iillllililllllllililllpiill^^^

>y fy -i/^ TJwa/ii'.

-mmiM. -wmmBTwrn. i2ljm

AN

AMERICAN DICTIONARYOF THE* *

*

ENGLISH LANGUAGE^INTENDED TO EXHIBIT,I.

II.

III.

The origin, affinities and primary signification of English words, as far as they have been ascertained. The genuine orthography and pronunciation of words, according to general usage, or to just principles of ANALOoy. Accurate and discriminating definitions, with numerous authorities and illustrations.

TO WHICH ARE PREFIXED,

AN INTRODUCTORY DISSERTATIONON THE

ORIGIN, HISTORY

AND CONNECTION OF THE

LANGUAGES OF WESTERN ASIA AND OF EUROPE,AND A CONCISE GRAMMAROF THE

"

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.^.

^--^fe vV.'ro

\

^

f

0.^^^"

BY NOAH WEBSTER, LL. D.IN T^VO VOIiUIWES.

VOL.Hetliat

I.

wishes

to

be counted among the benefactors of posterity, must add, by his

own

toil, to

the acquisitions of his ancestors.i{' ; go denoting progress towards, approach, We have a few instances of the change of g^ or gh into/. Thus rough is and per rendered by Owen, that pervades, a fruit, a pear; but the real pronounced /, and trough, trauf. sense is to strain, to bring forth, to drive, thrust, urge, &.C. The Russians often change the d of a noun into the sound of j, or the This word, in the Annoric dialect, iswiitten either gofter or oher ; in in the verb formed from that noun as lad, accord, harmony, Latin operor, whence Eng. operate. The same word is in the Ethiopic, compound g, bred, damage, loss laju, to accord, or agree breju, to injure. The Italians and French have also changed a dental into a palatal letter, T'fl^ g''6'"> 'o make, to do. f\1(\i agabar, to cause to be made; in many words; as Italian raggio, a ray, from Lat. radius ; and ragiune, tagabar, to work, operate, negotiate gabar, a maker. ^f" T n ^ "] f) ^ reason, fi-om ratio ; Fr. manger, to eat, from Lat. mando, or manduco. This is tlie Heb. and Ch. 13J to be strong, to prevail, to establish, and as In the south of Europe, the Greek x has been changed, in some instances, into the Italian or Spanish z, and then by the French into s. It seems a noun, a man; Ar. >J>.= jabara, to make strong, to heal, as a broken that the Spanish z has, at some former period, been pronounced as a guttural. Thus the Gr. fi^uxim, Lat. brachium, the arm, is in Spanish brazo, bone to strengthen. That this Slieniitic word and the Welsh and Ethiopic are all radically one, and the Spaniards have the word fiom the Latin, or from the same source there cannot be a question and the Welsh proves indisputably that go is a as the Latin and Greek, the Celtic braic. This word, brazo, the French This then is a word formed on 13 or N13. The Heb. T3X, changed into bras, and from that we have brace and embrace, A similar prefix. change occurs in Dnrazzo, noni Dyrrachium, and in the Spanish luz, light. strong, that is, strained, and 13N, a wing, that is, a shoot, ai e from tlie same The Teutonic nations often used h to express the power of the Greek , and the Latin c, as heart for napSm, horn for cornu. Hence we find that root, and in Arabic j ? abara, signifies to prick, to sting, and its deriv the Saxon hiinian, hhonian or hlynian, to lean, is tlic Greek hAuw, Latin aUves, the extremity of a thing, a point, a needle, corresponding with the ctino. The letter /i is now dropped and we write the word lean. in like manner, the Saxon hlid, which we now write lid, is fiom the same Welsh bar, a summit, a tuft, a branch, a bar, and the Welsh bcr, a pike, a root as the Latin claudo, cludo, the Greek kAu^.-o.', which is contracted into in Welsh also, par, a spear, and lance, a spit, a spear, Lat. i>er per, a M^iiu. And in this word we may notice another fact, that the word signifies spit, are all doubtless of the same origin. not only to shut, but to ])i'aise or celebrate, proving that this word and the In Syriac, to make, to work or operate. Is this j.o. ,tsabar, signifies Latin plaudo, are the same, with difiiirent pi-efixes, the same as laudo, and the same root with a diderent prefix ? that the primary sense is to strain. This in Saxon appears iu hlad, loud,, ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;;

