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46© LCPJ Publishing Volume 7/2, 2014

Article 46 in LCPJ

Words and Ideology

Abstract

After the almost thirty-year publication of the dictionary of Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës Shqipe” (1954), the first explanative dictionary of Albanian language with whom the Albanian monolingual lexicography starts its way, the dictionary of current Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980) gets published, which is the biggest explanative dictionary for the Albanian language until then with 41000 words and 7000 idioms; a dictionary of the average type, but with immense semantic structures, almost like a big dictionary, based on a lexicological file-cabinet that includes about 4 million files. The present article, having as an object the lexis of this dictionary, intends to make public, after a deep analysis of words at their content level, mostly of those with an ideological and political semantics, the manners and the tools that have been used by the authors of the dictionary of current Albanian language for the ideology-coating of dictionary words based on the Marxist-Leninist ideology and the monist Albanian State pressure on the science of the Albanian Language.

Introduction

The ideology-coating of words or the modification of their content (Thomai, 1983: 78) by the subjective intervention of the political groups or by social groups in order to adopt it in conformity with their political convictions and viewpoints (Samara, 2008: 29) is an actual phenomenon in different historical phases of the development of the human society, but it becomes more conspicuous and common, especially when a certain political regime (totalitarian or autocratic) is established in a country. Such a thing happened in Albania from 1944 to 1990, when as a result of totalitarianism, the Marxist-Leninist ideology and its philosophy dominated the whole country’s life and managed to penetrate into every cell of Albanian society, making everything ideological, consequently even the linguistics and its particular branches like lexicography. We think that the most obvious

Metani, Idriz 2014: Words and Ideology To be downloaded from www.lcpj.pro

47 © LCPJ PublishingVolume 7/2, 2014

evidence of the ideology-coating of Albanian linguistics in general and Albanian lexicography in particular is the dictionary of current Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980), composed by an experienced lexicography group (Klein, 2004: 17; Kostallari, 1955: 43), like Androkli Kostallari, Jani Thomai, Xhevat Lloshi, Mico Samara, Josif Kole, Palok Daka, Pavli Haxhillazi, Hajri Shehu, Ferdinand Leka, Emil Lafe, Kornelja Sima, Thanas Feka, Beatrice Keta, Agim Hidi, based on the fundamental principles (Kostallari, 1972: 3-80), and conceived by the editor-in-chief of this dictionary that “obliged” the group and other editors to find the appropriate lexical means in order to sparkle this important work of Albanian monolingual lexicography with a bit of Marxism-Leninism.

Problems of research

The dictionary of current Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980), like any other explanative Albanian dictionary, is a scientific lexicography work that, in spite of its faults, has managed, though, to make the most systematic and normative codification of the lexical, phraseological and semantic fundamental asset of current Albanian language, providing as well even the level of scientific insight and interpretation of Albanian lexical-semantic structures. Many articles have been written about this dictionary, highlighting different aspects of this work, but, as far as we know up to now, there is neither a complete nor a generalizing study yet that has made the political coating (politicalization) of this dictionary an object of discussion.

Our paper, first, aims at analyzing the lexis of this dictionary in order to expose the subjective interventions made by its drafters to ideologically coat or politicalize the words and their content. Such an analysis is made focusing mainly on a number of words related to ideology field, thus making us think that it would be better to start with the definition that this dictionary has for the word “ideology” – a system of political, philosophical, judicial, aesthetic, moral and religious ideas and viewpoints that express the interests, the attitude and the requirements of a class, a social group, a party, a socio-political system as part and parcel of the superstructure, and that reflect, in the long run, economic relationships” (p. 709). Following this definition, it must be easier to understand the definitions of the following illustrative words: “agjitrop” – body or section that deals with the agitation



and propaganda at the Party’s Committee, mass organizations, etc. (p. 13), “Amerikan” – he that applies the policy and the aims of American imperialism (p. 28), “anarkosindikalizëm” – micro-bourgeois, opportunist and reactionary approach in the trade union movement aiming at applying the political and ideological methods and principles of anarchy in this movement (p. 32), “Anglez = Englishman” – he that applies the policy and the aims of English imperialism (p. 53), “armik2 = enemy2” – he who is against the interests of the working class, the Party, homeland, socialism and who fights or acts against them (p. 53), “arqiomarksist = archaeo-marxist” – a member of an anti-marxist organization, created in Greece in 1920, that has deviated Marxism-Leninism and that fought against the communist movement …(p. 54), “bolshevism” – the theory and practice of the proletarian revolutionary movement for the overthrow of capitalism through revolution and the transition into the communist society, compiled by V.I. Lenin based on the experience of the struggle of Russian and international working class, and which were further developed by J.V. Stalin (p. 163), “celulë2 = cell2” – basic organization of the communist Party of Albania during and after the National Liberation War (p. 216), etc. A part of our investigation have also been even words of other fields which contain ideological and political shades of meaning in their semantic structure, like “boulevard2” – something which suits the bad micro-bourgeois tastes, “fidanishte2 = nursery2” – social environment where youngsters are educated and prepared to continue with what the predecessors have done before (p. 857), “komunikatë2 = communiqué2” – leaflet regularly brought out by the bodies of Albanian Communist Party during National Liberation War (p. 857). And, the second aim of this paper is to expose the linguistic means that the authors of this dictionary have used in order to ideologically coat the meaning of words in the process of their definition.

