WHAT IS WORKLOAD

Workload is the amount of work assigned to a worker in a specified time

period.

We might not always have full control over total workload, but we CAN

recognize its effects and take some action. 

Everyone is different in their capabilities, and capability varies with task

complexity, environmental factors, and personal behaviors (self awareness,

confidence, etc.).  

.

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WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Prioritize

Prioritize and schedule tasks effectively. By understanding the priorities

in your job, you can focus on important activities and minimize work on

other tasks as much as possible.

This helps you get the greatest return from the work you do, and keep

your workload under control.

Delegate

Delegate tasks among the crew, checks

and corrects appropriately.

Expand available time

Use time available efficiently to complete tasks.

Put off less important tasks until latter; break large tasks up into a series

of smaller ones.

Follow Procedures

Follow procedures appropriately and consistently.

Expand available time

Use time available efficiently to complete tasks.

Put off less important tasks until latter; break large tasks up into a series

of smaller ones.

Follow Procedures

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Follow procedures appropriately and consistently.

Optimum Workload

Everything works great here!.

We're challenged enough to stay awake and alert.

Creative, Rational problem solving, Progress change, Satisfaction.

Need to maintain so not overburdened to the point where performance breaks

down.

Overload

Overload occurs at very high levels of workload, when the individual’s workload

exceeds the ability to cope well.

SLOJ (Sudden loss of judgment)

Loss Situational Awareness

Irrational Problem Solving

Poor Decision Making

Exhaustion

Illness

Work faster, try to finish more into a shorter time frame.

Error rates may also increase.

Overall concept of flight breaks down.

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Attention reduced, this can make the pilot fixates on one item.

Overload also can make the aircrew experiences stress , confusion, failure to

prioritize & anger.

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INTRODUCTION

Large caseloads and excessive workloads in many jurisdictions make it difficult for

child welfare workers to serve families effectively. The average caseload for child

welfare workers often exceeds recommended levels, sometimes by double or more

(Alliance for Children and Families, American Public Human Services Association

[APHSA], & Child Welfare League of America [CWLA], 2001). The complexity of

cases requiring intensive intervention, as well as administrative requirements, further

adds to a caseworker's workload. Manageable caseloads and workloads can make a

real difference in a worker's ability to spend adequate time with children and families,

improve staff retention, and ultimately have a positive impact on outcomes for

children and families.

Reducing and managing caseloads and workloads are not simple tasks for child

welfare administrators. Agencies face a number of challenges, including negotiating

budget crises and hiring freezes, addressing worker turnover, finding qualified

applicants for open positions, implementing time-intensive best practices, and

managing multiple reforms simultaneously (Day & Peterson, 2008). Even the basic

determination of what caseloads and workloads currently are and what they should be

can be thorny.

Nevertheless, States are addressing these challenges and successfully implementing a

variety of strategies to make caseloads and workloads more manageable. Approaches

range from adding and retaining staff to improving worker effectiveness to

implementing system improvements.

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Workload management balances the resource consumption of applications running in

a data center with meeting business goals and achieving predictable performance all

while minimizing resource requirements, especially during peak load periods. In

addition to this “active management” functionality, there is also a monitoring

component to workload management that collects data on resource usage as a basis for

application profiling, chargeback, and capacity planning.

BENEFITS OF WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Caseload and workload management often appear as key ingredients in a State's

comprehensive strategy to produce better outcomes for children and families. The

benefits of reasonable caseloads and manageable workloads relate to:

Retaining staff and reducing turnover. Heavy caseloads and workloads have

been cited repeatedly as key reasons that workers leave the child welfare

workforce (Zlotnik, DePanfilis, Daining, & Lane, 2005; U.S. General

Accounting Office [GAO], 2003; Gonzalez, Faller, Ortega, & Tropman, 2009;

Ellett, A. J., Ellet, C. D., & Rugutt, 2003; Social Work Education Consortium,

2002).

