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524 JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCAnON

We don't even know what ordinary light is. Now light has been with us for quite a while. So far as we know, the first words God spoke were, "Let there be light."

"And there was light." And we still don't know what i t is.

Sometimes light behaves like tiny, high-speed bullets. Sometimes i t is like the waves in a swimming pool. Rut i t never behaves like tiny bullets and waves in the same experiment. Challenging, isn't it?

Matter and light are also somehow related. That much we know. Matter can actually be changed into light, as in an atomic explosion. There seems to be some evidence that some forms of light can be changed into matter.

Almost everything we learn about how matter be- haves and how light behaves has some bearing on what they are. No one can tell a t present whether we'll just continue to find out more and more about how they behave, or whether some day we'll also know what matter and light really are. I think you'll agree, though, that science has done pretty well by all of us through scientists' just finding out what all kinds of matter will do. This is the main job of much of science.

One very simple point you must get straight about matter in general, and this point is not quite so obvious as it sounds. It will also help you to appreciate the difficulty of the problem. Scientists never really force matter to do anything. We sometimes say we do, but that's just for convenience in talking. Everything is fine so long as everyone involved understands the mles.

What we actually do is this: We put matter into certain situations, by heating i t up, cooling it down, pushing on it, pulling on it, putting something else in, taking something out, and so on. Matter then "de- cides" what it is going to do about the whole thing, and dl we really do is study what matter "decides" to do. Before you think I am giving powers of thought to matter, let me hasten to say this: In the same situation, matter behaves the same way, time after time after time. You and I don't.

I must add this, individual atoms don't seem to behave exactly the same way every time. That's one thing that makes the study of the constitution of matter so difficult. But, and this is of utmost importance, we generally work with a large number of atoms at the same time. The ouer-all behavior of a large number of atoms is the same in the same situation.

It's a little like you and your classmates leaving the stadium after a football game. From a distance, even your father or mother couldn't pick you out in the crowd. All they could say is, "Sandra's in there someplace." Yon may not come directly out either. You may stop for a moment to wave to a friend, or even take a step or two backwards to say "Hi" to someone.

But the over-all behavior of everyone, including you, after the game is the same every time. You all leave soon, and the stadium is empty.

What characteristics are most needed by one to succeed in science?

There are many types of careers in science. Re- search, what a scientist does, is only one of these.

Teaching (often combined with research), manufac- turing, sales, library work, administration, patent law, are some of the others. Most of my answer deals with characteristics of scientists.

Many characteristics which help one to succeed in almost any worthwhile field will also help a scientist. We could, therefore, have many more fine scientists than we do. Before we get into specific characteristics, let's look a t some broad points first.

Anyone who is fascinated by and wants to solve the unknown, the unexplained, and the difficult might have the makings of a scientist. If he wants to solve the problem in a systematic way, that's hopeful. If he first wants to find out what other people have tried, that's better. If he looks in out-of-the-way places for hints, that's a good sign. If he lines up what he has learned, and then asks, "What else can I possibly think of, the crazier the better," there's real hope. If out of all the ideas he has, one looks "crazier" than all the rest, but he still has a feeling it might give the best answer and is not afraid to try it, he has the making of a fine, pioneering scientist, even if the idea fails. Sooner or later one of the ideas will be successful, and so will he.

Sometimes the new knowledge is of immediate, spectacular value, like the new polio vaccine. Some- times it takes a hundred years, as in the example of the plucked violin string and atomic energy. But some- how, new basic knowledge always seems to become useful to man.

Useful to man-that's important. Science, a t pres- ent, has a greater effect on you, me, and even on primi- tive peoples than any other man-made activity. Think what a simple product of our science, a steel butcher knife from your kitchen rack, means to an Eskimo, who depends on such large animals as polar bears and seals for food and clothing. Science is not, however, the most important force in the world that man can use, and I don't think it ever will be. The most important force is the regard we have for others.

Regard for others starts in the family. Your parents love you and you love them. Your parents feel responsible for you and for what yon do to and for others. In the same way, scientists should feel respon- sible for what their brain-children-scientific dis- coveries-do to and for other people.

That is the most important point concerning your question. What kind of characteristics should scien- tists have so that they not only succeed in science, but also succeed in feeling responsible for what they discover?

To answer your question, I have made a list consist- ing of three groups. Group I contains general char- acteristics, Group I1 becomes more specific, and Group I11 lists some others I hope you also have.

Group I

I hope yon have these regardless of what career you choose. I'll give you some examples as to why they are also important to a scientist.

Faith in God. Scientists should feel especially close to God. They are engaged in unraveling the secrets - . of His handiwork.