Methodology of research

As an object of research in this article there are at least two semantic elements in the bosom of the semantic structure of words: a) the semantic component, present in the semantic microsystem of the lexis of the dictionary of current Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980), the function of which has nothing to do with the identification of the reality the word denotes, but with the subjective interventions of the dictionary compilers



in order to ideologically coat the content of the words; b) the semantic unit or the lexical meaning that has found a niche in the semantic structure of the word especially to express the political/ideological attitude of the authors of the work we are analyzing. Follow the illustration: the word “stain” is neutral from the ideological viewpoint and as such it should be entered into the dictionary with its straightforward meanings that denote “a small patch of colour different from that of the basic color of the background surface” and “a spot not easily removed from a surface”. Nevertheless, in the semantic structure of this lexis there have been added two figurative meanings: “action or behavior that impinges on the honour and good name of a man”, e.g. political stain; a stained man (p. 1295), and “dangerous remnant or influence of a viewpoint, ideology or moral of the old society in the consciousness of the people of our socialist society”, e.g. the stain of the old world; the struggle against the foreign stains (p. 1295), which, as can be seen, have no relation to the objective content of the lexeme, but to the subjective attitude of the compilers.

The study of these semantic elements, undoubtedly, requires an appropriate research method. As such, the conceptual or content analysis method gives the opportunity to penetrate into the depth of the lexical semantics of lexemes in order to find out the fundamental and minimal semantic constituents and see what they linguistically express: a true indicator of realis or a subjective attitude of the dictionary compilers to ideologically and politically intervene in the real content of lexemes.

Results of research

Based on the careful and thorough examination of the bulk of words in the dictionary infected by the phenomenon of political and ideological coating, we can say that there are at least two main linguistic means the authors of the Albanian Dictionary “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980) have used in order to modify the content of words and to adopt this content mainly to the aims of the totalitarian politics and State:

First, the examples or illustrations, as they are usually called in the practice of the composition of dictionaries. There are many examples, carefully picked up from the monist press and the communist propaganda of that time, that are present not only in the semantic structures of the words with



ideological/political content, but also in the words that do not have such a semantic in order to ‘sparkle’ the dictionary with a little bit of Marxist-Leninist ideology and politics. Follow some word definitions with their examples and draw your conclusions: “aksion = action” – vivid activity, with the participation of the working class, to accomplish in a fighting and revolutionary spirit, within a short time; an important political, social or economic duty (political/ideological action, action with concentrated blows, national action, youth action, action spirit/flag), “botëkuptim = viewpoint” – the sum of the points of view the man has for the surrounding world (philosophical viewpoint, Marxist-Leninist viewpoint, socialist/communist/revolutionary viewpoint, bourgeois/religious viewpoint, old/foreign/unaccepted viewpoint), “çakall = jackal” – fig. a thirsty vampire (imperialist jackals), “çizme = boot” – fig. savage domination of oppressing classes, foreign oppression (the boot of imperialism), “direktivë = directive” – instruction given by a governing body for the path that should be followed and applied in a work or activity (the directive of the [Albanian Labour] Party, release/analyze/apply the directive of the Party), “diversion” – damaging activity that an enemy country carries out in another country through its agents, sabotaging, destroying, etc., and using different means of propaganda in order to weaken its military, economic and political power; criminal and sabotaging activity of class economy (economic/political/ideological/cultural diversion, diversion of imperialists/revisionists), “doctrine” – set of theoretical principles of a science or of their branches (materialistic doctrine, revolutionary or reactionary doctrine, doctrine of Marx/Engels), “drejtoj = lead” – fig. show someone the way to achieve his/her purpose (lead the people/State/country, the Party leads us), “emulacion = emulation” – a method of work and action in socialism, which aims at the general development through the sharing of the best experiences that stimulate the courageous initiative, self-acting and the creative spirit of the widespread working forces (socialist emulation, emulation board, emulation center), “etikë1 = ethics1 ” – science that studies the moral, its class and historic character, norms of people’s behavior as a form of social behavior, their duties towards each-other, homeland, State, etc. (Marxist-Leninist ethics, communist/idealist ethics), “etikë2 = ethics2 ” – the moral of a society, a certain class or a social group (proletarian/ bourgeois ethics), “fidanishte2 = nursery garden2” – fig. social environment where the youth is prepared to continue with what their predecessors have started before ( youth is the nursery garden of the Party), “force = power” – the ability someone



