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WELCOME BACK
What lies ahead… • 111 Days until the AP Exam • 7 Units of study
I cannot cover it all in class. Now is the time to buy in and start dominating.
• Unit 7 assessment • MEMENTO! • Unit 9 Project
MEMORY AN INTRODUCTION
OUR GOALS Understand how and why we remember some things
and not others?
Develop techniques to improve our own memory!
Be Awesome.
DO NOW WRITE DOWN EVERYTHING YOU DID YESTERDAY
THAT DID NOT INVOLVE MEMORY
(You did in fact engage in a number of them)
MEMORY IS NOT SINGULAR Episodic: replaying of past experiences in your mind
-What did you have for lunch on Friday? -What were you doing at 4pm yesterday?
Semantic: recalling the meaning of information -What is 5 X 6? -What is the capitol of France? -What is a verb?
Procedural: knowing how to do something (muscle memory) -How do you tie a shoe? -How do you write the letter A?
Memory The persistence of learning
over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Mr. M – 1986
Memory Defines Us
JORGE LOUIS BORGES
Daniel Tammet: Real life Funes? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbASOcqc1Ss
THEORIES OF MEMORY: An Informa4on-‐Processing Model
• Info-‐Processing believed that Brain and computer opera4ons are similar
Sensory informa-on
economics
history
religion culture science
literature Informa4on is taken into brain
Informa4on gets processed, analyzed, and stored un4l use
RETRIEVAL Informa4on is used as basis of behaviors and interac4ons
ENCODING
math
STORAGE
Encoding: The process of putting information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. Retrieving: The process of getting the information out of
memory storage.
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Typing in new information Saving information Finding old information
SIMILAR TO A COMPUTER
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
WITHOUT FOCUSED ATTENTION INFORMATION OFTEN FADES
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Three Stages: (1) register fleeting sensory memories, some of which are (2) processed into short-term memories, a tiny fraction of which are (3) encoded for long-term memory and, possibly, later retrieval.
We register some information automatically, bypassing the first two stages. Additionally, our short term memory is incredibly active, earning it its preferred name: “working memory”
Sensory Memory
• Iconic Memory • -Visual Information • -Duration (150-500 msec)
• Echoic Memory • -Auditory Information • -Duration (3-4 sec)
is a memory system that works for a very brief period of 4me that stores a record of informa4on received by receptor cells un4l the informa4on is selected for further processing or discarded. (LARGE INFORMATION CAPACITY)
Evidence: George Sperling’s Test
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tgBZrn3QOx4
Working Memory
Is a short-‐term memory system we use to store and process informa4on we are currently thinking about. WM has been defined by some as the current contents of consciousness… like the desktop of a computer. Informa4on Capacity is much smaller than Sensory informa4on.
(Magical # of 7 +/-‐2 items) – George Miller Limited from 2 to 18 seconds
OPERATION SPAN TASK Tasks used to measure working memory capacity. Requires par4cipants to hold informa4on in memory while processing informa4on.
Read the following ALOUD Is 3x3+4 = 13? (Yes or no) FRUIT Is 10/2+4=7 (Yes or no) ROAD Is 12/4-2=5? (Yes or no) GREEN Is 2+4+6=12 (Yes or no) PLANE Is 4x2-4=4? (Yes or no) TABLE
Current conceptualiza4ons suggest that working-‐memory capacity is highly related to the ability to control aTen4on-‐ that is, to keep in mind the relevant aspects of a problem and ignore distrac4on.
Multiple Systems Model memory is not a single, unitary system that relies on one neuroanatomical circuit; rather memory is made up of mul4ple memory systems that can work independently of one another.
Declarative memory Working memory is a short-‐term memory system that allows us to store and process limited amounts of informa4on of an immediate sense. Working memory lasts anywhere from 2 to 18 seconds. Episodic memory is a long-‐term memory system that stores informa4on about specific events or episodes related to one’s own life. (Great for the lab!) Seman4c memory is a long-‐term memory system that stores general knowledge
Non-Declarative memory -‐ Influences current percep4on and behavior without our
knowledge. It is encoded without effort.
Priming –an automa4c/unconscious process that can enhance the speed and accuracy of a response as a result of past experience. (Memories are stored as a series of connec4ons) Procedural memory is the memory for the process involved in comple4ng a task aler the task is well learned and has become automa4c. Classical condi4oning is memory for associa4ons formed between two s4muli
Dominate This Worksheet
FIRST Alone… then discuss with a partner. Finally as a class.