Delivering quality services. High staff turnover resulting from heavy

caseloads can have a negative impact on the timeliness, continuity, and quality

of services provided by an agency (National Council on Crime and

Delinquency, 2006; Strolin, McCarthy, & Caringi, 2007; Flower, McDonald, &

Sumski, 2005; GAO, 2003).

Engaging families and building relationships. Essential child welfare

processes—including family engagement, relationship building, assessment,

and permanency planning—is time intensive and requires frequent worker-

client contact. Heavy workloads and caseloads reduce the amount of time

available for these processes.

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Positive outcomes for children and families. Workloads and caseloads have

been linked to performance on Federal Child and Family Services Reviews

(CFSRs) and achievement of safety and permanency outcomes (Children's

Bureau, 2006; GAO, 2003).

CATALYSTS AND MOTIVATING FACTORS

Some States set out specifically to reduce caseloads and workloads; others have

reforms imposed on them; and still others arrive at caseload and workload reduction

as an unintended effect of other initiatives. The impetus for caseload and workload

reduction efforts typically emerges from one or more of the following catalysts:

CFSRs. After the first round of CFSRs, about half the States' Program

Improvement Plans (PIPs) noted the need for improvements in workloads or

caseloads (Children's Defense Fund and Children's Rights, 2006). States

continue to address workloads/caseloads and related issues (e.g., recruitment,

retention, training, supervision, and systems reform) in the second round PIPs

as a means to improve CFSR outcomes and to achieve compliance with Federal

standards.

Legislation. Several State legislatures have mandated State and local

jurisdictions to assess workload issues, meet identified standards, implement

specific strategies such as hiring additional staff, and report on progress. For

examples of existing legislation, see Delaware, Florida, Indiana, and Texas.

Litigation and consent decrees. Class-action litigation across the country—

frequently resulting from high-profile fatalities—has brought attention to child

welfare system reform and generated workforce improvements (Farber &

Munson, 2007). Provisions in settlement agreements and consent decrees often

require jurisdictions (for example, Baltimore, MD; District of Columbia;

Illinois; and Milwaukee, WI) to meet specific caseload standards.

Staffing needs. In a nationwide survey, State administrators identified

reducing caseloads, workloads, and supervisory ratios as the most important

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action for child welfare agencies to take to retain qualified frontline staff

(APHSA, 2005).

Standards and accreditation. When developing caseload management

strategies, some States and localities take into consideration the caseload

standards and guidance recommended by the Child Welfare League of America

(CWLA); others strive to meet the Council on Accreditation (COA)standards in

order to achieve accreditation. States have had varying success in achieving

and maintaining these standards.

Systems reform. Currently, some States are engaged in developing

new practice models and implementing systemwide reform efforts, such as

differential response, family engagement, and system of care initiatives. While

caseload/workload reduction may not be a stated goal of these reform efforts, it

sometimes is a necessary component or a resultant outcome.

Union negotiations. Unions representing child welfare workers have played an

important role in negotiating improved caseload ratios.

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WHAT IS DYNAMIC ROUTING?

In a CICSplex or BTS-set, resources such as transactions and programs required in

one region may be owned by another. For example, you may have a terminal-owning

region (TOR) that requires access to transactions owned by an application-owning

region (AOR).

You can specify the location of a resource when you are designing your system. Then,

requests of a specific resource are always routed to the same region. Typically, the

location of the resource is specified in the installed resource definition. This is known

as static routing.

With dynamic routing, the location of the resource is decided at run time. In

CICSPlex SM, the decision on where to run a piece of work is made by the user-

replaceable dynamic routing program (called the dynamic transaction routing program

in previous releases). The user-replaceable program EYU9XLOP creates the

environment necessary for CICSPlex SM-based dynamic routing, and sets up the run-

time environment.