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Faith in Yourself, in Mankind, and in the Future. Without these, why should you want to do anything so useful to man as science?

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Following the Golden Rule. If you follow the Golden Rule, you will be an outstanding success as a person, which comes first, no matter what other secondary career you may choose.

General Honesty. The rules of conduct in the Ten Commandments apply to everyone. Among scien- tists, a peculiar situation arises with "Thou Shalt Not Steal," which requires a word. To most people today, this Commandment brings to mind money, a car, or something else you can see. A scientist owns these things too, but he owns another kind of property which you cannot see Ideas . These are his brain- children. If they are stolen, he suffers a loss something like kidnapping. Who cares about money when a child is stolen?

A few very simple rules may be helpful. If you use published work, put in at least a footnote. If someone tells you about an unpublished idea which appeals to you, ask him if you can use it, with proper acknowledg- ment, of course. Usually, he'll be delighted to say yes.

Discussions between scientists make for fast progress in science. Acknowledge the source of anything you use, and you'll always be welcome at such discussions.

Courage to Go Ahead When You Think Y o u Are Right. For every new idea you have, someone will always think of a reason why it won't work. Sometimes that person will be you.

Courage Enough to Admit When You Are Wrong. In science, don't waste time when you are obviously on the wrong track. In everyday life, a simple, "I'm sorry. I was wrong," is often the golden, and silence is the shabby.

General Intelligence. You should be able to do good work a t a college level not only in science, but also in nontechnical subjects. Try to get as broad a view- point as you can. Then concentrate on science so that you can make a good living a t it when you are graduated.

Group II

These are what I call strictly professional character- istics. In general, the more of these you have, the better scientist you will be. Many other people also have a number of these to a high degree.

You will note there are two parts, A and B. All scientists I could think of had the characteristics under part A. Many scientists also had those under part B, but some of the greatest either did not have them or did not need them in their work.

The great majority of scientists carry out obser- vations in the laboratory and also use a lot of mathe- matics, for example. But Einstein had little need for a laboratory, himself, because of the type of work he did. He was a theoretical physicist. Most mathe- maticians fall into this same general class of scientists. They do theoretical work, mainly.

Michael Faraday, who laid the groundwork for much of our knowledge of electricity, about a hundred years ago, was a great experimenter who used almost no mathematics, only, I think, because he knew so little about the latter subject.

Present-day scientists recognize the importance of mathematics and, therefore, spend much time studying it. Yet I know some fine experimenters who certainly

could not do original research in mathematics, and the other way around, too.

There are also a few men of rare genius who rank with the best mathematicians and with the best experi- menters. These are the rarest of all.

Group Il-A

Imagination. New Ideas-inventiveness-original- ity-are at the very basis of science. Just one really outstanding idea can give you a high place in science, and it may take the lifetimes of many other scientists to work out all the possibilities.

You can have ideas about what you see or measure, or you can have ideas about what to look for or do- observation and prediction. X-rays were discovered "bangu-just like that-without warning. Radio waves were predicted twentv vears before thev were " "

found. Curiosity. While curiosity is supposed to kill a cat,

many scientific discoveries are made just because mme one is curious

Critical Outlook. Don't believe everything you see, read, or hear. Many an idea is born or something new is found just because someone says, "I don't believe that."

Thoroughness and Accuracy. Two points here are: (a) Don't miss something important through sloppy work. (h) Science gains great strength through the continual checking and re-checking of published re- sults by scientists all over the world. Don't waste their time.

Willingness to Study and Work Hard. Gifted people who are also lazy often accomplish far less than those of less natural ability who are willing to work.

Scientific Hunch. Science is only methodical up to a point. Many of the greatest discoveries come from following a hunch-a hunch which is apparently con- trary to all known logic. A big new field is often opened this way.

Be as logical as you can first, but if you have to choose between logic and a hunch, play the hunch. Otherwise, you may talk yourself out of doing anything.

Such a hunch was followed by Copernicus when he threw the Earth around the Sun and devised the pres- ent picture of the solar system. Prior to his time, the Sun "moved" around the Earth, according to the Ptolemaic system. Based on the knowledge of his day, the logical knowledge of the time, Copernicus was actually "unscientific" in what he did. He played a hunch.

Thrill at Finding Something New. You will know what I mean only when you find something new your- self.

P m e r of Concentration. Complete and utter con- centration, of course.

The difference in this is probably what determines how much two scientists of otherwise equal talents and equal opportunities will accomplish.