to fovi or scattcrseed. signifies to disperse, This verb is writicii in Hebrew "113 with precisely the same signification. The Arabic also h;Ls the verb with this orthography, signifying to sow, and also to beat or stiike with a stick.

Dutch, Danish and Swedish

is

land; and danee in English

is

in

German

tanz.

;

;

;

The same wordtain.

in

Arabic

j.x*s

signifies to

be patient,

to

bear, to sus-

the Teutonic and Gothic languages, the same word is used with dilTerent Thus in our mother tongue, begin is writprefixes. ten gynnan, the simple radical word, and aginnan, beginnan, and nan ; and in the Gothic, dvginnan, which, in English,VouId be, ongynlogin. Should it appear upon investigation, that verbs in the Assyrian languages have the same prefixes which occur in the European languages, the fact will evidence more affinity between tlie languages of these two stocks than has yet been known lo exist. Let us now attend lo the natural causes which may be supposed to have obscured or destroyed the identity or resemblance of languages which had a comnion origin.

We

observe,

tliat in

hlydan, to cry out. In Latin, /and h have been converted, as hordeum (or fordeum ; and the Spaniards now write h for/, as hacer for the Latin facere ; kilo for filum ; herir iorferire, Uc.2.

CH.\NGE OF VOMELS.

The atfinily of words, in two or more different languaces, is known by identity of letters and identity of signification ; or by letters of the same organ, and a signification obviously deducible from the same sense. Letters of the same organ, as for example, b, /, ;) and t) are so easily converted, the!

of vowels is so common, as to occasion no difficulty in determining the sameness of words; indeed little or no regard is to be had to them, in a-scertaining the origin and affinity of languages. In this opinion 1 accord w ith almost all writers on this subject ; but I have to combat the opinion of that elegant scholar. Sir William Jones, who protests against the licentiousness of etymologists, not only in transposing letters, but in totally disregarding the vowels, and seems to admit the common origin of words only w hen written with the same letters, and used in a sense precisely the same.'*

The change

*

Asiatic Researches, vol. 3, p. 4S9.