The dynamic routing program can route:

Transactions initiated at a terminal

Eligible EXEC CICS® START requests that are associated with a terminal

Eligible EXEC CICS START requests that are not associated with a terminal

Dynamic program link (DPL) requests that are received using:

o The CICS Web Interface

o The CICS Gateway for Java™

o External CICS interface (EXCI) client programs

o Any CICS client workstation products using the External Call Interface

(ECI)

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o Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) remote procedure calls

(RPCs)

o Open Network Computing (ONC) RPCs

o Internet Inter-Object Request Block Protocol (IIOP)

o The Link3270 bridge

o Any function that issues an EXEC CICS LINK PROGRAM request

CICS business transaction services (BTS) processes and activities

Enterprise beans executing in CICS-provided CorbaServers

In CICSPlex SM, dynamic routing is managed by the Workload Manager component

of CICSPlex SM.

The CICS regions involved in dynamic routing may act as one or more of the

following:

Requesting region

The CICS region in which the work request originates.

Routing region

The CICS region in which the decision is taken on where the work will run.

Target region

The CICS region where the request is actioned.

For dynamic transaction routing, the requesting region and the routing region

are typically TORs, and the target region is typically an AOR.

For inbound DPL client requests, the requesting region and the routing region

are typically TORs, and the target region is typically an AOR.

For EXEC CICS START commands associated with a terminal, the requesting

region is typically an AOR, the routing region is typically a TOR, and the

target region is typically an AOR.

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For peer-to-peer DPL requests, EXEC CICS START commands that are not

associated with a terminal, for CICS business transaction services processes

and activities, and for Link3270 bridge requests, the requesting region, routing

region, and target region are typically AORs.

For enterprise bean invocations, the requesting region is typically the external

client code (but can be Enterprise JavaBean code in another CICS region) that

invokes the enterprise bean, the routing region is a CICS listener region, and

the target region is typically an AOR.

Dynamic routing models

There are two possible dynamic routing models:

The traditional "hub" model

The distributed model

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THE TRADITIONAL HUB MODEL

The traditional hub model is shown in Figure 17. This is the model used for the

dynamic routing of transactions, EXEC CICS START commands associated

with a terminal, and inbound client DPL requests. The request is initiated in the

requesting region, typically a TOR, which also acts as the routing region. The

request is routed to a target region, selected from the specified target group,

where the program is executed.

The "hub" model is hierarchical, in which routing is controlled by one region

(the routing region, that is, the TOR). Normally, a routing program runs only in

the routing region. This model has the advantage of being relatively simple to

implement. For example, compared with the distributed model, there are few

inter-region connections to maintain. The disadvantages of the hub model are:

If you use only one hub to route transactions and program-link requests

across your target regions, the hub routing region is a single point-of-

failure.

If you use more than one hub to route transactions and program-link

requests across the same set of target regions, you may have problems

with distributed data. For example, if the routing program keeps a count

of routed transactions for load balancing purposes, each hub routing

region will need access to this data, which may be maintained in a local

temporary storage queue.\

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DYNAMIC ROUTING USING A HUB ROUTING MODEL

THE DISTRIBUTED MODEL

The distributed model is shown in Figure 18. This is the model used for the

dynamic routing of EXEC CICS START requests that are not related to a

terminal, enterprise bean and BTS activities, and Link3270 bridge requests.

Each CICS system in the target group may act as a requesting region, routing

region, and target region. A distributed routing program runs in each region.

Figure 18. Dynamic routing using a distributed routing model. Note that, for

CICSPlex SM, the dynamic routing program EYU9XLOP performs also the

distributed routing function.

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The advantage of the distributed model is that there is no single point of failure.

The disadvantages are:

Compared with the hub model, there are a great many inter-region

connections to maintain.

You may have problems with distributed data. For example, any data

used to make routing decisions must be available to all regions. With

CICSPlex SM, this problem is solved by the use of data spaces.

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WLM FUNCTIONS

CICSPlex SM’s dynamic routing program supports:

Workload separation: see topic Workload separation

Workload balancing: see topic Workload balancing

Intertransaction affinity: see topic Intertransaction affinity

Advantages of WLM

CICSPlex SM’s WLM function is of particular benefit in those enterprises that

are running CICS/ESA on Parallel Transaction Servers (PTSs), because

CICSPlex SM can route work throughout the sysplex.