WE RECALL NOT WHAT WE SAW/HEARD BUT WHAT WE
ENCODED
STRATEGY: CHUNKING is the organiza4on of items into familiar or manageable units or chunks.
Grab a partner and have one of you turn so you are not facing the board.
MEMORY CHUNCKING DEMO 1. Ask your volunteer to remember these letters: "B Z T K" (read them at the rate of about 1 per second, and drop your voice after the "K." The volunteer should remember all of these. 2. Next: "D J R N Q P" The volunteer might remember all of these 3. Then: "M T X H V L F C S V" The volunteer shouldn’t remember these 4. Stop and point out that the volunteer couldn't remember 10 numbers but now you'll show that the volunteer can remember 14. 5. Finally: "F R O G B A T P I G D U C K." The volunteer should remember all of these, which spell out FROG-BAT-PIG-DUCK. If the volunteer doesn't, someone from the audience will definitely be able to shout it out.
STRATEGY: MNEMONICS Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organiza4onal devices.
How do we remember the order of colors?
Chunked into the acronym -‐ ROY G BIV
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRKEat65ehI
STRATEGY: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
• Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) found two things:
1. A positive correlation between time spent learning and later recall
2. a negative correlation between time
spent learning the first day, and time required the next day to re-learn that same information.
THE SPACING EFFECT
STRATEGY: DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
THE SPACING EFFECT
Ebbinghaus: those who learn quickly also forget quickly. (We encode better when
we study or practice over time.)
DO NOT CRAM!!!!! (Massed Practice)
ALSO DO NOT SIMPLY RE-READ. Rehearsal & Self Testing = LASTING MEMORIES
THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT ENCODING
1. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered.
2. Taped info played while asleep is registered by
ears, but we do not remember it.
Why do you think this is?
ENRICHING ENCODING THROUGH…
1. Elaboration – link to other information
2. Visual Imagery
3. TESTING!
4. Self-Referent Encoding
SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT -Meaning is enhanced when it relates to us (relevance). -The idea that we remember things (like adjectives or numbers) when they are used to describe ourselves. Remember this list of numbers: 57626170462
5 = # people in my family 76 = # students 2 = parents 617 = area code 0462 = last 4 digits of my phone number
SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT “The time you spend thinking about material you are reading and relating it to previously stored material is about the most useful thing you can do in learning any new subject matter.” -Wayne Wickelgren
SELF-REFERENCE EFFECT Compared with learning nonsense material…. LEARNING MEANINGFUL MATERIAL REQUIRES ONE-TENTH THE EFFORT. -HERMANN EBBINGHAUS
EXIT TICKET
Log onto Socrative.com
01a18c88
Answer the questions
MEMORY STORAGE AND RETERIVAL
• Information is BUILT into your long term memory – neural networks are formed (long-term potentiation)
• When you mess with the neurotransmitters or neural networks you affect the long-term potentiation of the cell
MEMORY STORAGE: HOW? An “unlimited memory storehouse” of effectively encoded
information
LONG TERM POTENTIATION an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation.
What part of the brain is most associated with memory?
• Loading dock of memory • Explicit memories created here
• Names, images, events….
• Damage hinders recall of EXPLICIT MEMORIES ONLY.
hTps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkaXNvzE4pk
Damage to Hippocampus doesn’t mean learning/memory
creation stops… • Cerebellum
• Eye-‐blink response studies • Basil Ganglia
• Bike Riding • Joseph LeDoux (1994)
• Pin Prick Declara4ve or
Why don’t we remember our early years?
Infan%le Amnesia. 1) Don’t have language to
index memories 2) Hippocampus is one of the
last brain structures to mature.
LONG TERM MEMORY IS ALSO AFFECTED BY…
• Stress - increases formation of memories • Amnesia studies…
• Drugs – decrease formation of memories
• Stress relief pill studies…
• STRESS → Sympathetic nervous system: increase blood flow to brain → amygdala makes more proteins involved in LTP →stronger memories
• Adaptively, this makes sense. Why?
STRESS HORMONES
“Flashbulb memories”
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evj6q0eCdd8
“Flashbulb memories” MEMORY RETERIVAL Once information is in…
HOW THE HECK DO WE GET IT OUT?!
PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE THREE MEASURES OF RETENTION • RECALL – retrieving informa4on that is not currently in your conscious awareness
but that was learned at an earlier 4me. • (FILL IN THE BLANK QUESTIONS ON TESTS)
• RECOGNITION – Iden4fying items previously learned. A mul4ple-‐choice test. • RELEARNING – Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later
4me. (Languages)
RETRIEVAL CUES Things which help us remember
We often use PRIMING (activation of
associations in our memory) to help us. Priming effect = Responding faster/better
to an item if a similar item preceded it. (considered involuntary & unconscious)
ITS ALL IN HOW YOU ENCODE YOUR MEMORIES. THE MORE ROUTES TO THE MEMORY THE BETTER
YOUR CHANCES ARE AT RECALLING IT.
Priming
Context Dependent Memory HAVE YOU EVER?
Gone into a room and forgot why you went there in the first place? WHAT DO YOU DO NEXT?
• Helps to put yourself back in the same context you experienced (encoded) something.
• If you study on your favorite chair at home you will probably score higher if you also took the test on the chair…
State-‐Dependent Memory What we learn in one state – drunk or sober – may be more
easily recalled when we are again in that state.
MOOD CONGRUENT MEMORY Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s
current good or bad moon.
For example… • Individuals suffering from depression…. • How you interpret other peoples behavior…
Deja Vu That eerie sense that you have experienced something before.
Studies on memory have shown:
What is occurring is that the current situa4on cues past experiences that are very
similar to the present one-‐ your mind gets confused.
NAME AS MANY US PRESIDENTS AS YOU CAN IN TWO MINUTES.
Write down as many as you can remember.
Do your best.
SERIAL POSITIONING EFFECT Our tendency to recall best the last
and first items in a list. If we graph how an average
person remembers the list of US presidents - it would probably
look something like this.
What if we want to learn the whole list? What would be the best way to do so?
“recency effect”
“primacy effect”
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bSycdIx-‐C48 (RECAP – CRASH COURSE)
We live in a time where in our lifetime we will develop a drug to
vastly improve our memory.
Would you want this drug?
MEMENTO DETECTIVE GROUPS
NO MORE THAN 4 DETECTIVES PER GROUP • (NO FEWER THAN 2)
I WILL WORK ON GETTING US CLASS TIME
ALL DETECTIVES MUST WATCH FILM (Taking notes during film is highly recommended)
ALL DETECTIVES MUST WORK ON PAPER
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting
“Amnesia seeps into the crevices of our brains, and
amnesia heals.” – Joyce Carol Oats, 2001
“If we remembered
everything, we should on most occasions be as ill of as if we remembered
nothing.” -‐William James, 1890
“Flashbulb memories” Today…
Why do we forget?
How quickly do we forget?
Can we know if a memory is true or false?
Can we implant a false memory in someone else?
Eye witness tes4mony: can our memory be trusted when a life is on the line?
People who struggle with amnesia have severe deficits in their declarative memory, which consists of semantic memory and episodic memory.
AMNESIA
“Flashbulb memories” Anterograde Amnesia
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmk4x2Y Clive Wearing
An inability to form new memories following the event which caused the amnesia
Individuals who consume too much alcohol can poten4ally cause anterograde amnesia. More commonly known as a BLACK OUT.
Individuals suffering from Anterograde Amnesia can be
classically condi4oned (lacking awareness of having learned)
“Flashbulb memories”
Transient Global Amnesia Sudden, temporary episode of memory loss that can’t be aTributed to a more common neurological condi4on, such as epilepsy or stroke. (No Longer than 24 hours) -‐ Stuck in a loop… -‐ Free will… judge for yourself. -‐ hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N3fA5uzWDU8
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person… ENCODING FAILURE
STORAGE DECAY
• Even if we encode something well, we can forget it.
• Without rehearsal, we forget things over time.
EBBINGHAUS’S FORGETTING CURVE (1885)
The power of long term memory
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person…
The memory was encoded and stored, but sometimes you just cannot access the memory. ▪ “It’s on the tip of my tongue…”
RETRIEVAL FAILURE
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person…
Interference Other memories interfere with retrieval Interference mostly from similar memories
1. Proactive Interference The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new
information. (calling your current girlfriend your ex’s name) 2. Retroactive Interference The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old
information. (remembering your current locker combination, but not last year’s combination)
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person…
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person…
KNOWING WHAT YOU KNOW ABOUT INTERFERENCE:
WHY IS IT BEST TO STUDY AN HOUR
BEFORE YOU SLEEP?