INTRODUCTION.prejudice existing against etymol- German brauchen, Dutch gebruiken, Danish bruger, Sw. bruka, Sax. bruit is justly liable to all the objections can, to use, topracfice. and hence the English brokci\ ogy. As the subject has been treated, The same remarks are applicable to Ta7na and racro-w ; (ppa7na and ippao-o-w ; urged against it. But it is obvious that Sir W. Jones had given very little attention to the subject, and that some of its most common and obvious prin- aXXayn and aWaaau ; xtipa"'"P and xapacrcrw, and many other words of like forhad escaped his obsen'ation. His opinion with regard to both articu- mation. In all these cases, the last radical letter is to be sought in the dericiples as will appear from the ibl- vatives of the verb, and in one of the past tenses, lations and vowels is unequivocally erroneous, particularly in an aorist. This fact affords no feeble evidence that in Greek, as in the Shemitic iowing list of words, taken from modern languages, and respecting the languanot have the ges, the preterit tense or an aorist, was the radix of the verb.* identity of which, that gentleman himself, if living, could But it is not in the Greek language only that we are to seek for the primislightest doubt. Latin tive radical letters, not in what is now called the root of the verb, but in the Swedish. Dutch. German. Saxojj. English. derivatives. The fact is the same in the Latin, and in the English. The araw, I tralio. trekken, draga, tragen, dragau, Latin ^itcius and _^ta/, cannot be deduced from_^Mo,- but the orthography of these words proves demonstrably that the gifva, give, original root v:asflugo, or fluco. g'fan, geeven, gebcn, So in EngHsh sight cannot be deduced from see, for no example can be found '"'' ^0''' f"^'' '''''^'' of the letter g introduced to form the participles of verbs. Gr.''J,. feet', J Sight, in Saxon hake, gesicht, D. zigl, G. sicht, Dan. sigt, Sw. sickt, is a participle; but the hook, hoc, haak, haken, verb in the infinitive, in Saxon is seon, geseoyi, Ger. sehen, D. zien, Dan. dag, tag, clay, dag, daeg, daag, habeo. seer, Sw. se ; in which no palatal letter is found, from which g or ch can be haben, hafva, habban, heli'bcn, have, deduced. The truth then is that the original verb was sega/i, or in Dutch [Fr. avoir, ai, as, a, avons, avez, ont.] lauten, zegen ; the g being lost as it is in the French nier, from the Lat. nego. lopa. hleapan, loopen, leap, In tlie change of letters in the Greek verbs betore mentioned, the process brinna, brandcn, brennen, burn, liyrnan, velle seems to have been from 7 or to f , and then to u and t ; 7rpa7w, irpa^u, irpucvolo, woUen, willan, willcn, will, willja, This is cei'tainly a process which is natural and common. The (Tu, TrpciTTw. sten, stein, steen, stone, Stan, Latin brachium thus became in Spanish brazo, and then in French bras ; breit, bred, breed, bred, broad, and thus in the Italian, Alexandria has become Alessandria. erde, eorth, aarde, earth, jord, Dan. lord. When the last radical of a Greek verb is a dental, it may not be certain wie, ho, Dan. hvo. hwa, who, sukia, zoeken, suchen, sequor whether the original letter was d, or th or t. We find the Greek verb (TTrac. secan, seek, to draw, forms its derivatives with cr, crTrao-ga, arraiTii ; and this is probably the boon, bohne, bona, Dan. bonne. bean, bean, Here are scarcely two words written with the same letters in two lan- Armoric spaza, fi-om which we have spay. So W{ the verb differently pointed,

to

hew,

to

out down.

Josh. xvii.

m

Castlf.

Castle. Castle.