With WLM in your enterprise, you have:

The ability to route all types of program link request dynamically to

improve the performance and reliability of inbound client and peer-to-

peer DPLs.

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The ability to route EXEC CICS START TRANSID TERMID

commands dynamically to improve the performance and reliability of

the applications using these commands.

The ability to integrate workload balancing for terminal-initiated

transactions, non-terminal-initiated transactions, EXCI clients, CICS

clients, CICS Web support, CICS Transaction Gateway, IIOP, and

started tasks.

The ability to integrate BTS processes and activities fully into the

workload separation and workload balancing functions.

The ability to integrate enterprise bean invocations into the workload

balancing and workload separation functions.

The ability to perform workload balancing and separation for Link3270

bridge requests.

Optimum performance and response times for a variable and

unpredictable workload.

Work routed away from a failing target region to an active target region.

Opportunities for increased throughput and improved performance.

Reduced risk of bottlenecks

Individual target regions taken out of service without impact to the end-

user.

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Less operator intervention.

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PLANNING FOR WLM

This section provides some instructions to help you determine the extent to which you

can use CICSPlex® SM’s workload management in your enterprise.

Workload balancing or workload separation?

Workload balancing should be used wherever possible because it makes the best use

of the available CICS® systems, and provides opportunities for increased throughput

and performance.

Workload separation (by process type, user, terminal, and transaction) should be

implemented only where strictly necessary, because it prevents full exploitation of

CICSPlex SM’s workload balancing functions. If you have defined more than one

CICSplex, and have made the division to reflect use of CICS systems by different

groups of users, for example, it’s possible that you will be able to use simple workload

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balancing rather than workload separation within the CICSplex. For example, if you

have separated the CICS systems used by group A from the CICS systems used by

group B by defining two CICSplexes, then within each CICSplex you can implement

workload balancing. If you haven’t taken this approach, you might consider it

necessary to recognize such groupings by implementing workload separation.

There are two major activities in your planning for WLM:

Identifying the workloads in your enterprise

Identifying intertransaction affinities and trying to remove them

Identifying the workloads

Begin by identifying the workloads processed in your enterprise. These are certain to

be apparent in any underlying TOR-AOR-FOR configurations that existed prior to

your interest in CICSPlex SM. Next, confirm that the current CICSPlex SM

configuration of CICS systems supports the identified workloads. In particular:

Routing regions and target regions from a single workload must be in the same

CICSplex. That is, the supplied dynamic routing program cannot route

transactions beyond the confines of the CICSplex. (It is possible to route

transactions outside of the CICSplex by customizing the supplied dynamic

routing program. Customization of the supplied dynamic routing program is

described in CICSPlex System Manager Managing Workloads.)

A routing region must be:

o A CICS TS region.

o A local MAS, that is, the routing region cannot be running on an

MVS™ image on which there is no CMAS.

o In only one workload, that is, the routing region can be associated with

only one active workload specification at a time.

o For a BTS transaction, a terminal-related EXEC CICS START

command, a non-terminal-related EXEC CICS START command, and a

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dynamic program link, CICS Transaction Server for OS/390® Version 1

Release 3 and later.

o For an enterprise bean invocation, CICS Transaction Server for z/OS,

Version 2 Release 2 and later.

o For a Link3270 bridge request CICS Transaction Server for z/OS®,

Version 2 Release 3 and later.

A target region can be:

o a local MAS

o in multiple workloads

o any CICS system managed by CICSPlex SM

o For a BTS transaction, a terminal-related EXEC CICS START

command, a non-terminal-related EXEC CICS START command, CICS

Transaction Server for OS/390 Version 1 Release 3 and later

o For an enterprise bean invocation, CICS Transaction Server for z/OS,

Version 2 Release 2 and later.

o For a Link3270 bridge request CICS Transaction Server for z/OS,

Version 2 Release 2 and later.

