What is Anthropology?Unit 1

Human Diversity Anthropologists study

humans – wherever and whenever they find them◦ Rural Kenya◦ Turkish café◦ Mesopotamian tomb◦ North American shopping mall

Humans are some of the world’s most adaptable animals

Creativity, adaptability, and flexibility are basic human attributes◦ Human diversity is the

subject matter of anthropology

Human DiversityAnthropology:

study of the human species and its immediate ancestors◦ It is a uniquely

comparative and holistic science Holism: refers to the

study of the whole of the human condition: past, present, and future; biology, society, language, and culture

Human Diversity True/False:

Anthropologists study fossils and nonindustrial peoples

FALSE:◦ Examines all societies,

ancient and modern, simple and complex

◦ Constantly compares the customs of one society with others

Human Diversity Society – organized

life in groups Several animals have

societies◦ Wolves, ants, baboons

Culture is distinctly human

Culture: traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of people exposed to them

Human Diversity Children learn culture

through a process called enculturation

Culture includes customs and opinions, developed over the generations, about proper and improper behavior◦ How should we do things?◦ How do we make sense of

the world?◦ How do we tell right from

wrong?◦ What is right and wrong?

Gives consistency in behavior and thought of people in a society

Human DiversityCulture is

transmitted through learning, not genetics◦ It does rest on

certain feature of human biology Ability to learn, think

symbolically, use language, employ tools and other products to organize their lives and adapt

Human Diversity Anthropology confronts and

ponders major questions of human existence as it explores human biology and cultural diversity in time and space

We are still adapting and changing as a species, both biologically and culturally

Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation:

process by which organisms cope with environmental forces, such as those posed by climate and terrain◦ Both biological

and cultural

Adaptation, Variation and ChangeHow do humans adapt to high altitude and

oxygen deprivation?◦ Cultural: technology such as pressurized airplane

cabin with oxygen masks◦ Biological: genetic adaptation (over generations) –

larger “barrel chests” of native highlanders◦ Biological: long-term physiological adaptation

(during growth and development of the individual organism) – more efficient respiratory system to extra oxygen from “thin air”

◦ Biological – short-term physiological adaptation (occurs when an organism enters a new environment) – increased heart rate, hyperventilation

Adaptation, Variation, and Change Social and cultural

means of adaptation have become more and more important

Rate of cultural adaptation has increased in past 10,000 years

For millions of years, hunting and gathering was basis of human survival

Only took few thousand years for food production to replace foraging ◦ Food production: cultivation of

plants and domestication of animals I.E.: Farming/agriculture

Adaptation, Variation, and Change

Spread of industrial production has profoundly affected human life◦ Major innovations

spread at the expense of earlier ones

◦ Each economic revolution has social and cultural repercussions

Global economic links, larger systems (region, nation, world)

Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeGlobalization

creates new challenge for anthropology

Cultures of world peoples need to constantly rediscovered as people reinvent them in changing historical circumstances” (Marcus and Fischer 1986, p. 24)

General AnthropologyAnthropology, also called general

anthropology or “four field” anthropology contains four main subdisciplines or subfields◦ Sociocultural (also called cultural anthropology)◦ Archaeological◦ Biological◦ Linguistic

General AnthropologyWhy four subfields?

◦ Early American anthropologists wanted to know more of the history and cultures of Native Americans

◦ Brought together studies of customs, social life, language, and physical traits Still pondering where Native

Americans came from and their links between them and Asia

◦ Interest between biology and culture

General Anthropology Why is it still united?

◦ Each field considers variations in time and space

◦ Each subdiscipline influences the others Ex: Linguists may reconstruct

ancient languages by studying modern ones

Cultural anthropologists and archaeological anthropologists can exchange information to piece together how ancient societies may have lived

Biological anthropologists look at evolutionary changes that may have caused origin or tool use or language

Human nature cannot be derived from studying a single nation, society, or cultural tradition

Cultural Forces Shape Human Biology

Biocultural: combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem

Culture is key environmental force in determining how human bodies grow and develop◦ Promote certain activities

and abilities while discouraging others

◦ Set standards of physical well-being and attractiveness

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Cultural anthropology:

comparative, cross-cultural, study of human society and culture◦ Engage in two types of

activities: Ethnography (based on

fieldwork): fieldwork in a particular cultural setting Gathers data that they

organize, describe, and interpret to build and present that account

Usually small communities Ethnology (based on cross-

cultural comparison)

Ethnography Ethnology

Requires field work to collect data

Uses data collected by a series of researchers

Often descriptive

Usually synthetic

Group/community specific

Comparative/cross-cultural

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Ethnology examines,

interprets, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography

Compare and contrast to make generalizations about society and culture

Attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work

Get data from ethnography and other subfields

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

Archaeological anthropology is the study of human behavior through material remains◦ Includes tools, weapons,

camp site buildings, garbage, plant and animal remains

They analyze the data to answer questions about ancient economies and societies

Subdisciplines of AnthropologyArchaeologists

spend much of their time studying pot shards, fragments of earthenware◦ Textiles and wood are

not as durableEx: Groups with

similar pots may be historically related in some way

Subdisciplines of AthropologyMany archaeologists

examine paleoecology – looking at ecosystems of the past

Ecology is the study of interrelations among living things in an environment - ecosystems