has to control people, affect them, convince them of something, etc.; the capability of something to affect people’s minds, to lead them at work and in life (convincing/leading power, the power of the Party/proletariat/people, the power of Marxist ideas, the power of a positive example, the power of word/custom/tradition), “fundërrinë3 = riffraff3” - disreputable or worthless people (riffraff of capitalism), “histerik2 = hysteric2 ” – fig. uncontrolled, unrestrained, rampant (hysteric propaganda, hysteric appeal of imperialists, hysteric campaign against communism), “ideological” – that has to do with ideology; that expresses, conveys or defends a certain ideology (ideological revolution, a sharp ideological issue, ideological axe, deep ideological content, ideological conviction, ideological education, ideological struggle, ideological weapon, ideological roots, ideological aggression, ideological laxity), etc.

Second, the particular semantic constituents, which have found their niche in the semantic macro and micro systems of words not only to identify the reality, i.e., object, creature or phenomenon that the word denotes, but also to particularly express a certain attitude of the political/ideological character of authors. Such constituents can be seen: a) in the countries where there is the Catholic Church; in Albania in the past before atheism: “abaci = abbey” – monastery or a rich Catholic convention, “Françeskan = Franciscan” – a monk of a Catholic reactionary order, b) in the countries where there is the Orthodox Church; in Albania in the past before atheism: “archi-diocese” – district of Church activity; Church jurisdiction larger than diocese, that is lead by an Archbishop, “kallogre” – an orthodox nun, c) in the countries where there is the Muslim religion; in Albania in the past before atheism: “Bektashism” – religious sect of Muslim religion, “Imam” – a leader that leads the prayers of worshippers in a mosque, d) in the countries where there is the Christian Church; in Albania in the past before atheism: “kishë = church” – religious organization of Christian clergy, which leads the religious life of its worshippers in accordance with the defined rites and dogmas, “kungatë = consecration matter” – the so-called blessed bread and wine, e) in the countries where religion exists: “devotion” – profound dedication to the dogma of a religion, “kler = clergy” – all those that carry out religious services of a cult, “haxhi” – a title given to Muslim or Christian worshippers, “haxhillëk” – peregrination done by Muslim and Christian worshippers, etc. In a few words of religious area there have also been used such constituents: a) in terms of idle beliefs: “kurban2” – animal killed when a new building started, “demon1” – supernatural being with



a hidden power, believed to control the fate of a person, family, etc.; b) in terms of religious prejudice: “aureole = halo” – a circle of light painted round the heads of Saints in icons in order to show their holiness; c) in terms of prejudices and religious Orthodox rites: “ajazmë” – blessed water, the ceremony for the preparation of blessed water; d) in terms of dogmas in Church ceremonies: “alilluja” – boasting expletive, pronounced after some songs and prayers in accordance with the dogmas in Christian services.

Besides the above-mentioned constituents, which, as seen in the provided examples of mainly religious words, used by the authors of the dictionary to show the non-religious attitude of their work, the compilers of this work have inserted in the definitions of many words from other fields even some semantic constituents that linguistically express the indices of the features of the reality that they denote through the ideology coatings of words. You are invited to follow some examples: “abstractionism” – a complete formal and subjective approach in the current bourgeois and revisionist decadent art, which does not truly show the objects and entities of the objective world; “agresion = aggression” – armed attack of one country against another in order to conquer the territory and subdue the people, suppress the democratic movements, revolutionary or national-liberation ones, and establish reactionary regimes; “dekadentizëm = decadence” – ensemble of literary and artistic directions, bourgeois and revisionist ones, which is contrary to reality, whose main aim is to reflect the tiny world of the individual, which …. and preach the bourgeois individualism, pessimism and moral laxity in order to divert the working class from the class and liberation struggle; “ekonomizëm = economizing” - reactionary approach, an opportunist and revisionist one, according to which the working class in capitalist countries must fight only for halfway economic reforms, only for the improvement of its economic state and not for the seizure of political power; an opportunist and revisionist approach that denies the right interrelation between economy and politics, that overestimates the economic aim in revolution and the construction of socialism, and underestimates the ideological revolution as well as the ideological/political education of the masses; “egzistencializëm = existentialism” – idealistic philosophical approach of the epoch of imperialism, that presents life as something idle and empty, isolates the man from society; reactionary, idealistic and decadent approach in the literature and art of the epoch of imperialism; “empiriokriticizëm” – reactionary idealistic and subjective approach … that denies the objective existence of the material world.