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IDENTIFYING INTERTRANSACTION AFFINITIES

Intertransaction affinities, which require related transactions to be processed by the

same target region, prevent optimum workload distribution. In general, they arise

either because of the way in which one transaction passes data to another, or because

of a requirement to coordinate the processing of two or more transactions. Identifying

affinities isn’t always easy, but there are some methods you can use. For example, you

can review application design documentation or source code; you can run CICStraces;

or you can use the  IBM® CICS Interdependency Analyzer for z/OS . For a detailed

discussion of intertransaction affinities and ways of identifying them, see the

CICS/ESA publication Dynamic Transaction Routing in a CICSplex.

Having identified any affinities in a workload, you should make every attempt to

remove them. If you cannot remove them completely, gauge the duration of the

affinity and try to minimize it. You can define an intertransaction affinity to

CICSPlex SM as lasting:

While the user’s session is active

For the duration of the terminal session

While the target region remains active

While the workload is active

For the duration of a pseudoconversation

While the BTS activity is active

While the BTS process is active

Be aware that CICSPlex SM must honor an active affinity: if an affinity is active but

the target region becomes unavailable, the transaction isn’t routed. In the case of a

BTS transaction, BTS will wait for the region to start.

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WORKLOAD STUDIES AND OTHER TOOLS

The process of caseload and workload management often begins with workload and

time studies. These studies analyze how work is being done and how time is spent,

and frequently compare the actual data with estimations of what is needed to deliver

quality services and best practices. Workload studies can provide a foundation for:

Determining how many workers are needed to handle cases effectively in

different program areas and then setting caseload standards and staff

allocations accordingly

Understanding how much time workers spend on providing services to clients,

documenting their work, completing other administrative tasks, traveling, etc.,

and then identifying more efficient processes and practices

Exploring how various case characteristics (such as risk levels, number of

siblings, immigrant status) can influence workload and assessing workflow

implications (Tooman & Fluke, 2002)

Managing work expectations, which can lead to higher work satisfaction and

boost staff morale (Edwards & Reynolds, 2008)

Justifying resource allocations and building stakeholder support for

caseload/workload management strategies

Often working with expert consultants, many States and counties across the country

have conducted workload studies using various methodologies to address their

workforce issues. Several States are now moving from point-in-time studies to

periodic and automated tracking of workloads and caseloads to inform ongoing

workforce decisions. Analytic tools, like those used in Minnesota and New Jersey,

serve as further supports to routinely assess caseload data and their implications for

staffing and workflow management.

In other States and counties, however, it has not been feasible for cost, time, or other

reasons to conduct workload studies. These jurisdictions can still improve their

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workforce management by learning from other workload study findings to

approximate their staffing and workforce needs (Wagner, Johnson, & Healy, 2008).

STRATEGIES FOR WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Strategies to reduce caseloads and workloads include targeted efforts as well as

broader initiatives in three categories:

Staffing

Improving worker effectiveness

Implementing program and practice changes

Staffing

Manageable caseloads and workloads are functions in large part of the number of

qualified staff available to handle cases. Caseload/workload strategies related to

staffing reflect:

Recruitment of new staff. Agencies are implementing a range of activities to

attract qualified applicants, including adopting new outreach strategies,

revising hiring practices, offering higher salaries, and providing stipends for

bilingual staff or for masters in social work. While adding staff may be the

most obvious approach to reducing caseloads and workloads, it often is

constrained by available funding and the lack of qualified applicants for open

positions. Several States that have added large numbers of new positions (e.g.,

Delaware, Indiana, and New Jersey) have been supported by legislation or

consent decrees.

Retention of existing staff. To reduce turnover—which is both a consequence

and a cause of high workloads—agencies are introducing employee recognition

and reward programs, providing mentoring initiatives, enhancing supervision

and support, enabling job sharing and flex time, and offering opportunities for

professional development and advanced education. In addition, retention efforts

include practices intended to improve the match between the worker and the

job through competency-based hiring (Bernotavicz, 2008), internships, and use

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of videos that provide recruits with a more realistic view of child welfare work

(for examples, see Realistic Job Preview Videos from Colorado,Maine,

and North Carolina). Many States also are conducting exit interviews to

determine why staff leaves and using findings to inform new retention

initiatives (Robison, 2006).