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

Archaeologists infer cultural transformations from the ecological patterns◦ Example: observing

changes in the size and type of sites and the distance between them

Reconstruct behavior patterns and lifestyles by excavating (digging through several levels)◦ Over time settlements may

change in form as purpose

Subdisciplines of AnthropologyArchaeologists

also study cultures of historical and living peoples◦ Sunken ships off

the Florida coast◦ Looking at

contemporary life by studying garbage (Garbology)

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Biological or physical

anthropology: study of human biological variation in time and space

Five special interests within it:◦ Human evolution as revealed

by the fossil record (paleoanthropology)

◦ Human genetics◦ Human growth and

development◦ Human biological plasticity

(ability to change as it copes with stresses such as heat, cold, etc)

◦ Biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Physical anthropology linked

with zoology, biology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, public health.

Osteology (study of bones) helps examine skills, teeth, etc to chart changes in anatomy over time

Paleoanthropologist is a sort of paleontologist (scientist who studies fossils) who studies fossil record of human evolution◦ Often collaborate with

archaeologists

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

Different types of tools provide info on habits, customs, lifestyles of ancestral humans

Biological anthropology also investigates the influence of environment on the body as it grows and matures

Biological anthropology also includes primatology◦ Study biology, evolution,

behavior and social life of primates – apes and monkeys

◦ Primate behavior may shed light on early human behavior and human nature

Subdisciplines of Anthropologys Linguistic anthropology:

study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space and society

May never know when out ancestors acquired the ability to speak

Some make inferences about universal features of languages linked to uniformities in human brain

Others reconstruct ancient languages

Some study linguistic differences to discover perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures

Subdisciplines of Anthropology Historical linguists consider variations in time

◦ Ex: changes in sounds, grammar, and vocabulary between Middle and modern English

Sociolinguists investigate relationships between social and linguistic variation◦ How do different speakers use a given language?◦ How do linguistic features correlate with social factors?

Middle English vs. Modern EnglishIntroduction of the Canterbury

Tales in Middle English◦http://youtu.be/QE0MtENfOMU

Middle English opening with modern English next to it:◦http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sourc

e/CT-prolog-para.html

Anthropology and Other Academic Fields Anthropology uses holism

and its unique blend of biological, social, cultural, linguistic, historical, and contemporary perspectives to study people

Anthropology is a science – a field of study that seeks reliable explanations, with reference to the material and physical world

Also has strong links to the humanities◦ Humanities include English,

literature, classics, folklore, philosophies, and the arts

Cultural Anthropology and Sociology

Share an interest in social relations, organization, and behavior

Difference in kinds of societies each traditionally studied◦ Sociologists –

industrial West◦ Anthropologists –

nonindustrial Each needed different

forms of data collection and analysis

Cultural Anthropology and Sociology

Anthropology and sociology now starting to converge

Sociologists in more non-industrial countries and anthropologists in industrial nations

Anthropology and PsychologyPsychological anthropology studies cross-

cultural variation in psychological traitsSocieties install different values by

training children differentlyAdult personalities reflect a culture’s

child-rearing practice

Applied AnthropologyApplied

anthropology: using anthropology to solve contemporary problems◦ Public health, family

planning, business, economic development, and cultural resource management

Look at things like:◦ Implications of disease

and illness Perceptions of good and bad

health

Applied AnthropologyAlso called public

anthropology◦ Cultural resource

management◦ Contract archaeology◦ Public education◦ Historic preservation

Cultural resource management – deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved

The Scientific Method Ethnology is the

comparative science that attempts to enhance our understand of how social and cultural systems work

Theory – set of ideas formulated to explain something◦ Effective ones can be applied

to multiple cases Association – an observed

relationship between two or more variables

Theories suggest of imply multiple associations and try to explain them

The truth of a scientific statement is confirmed by repeated observations

The Scientific Method In social sciences, associations are usually stated in the form of

probability than in absolute law Theories suggest patterns, connections, and relationships that

may be confirmed by new research

Have a research question Why do some societies have long postpartum taboos?

Conduct a hypothesis Delaying martial sex reduces infant mortality when diets are low in protein

Posit a mechanism Babies get more protein when they nurse longer; nursing in not a reliable method of contraception

Get data to test your hypothesis Use a (random) sample of cross-cultural data

Devise a way of measuring Code societies when they have a postpartum taboo or one year or longer, 0 when they do not; 1 when diet is low protein, 0 when it is not

Analyze your data Notice patterns in the data, use statistical methods to evaluate the strength of associations

Draw a conclusion In most cases, the hypothesis is confirmed

Derive implications Such taboos tend to disappear when diet gets better or new reproductive technology becomes available

Contribute to a larger theory Cultural practice can have adaptive value because they can enhance the survival of offspring

The Scientific MethodIn anthropology, it does not

have to be a single research question

Often, the data collected enables them to pose and test a number of separate hypotheses about attitudes and behaviors