Discussion

As mentioned above, the dictionary of current Albanian language “Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe” (1980) has 41.000 lexical units (words) and over 100.000 semantic units (meanings) and only a part of them are affected by the political/ideological attitude of the authors of this lexicographic work. Generally speaking, the ideology-coated words belong to some fields: 1) Social sciences which include: a) politology and philosophy, e.g. politician, philosophic, metaphysics, matter, materialism, idealism, etc.; b) theology and religion, e.g. atheist, suspicion, sin, etc.; c) history, e.g. slavery, feudalism, etc.; d) political economy, e.g. capital, crisis, surplus, etc.; e) law, e.g. legal, persecute, etc., 2) Power and structure of society which include: a) power and government, e.g. absolute, democracy, monism, etc., b) social class layers, e.g. micro-bourgeois, proletariat, kulak, etc., 3) Political and social organization, units of social groups which include the State Party, its program, activity, ideological basis, etc., e.g. Albanian Labour Party, Political Bureau, Central Committee, trade union, emigration, etc.

This thematic classification of words is relative, general and summarizing, based on a certain perception of their content, thus making it worthwhile not only for its practical and didactic values, but also for its theoretic values.

Conclusions

Considering the phenomenon of ideology-coating of words as a whole, we can draw the following three general conclusions:

First, the number of the lexical units (words) and the semantic units (meanings) in the Albanian Dictionary of the year 1980, which reflects not only the “philological viewpoint” and “world outlook” of its compilers, but also their conspicuous political/ideological attitude, is not big with reference to the number of words and meanings this work contains, nevertheless the number of the examples or illustrations loaned by the compilers from the communist propaganda of the time, in which it was



published, and inserted in the lexical structure of words is not small. Moreover, even though the Dictionary has been revised, a good number of such illustrations have still remained on its pages.

Second, the corps of lexis affected by the phenomenon of political/ideological coating of words is composed of not only the words that have an “ideological” semantics, but also many words that do not have such semantics. The linguistic means used by the authors to leave the “traces” of the respective time in the content of words are different for both groups of words we mentioned: the words with a pure political and ideological content have special semantic constituents, specially inserted in the definitions of the words, while the words that do not have ideological semantics often contain excessive examples and illustrations, carefully chosen from the press and Journalism of the monist State.

Third, the lexical and semantic fields mostly affected by the Marxist-Leninist ideology and philosophy of monism are undoubtedly those that have to do with the socialist organization of the society, with the monist and autocratic system, with the whole State arsenal of the proletarian dictatorship that throughout its existence tried to find a niche everywhere and on everything, even in linguistics, through the absolute power of the Marxist-Leninist ideology.

References

Cruse, D. A 1986: Lexical semantics, Cambridge.

Loyons, J 1977: Semantics, I, II, Cambiridge University Press, Cambridge.

Klein, G 2004: De la langue unitair a la langue autarcique: le discours sur la langue pedant fascisme en Italie, Le discours sur la langue sous les regimes autoritaires cahier de I ILSI, 17.

Kostallari, A 1955: Në rrugën e hartimit të fjalorit normativ të Shqipes. Buletin per Shkencat Shoqerore. Tiranë, 3-80.

Palmer, F. R 1988: Semantics, Cambridge.



Samara, M 2008: Rreth leksikut politiko-shoqëror në gjuhën Shqipe. Tiranë, 29.

Thomai, J 2009: Prejardhja kuptimore në gjuhën Shqipe. Tiranë, 78.

The total number of words is 3288Translated from Albanian into English by Sander Kola

© LCPJ Publishing 2014 by Idriz Metani

Prof. Assoc. Dr. Idriz Metani has been graduated from the Faculty of Philology, University of Tirana, Albania. Actually, he is a Professor of Albanian Language Lexicology and Linguistics History in the Language Department at the Faculy of History and Philology, University of Tirana. He is interested in the lexical and interpretative semantics, having published many articles even abroad in this field. In collaboration with the others, he has also created many Albanian Language texts for pre-university education.


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Words and Ideology - LCPJlcpj.pro/skedaret/1463952380-w. LCPJ 7.2_A.46.pdf · Words and Ideology Abstract After the almost thirty-year publication of the dictionary of Albanian language