Reallocation of staff. In some instances, agencies (e.g., in Maryland and

Idaho) have been reallocating staff to more efficiently address workloads and

caseload distribution. In making reallocation and case assignment decisions,

States may consider not only the number of cases but also the type of case and

level of effort required.

Specialized and support staff. Some States develop specialized staff units or

positions to allocate workloads more efficiently; others assign support staff to

help lessen caseworker paperwork and administrative tasks.

Improving Worker Effectiveness

Agencies also address workload management through practices that aim to improve

the efficiency and effectiveness of workers, so that once in place, staff can handle

more cases or work in less time. Strategies include:

Training and professional development. Well-trained staff is able to

complete tasks accurately and in a timely manner. In addition, studies suggest

that educational programs provide workers with both competencies and

increased commitment to their jobs, which are associated with retention

(Zlotnik et al., 2005). Agencies are delivering a variety of training initiatives to

build competencies and align skills with new practice models. Some States

have formed university-agency partnerships that provide training and, in some

cases, funding for child welfare staff to pursue graduate social work degrees

(e.g., New York's Social Work Education Consortium).

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Supervision. Good supervision helps workers gain knowledge and build the

skills needed to conduct their work more effectively and efficiently. In

addition, research points to supportive supervision as a critical factor in

reducing turnover (Zlotnik et al., 2005; Juby & Scannapieco, 2007; GAO,

2003.) Agencies are working to reduce staff/supervisor ratios, build supervisor

skills, and improve the supervisor-caseworker relationship through supervisory

training, coaching initiatives, mentoring opportunities, and feedback

mechanisms.

Design teams. Bringing together staff of every level from frontline workers

and supervisors up through managers and administrators, design teams in New

York State and elsewhere are used first to identify workforce issues and their

causes and then to develop and implement workable solutions.

Tools and technology. Agencies are using current technologies and mobile

devices to help workers document casework more efficiently, access

information that supports decision-making, and make use of waiting time. For

example, workers in parts of Texas, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma take tablet PCs

into the field to aid in streamlined documentation; workers in Vermont carry

cell phones that not only offer telephone service but also email, scheduling, and

modem functions; and workers in Iowa are using SACWIS as a case

management tool and resource for decision-making.

Quality assurance. States and localities are implementing case review

processes and quality assurance efforts to ensure effectiveness.

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IMPLEMENTING PROGRAM AND PRACTICE CHANGES

While some States focus on enlarging or enhancing the workforce, others approach

caseload/workload management by reducing the "work," i.e., decreasing the number

of children and families who enter, reenter, or remain in the system.

Prevention and early intervention. Agencies seek to reduce the number of

cases entering the child welfare system through in-home and other prevention

services as well as differential/alternative response initiatives. Arizona and

Idaho are among the States that recognize prevention and early intervention as

part of their workload/caseload management strategies.

Permanency initiatives. Other States and jurisdictions—for example, Suffolk

County, New York (Levy Credits Foster Care, 2009)—focus on the backend of

the system, employing initiatives related to kinship care, adoption, and other

avenues to permanency as a means to reduce caseloads.

Other systems reforms. While systemwide reforms such as new practice

models and systems of care may not always be identified as caseload/workload

management, they can, nevertheless, yield significant results in reducing

caseloads and workloads. Some argue that such efforts will not be effective

without attention to caseload and workload (Children's Bureau, n.d., slide 15).

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WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT & YOU

A workload analysis process is necessary for Allied Health Professionals to ensure

that time available to perform required activities is consistent with the time available.

A continuous cycle of analysis and planning is necessary to ensure time is available

for all activities and that the workload is 'balanced'. 

Brainstorm all the roles, responsibilities and activities necessary as part of your

job (activity and demand). Sort them into the four activity clusters identified

above.

Discuss with your manager the percentage of time that should be allocated to

each cluster (and if possible each role).

Reflect on your capacity to do the required work/activity. Is there a balance?

Discuss with your manager or supervisor strategies to cope with an imbalance

between demand/activities and capacity.

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