWEATING SYMBOLIZES

BOTH A PHYSICAL AND SPIRITUAL CLEANSING• THE VISION QUESTER THEN GOES TO A

DESIGNATED SECLUDED SPOT FOR A PERIOD OF TIME WITH NO FOOD OR WATER, PERFORMING CERTAIN RITUALS AS INSTRUCTED BY THE MEDICINE MAN OR WOMAN

• THE VISION APPEARS IN THE FORM OF AN ANIMAL, SOME OTHER OBJECT OR FORCE OF NATURE

• THE VISION IS THEN INTERPRETED BY THE MEDICINE MAN AND THESE LESSONS WILL INFLUENCE THE QUESTOR FOR THE REST OF THEIR LIFE

THE SUN DANCE• FOCUSES ON THE TRIBE• OCCURS AT THE BEGINNING OF SUMMER: A CELEBRATION

OF THE NEW YEAR AND AS A PREPARATION FOR THE ANNUAL BUFFALO HUNT

• CEREMONY CONDUCTED BY MEDICINE MAN OR A WOMAN OF OUTSTANDING CHARACTER

• CEREMONY CENTERED AROUND THE “SUN DANCE” LODGE– COTTONWOOD TREE REPRESENTING THE “AXIS MUNDI”

CENTER OF THE UNIVERSE– TWENTY-EIGHT POLES COMPOSE THE LODGE REPRESENTING

THE 28 DAYS OF THE LUNAR MONTHLY CALENDAR– THE LODGE REPRESENTS THE UNIVERSE AND THE FOUR

COMPASS DIRECTIONS

A MESOAMERICAN RELIGION: THE AZTECS AND THEIR

LEGACY

• POPULATION OF ABOUT 15 MILLION; MAKES THEM EXCEPTION OF PRIMAL RELIGIONS

• CENTERED IN CITY OF TENOCHTITLAN (MEXICO CITY)

• EMPHASIZED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MYTH AND RITUAL

• INFLUENCE STILL FOUND IN MODERN RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

THE AZTECS AND MESOAMERICAN CULTURE

• CULTURE CENTERED IN REGION FROM MEXICO SOUTH TO COSTA RICA

• NATIVE AMERICANS ARRIVED ABOUT 20,000 YEARS AGO

• FROM ABOUT 2,000 B.C. UNTIL ABOUT THE TIME OF THE ARRIVAL OF COLUMBUS, AREA DOMINATED BY SOPHISTICATED DIVERSE CULTURES– OLMECS, MAYA, TOLTEC, AZTEC

THE TOLTEC TRADITION: THE FOUNDATION OF AZTEC

RELIGION• INFLUENCED BY TOLTECS• BELIEVED TOLTEC GOD,

QUETZALCOATL, PRESIDED OVER GOLDEN AGE

• EARTHLY DEVOTEE WAS THE YOUNG PRINCE, WHO RULED AS PRIEST-KING

• AZTEC COSMOLOGY ATTRIBUTED THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO QUETZALCOATL

TEOTIHUACAN: PLACE OF ORIGINS

• BELIEVED THAT ORIGIN OF THE COSMOS TOOK PLACE AT TEOTIHUACAN– LOCATED ABOUT 30 MILES FROM THE

CAPITAL– QUETZALCOATL WAS WORSHIPPED LONG

BEFORE THE RISE OF THE TOLTECS– LOCATION IS NOW THE MOST POPULAR

ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE IN MEXICO

COSMOLOGY: TIME AND SPACE

• COSMOLOGY RELATED WITH – PESSIMISTIC VIEW OF TIME– PERSPECTIVE ON HUMAN CONDITION– RITUAL OF HUMAN SACRIFICE

AGE OF THE FIFTH SUN

• CURRENT SUN WAS THE FIFTH SUN• PREVIOUS SUNS HAD BEEN DESTROYED

AND SIMILAR FATE WAS ANTICIPATED• HUMAN SACRIFICE WAS THE ONLY WAY

TO FORESTALL THIS EVENT• BELIEVED THAT THE FIFTH SUN WAS THE

LAST SUN• EACH SUN HAD OCCUPIED ITS OWN

COSMIC LOCATION

FOUR DIRECTIONS AND THE AXIS MUNDI

• EARTHLY REALM CONNECTED TO A MANY-LAYERED HEAVEN AND UNDERWORLD

• SERPENT MOUNTAIN WAS THE CENTER OF THE WORLD AT TENOCHTITLAN; THE TEMPLE WAS WHERE THE FOUR DIRECTIONS CONVERGED– MOUNTAINS ARE FREQUENTLY AXIS MUNDI’S

FOR PRIMAL RELIGIONS– GOD’S OF RAIN, FERTILITY, WAR, SACRIFICE

THE HUMAN ROLE IN SUSTAINING THE COSMOS

• TWO DIVINE FORCES, ONE IN THE HEAD AND ONE IN THE HEART, INFLUENCED THE HUMAN CONDITION

• THE HUMAN HEAD AND HEART WERE REGARDED AS POTENT NOURISHMENT FOR THE SUN AND THE COSMOS

THE RITUAL OF HUMAN SACRIFICE

• THE HEART WAS OFFERED AS NOURISHMENT TO THE SUN

• THE HEAD WAS OFFERED TO THE SKY• THE INDIVIDUAL WILLINGLY WAS

SACRIFICED AND ENTERED THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF HEAVEN

• SACRIFICES CARRIED OUT ONCE EVERY TWENTY DAYS– VICTEMS WERE NORMALLY CAPTURED

WARRIORS

THE MASTERY OF LANGUAGE

• MUCH RELIGIOUS POWER WAS CONVEYED THROUGH THE MASTERY OF LANGUAGE

• AZTECS SPOKE “NAHUATL”

• “KNOWERS OF THINGS” COULD COMMUNICATE WITH THE GODS AND MAKE OFFERINGS THROUGH LANGUAGE AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO SACRIFICE

FROM AZTEC EMPIRE TO CATHOLIC MEXICO

• HERNAN CORTES CONQUERS THE AZTECS IN 1521

• MONTECZUMA BELIEVED HE WAS A GOD• THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE, WHICH

APPEARED IN 1531 AT A LOCATION THAT HAD PREVIOUSLY BEEN VENERATED AS THE SACRED PLACE OF THE AZTEC MOTHER GODDESS

• AZTECS ALSO PERFORMED RITUALS SIMILAR TO THE “DIA DE LOS MUERTOS”

SUN DANCE (CON)

• SELF-MUTILATION BY SOME PARTICIPANTS WAS CONSIDERED THE ONLY WORTHY SACRIFICE A HUMAN BEING COULD OFFER THE SUPREME BEING

• EVENTUALLY OUTLAWED BY U.S. GOVERNMENT, IT IS NOW LEGAL AND PRACTICED IN ITS TRADITIONAL FORM AMONG TRIBES OF THE PLAINS