Group 11-8

Keen Powers of Observation. One important new discovery can make a place for you in science. Just as with having an idea, it may take the lifetimes of many others to work out the details. Radium, X-rays, sulfanilamide and the wonder drugs, vulcanization of

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rubber, dyes, discovery of the moons of Jupiter, are just a few examples.

After you find something new, ask, "Why did this happen?" The "ho~v's" and the "what's" are important, but if you can find the "why," you can generally find other "how's" and "what's" much faster.

In the early days of science, observation had to come first. Prediction came afterwards. A hundred years ago, I would have put this one in Part A, above. Now we do more predicting, so I'm putting it here.

Ability in Mathematics. Mathematics is often the easiest and only way to carry out a complicated chain of reasoning. You can also use it to predict what else might happen which may he even more important than what you have already found.

Seeing Relations Between Apparently Unrelated Things. This both simplifies and helps extend our knowledge. Archimedes was asked by his king to tell him whether a crown mas pure gold, without damaging the crown. This mas solved when Archimedes noticed, while taking a bath, that water overflowed when he got into a full tub of water.

Good Physical Co-ordination. Experimental scien- tists often handle complicated, delicate equipment. To do this well, they must have a good pair of hands. That is why many scientists find it easy to play a piano or violin well.

Group Ill

I hope you have these, too. Good Health. Everything is more difficult when your

health is poor. Good Memory. This will save you much time and

energy, and will also help you to find important re- lations between apparently widely separated facts.

Clarity in Expression. A new scientific idea or fact is often hard enough for others to grasp even when it is expressed as clearly as possible within the limits of language. Don't make it any harder.

Try to keep the following as a goal. Learn every- thing well enough that you could explain it to almost any reasonably intelligent, interested, , nonscientific person so that he could follow you. If you decide to teach, remember that if you have an intelligent, interested class, and they don't follow you, the fault is mainly yours, not theirs.

Serendipity, or Just Plain Good Luck. Good luck in discovery generally comes to those who are best pre- pared. "Serendipity" was coined by an Englishman, Horace Walpole, almost 200 years ago. It means "fortunate happenstance."

Some people say that in science, serendipity comes close to being a principle. They point out that al- most every great physical discovery comes so completely without warning that it seems to be a lucky accident.

Incidentally, I've been meaning to ask Time Maga- zine a question for some years. Under my picture in their article on "Sucaryl" sweetening agent, they put "A Lucky Accident." I've never known whether Time meant that I or what I had found was the lucky accident.

What advice would you give a science-minded studant?

Science is primarily intellectual in nature. Much has been said about knowledge being an end in itself. I agree. But too much has been said about the great men who also endured great poverty all their lives. I think it leaves a false impression. Far more has been accomplished by men who, with their families, ate at least moderately well and who were at least moderately comfortable. There have also been a few scientists who betrayed their countries. But there are many tens-of-thousands of scientists who are intensely loyal to their country, just like the vast majority of all people.

Now concerning your studies: You will probably work hard at your science courses anyhow, but work hard a t your other courses too. You never know early in life what interests you may have later.

Your teachers and school officials have devised the best course of study they know, so that you can become what I think is important-a good scientist who also has a broad viewpoint. We need science specialists badly. We have even a greater need for the scientist who also has a broad knowledge. Science has become so important to the Federal Government that we have set up such commissions as the Atomic Energy Commission. Fine scientists with a broad general knowledge are needed to sit on these.

Plan to attend the best possible college or university you can get into or afford. Get a doctor's degree if you possibly can, whether you want to teach or go into industry. As you probably know, a doctor's degree takes three or four years more after your four years of bachelor's work. You must do something new in science to get a doctor's degree. If you have any business being in research later, your doctor's research is not so hard as it may sound. Many people have more trouble passing examinations in German and French, which you also have to do for a doctor's degree, than they have with the research.

Neither a bachelor's nor a doctor's degree will tell anyone exactly how good a scientist you will turn out to he. It will certainly tell people something about the minimum amount you have learned up to that time.

Most universities and companies require a doctor's degree for the hetter-paying, starting positions in nearly all fields of science. Many good positions are also open for bachelors, but the doctors should and do have a big three-year jump on the better-paying start- ing jobs.

Certainly, you can catch up if you start to work after four years of college. I know some people with bachelors' degrees who are better scientists than some with doctors'. But I know more good scientists with doctorates. Getting a doctor's degree is at least a pretty good weeding-out process and a faster way to get your basic training. Most promising scientists, though certainly not all of them, take advanced study.

One last point: Please consider teaching science, especially in grade school and high school. Every scientist in the world will be grateful to you. And so will every other thinking person.

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VOLUME 34, NO. 11, NOVEMBER. 1957