“Flashbulb memories” Forgetting for the average person…
MOTIVATED FORGETTING: WHY?
One explanation is SUPPRESSION A conscious form of forgetting-generally for traumatic or painful memories
Another explanation is REPRESSION: An unconscious form of forgetting
In Psychoanalytic Theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. A method of self preservation
“Flashbulb memories” Memory Construction…
-‐ Memory is not a recording device… -‐ We reweave/rewrite our past…
-‐ “TO SOME DEGREE ALL MEMORY IS FALSE.” – Bernstein & Lolus
“Flashbulb memories” TELEPHONE (I need 4 volunteers)
A TWA BOEING 747 had just taken off from Miami Interna4onal Airport for Los Angeles when a passenger near the rear of the aircral announced that the plane was being taken over by the People’s Revolu4onary Army for the Libera4on of the Oppressed. The hijacker held a .357 magnum to the head of Jack Swanson, a flight aTendant, and forced him to open the cockpit door. There, the hijacker confronted the pilot radioed the Miami air traffic control center to report the situa4on but then suddenly hurled the microphone at the hijacker. The hijacker fell backward through the open cockpit door and onto the floor where angry passengers took over from there. The plane landed in Miami a few minutes later, and the hijacker was arrested.
“Flashbulb memories” Memory Construction
We construct memories as we encode them
Schema: concept or framework that we use to organize the informa4on
When we experience an event: We process what it means… We fit the event into our schemas and expecta4ons
3 PROCESSES OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY 1) Leveling – Simplifying material 2) Sharpening – Highligh4ng or overemphasizing 3) Assimila4on – Changing details to fit one’s own mental schema
Memory Construction
hTp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQr_IJvYzbA
“Flashbulb memories” Picking Cotton
Inaccurate Recall Due to Biased Ques4oning
• Research on eyewitness informa4on
– Can be potent source of distor4on • Interviewer ques4ons can contain cues that influence retrieval
• Reconstruc4on theory of forge{ng – people remember something that did not occur because it seemed consistent with the event
• Perceived exper4se of interviewer may bias informa4onal response
Inaccurate Eyewitness Recall • Eyewitness tes4mony frequently inaccurate
– Children, adolescents are par4cularly sugges4ble when interviewed by adults
• Some4mes describe what never happened • Neutral ques4ons get best results
• Eyewitnesses who look but do not see – Some things processed in shallow ways due to inaTen4veness or lack of importance aTached
Stereotypes and Eyewitness Tes4mony
• Allport: memories distorted by prejudices – Research in US – common African American names more stereotyped with criminality when memories fit personal schemas of prejudice
• Inaccurate recall due to characteris4cs of the eyewitness – Being 4red, upset, intoxicated may effect recall
– Drunk eyewitness: visual recall may be accurate in some circumstances
Recall of Repressed Memories of Sexual and Physical Abuse
• Most compelling tes4mony is from vic4ms
– Many cases of repressed memories when adult was abused as child now in media
• Dilemma -‐ hard to know what is accurate
• Many trauma4c childhood memories discovered in psychotherapy may be false memories
Hypnosis and Eyewitness Tes4mony • Hypno4zing witnesses to crimes is controversial – Hypno4c age regression: hypno4zed person goes back in 4me to earlier age – relives event and recalls forgoTen experiences
• May be heightened imagina4on more than accurate relived memories
– Hypno4zed witnesses to recent crimes may have more accurate recall
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses’ Tes4mony
• Thousands of experiments in research have raised concerns but liTle has been done
– DNA saved innocent persons on death row convicted on eyewitness tes4mony
– U.S. Dept. of Jus4ce made recommenda4ons in 1999 about use of eyewitness tes4mony
Eyewitness Tes4mony • Recommenda4ons
– Establish good rapport – Ask open-‐ended ques4ons – Use fillers in lineup fi{ng witness descrip4on
– Place only one suspect in iden4fica4on lineup – Unbiased instruc4ons to eyewitnesses before viewing photos and lineups
– Avoid giving feedback to eyewitnesses aler iden4fica4on of photo or person in lineup
Improve your memory • Rehearse repeatedly • Make the material meaningful • Ac4vate retrieval cues • Use mnemonic devices • Minimize interference • Sleep more • Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you don’t yet know.