This sense would perhaps well suit is from breaking or wrinkling. To create Job xxxviii. 7. [qu. 4 and 6.] Ar. also that in Job vu. j \j,j the context in these two passages, as it would Nom. V. 28. or guiltless, not obnoxious to punishment. 2. To be' free skin is rough. 6 Rom. Now in Arabic, the general signification of i'JI is to return, to repeat, 31,3.and xxxii. 22.absolve, vii. a crime ; to liberate ; to dismiss ; to justify from To free ; to back ; a different application oil h to withdiaw, which may be from drawing Ex. XX. 7. Num. xiv. 18. or extend. the original sense, to strain, stretch, the Latin 4. To escape ; to forsake. Theioot pn in Chaldee signifies to spit, and this is probably to restore to health. Lev. xiii. 5. To recover fioiii disease ; to be healed 18. Josh. V. 8. Math. iv. 23. somewhat varied in application. The same verb in Arabic \j ructo, 6. To cleanse ; to free from impurities to shoot or grow long as teeth, to strain, puto reject, 7. To abstain from. signifies to diive off, to rack ; also to spread, clear as wine precisely the English Deriv. Creator ; free ; unobnoxious clean ; empty. rify or make or make and to pour out. Hebrew pi, to empty, to draw out, to attenuate to spit, to draw out, to attenuate ; SaAr. \ To create. thin, and as a noun, spittle ;' Syriac. J.J to be fine, slender maritan, to pour out, to draw out, to extend ; Ethiopic, 2. To cut off; to hew or pare. has a like significa The verb or thin ; Arabic, to be soft, tender, thin. to distinguish. 3. To separate , to spread, root, same original Hebrew, tion, and is perhaps from the 4. To make thin. pp'y rendered But, says Castle, all the ancient 'interpreters stretch, extend. 5. To oppose ; to strive ; to resist. to strike, to beat, as plates ol the word, to ordain, establish, make lirm 6. To provoke ; to boast, or make a parade. But the sense is to stretch, to spread, and the beating is only the metal. Castle. 7. To distj ibute ; to disperse. with means of extending. Hence i''pi the iirmament, which agrees well According to Gesenius, the primary sense of this verbis toheiv, to cut out, And to reconcile and thus to make smooth, and thus to create ; and he deduces these senses Lat. regio, an extent ; in Hebrew, properly an expanse. of this word, let it be remembered in the same order, as he does those of the Arabic verb, which the ancient and modern interpretations gives the word are usually or always from stretching, tension. But there is no ground for this opinion ; and doubtless the verb orilike. tiinl strength and firmness " Regio a rfg-o quod ginated before the use of edge tools. Now let us hear Ainsworth on the word regio. sub regibus erant atque ab his reThe predominant senses of this word, are, to separate, to free, to remove ; priusquam provincis fierent, regiones more natural is it to deduce regio from the prima- as we see by the Arabic and Syriac. gebantur." How much which is to stretch, to strain, to extend! Megio is an exNow hetving is indeed separating, and we have tlie English word pare ry sense of rego, from this root but we must seek for a signification which is more general tent, a word of indefinite signification. Chaldee and Arabic this verb signifies to mend, to repair, to make than that o( paring, or we shall not be able to account for the sense of makIn over or making strong. See the root whole, from extending spreading ing fat, sound, entire, and strong, nor for that of being born. The truth undoubtedly is, this word is of the same family with the Eng'jj infra. observe that JJT and m'\ agree in original signification, with the lish bear, the Latin pario, and the radical sense is to throw, to thrust, to to drive, to extend ; hence to throw out, to produce, as apphed to the the root of which or some of its derivatives was formed send, English reach, on To throw or drive, is the primary sense of bii til of children or of the world. and were formed on any of the foregoing biliteThat lia. stretch. The Engli.h word deal, when pia separation and division, that is, to drive off. that traced to its To create, is to proral roots we may not be able to affirm ; but it is certain from the Welsh root, presents the same fact. See Deal. the first consonant of the triliteral root is a prefix, and it is certain from the duce or bring forth, the same sense as that of birth, .ipplied to a different that the primary sense is the same in the biliteral and is from driving off, separation. In The sense of hewing and paring Shemitic languages object. or particular significations may or departure to a triliteral roots, or that all the applications Syriac, we observe the general application, in removal, The sense of fattening is derivative, and allied to that of healing distance. readily be deduced from one general signification. To illustrate this subject more fully, let us attend to the various applica- or making whole, sound, strong, in the Arabic, that is, preparing, bringing tions of some other Shemitic words of extensive use to a good state, or from tension, the usual primary sense of strength and

which

:

My

!

,

.

o

;

;

p

;

;

;

We

p3

power.

ra.

To obtain a more full and satisfactory view of this subject, let us attend to the same word in the modern languages of Europe.is

Heb. K^3 To

create.

This,

by most lexicographers,

given as the firstto create;

in all tlie Shemitic languages. signification, Gen. i. 1. produce into being.2.

Parkhurst says,

to

LATIN.Paro,to

To

In Hiph. To make fat to fatten or batten. 1 Sam. ii. 29. paro is probably the same as in the Shemitic languages to produce, to bring forward. So also ready implies an advancing, and so docs promptness. But Num. xvi. 30. 4. To do or perform something wonderful. In Kal, to renew, in a spiritual sense. the various ways of preparing a thing for use naturally give to the word, in 5. In Niph. To be renewed. results Ps. U. 12. process of time, a variety of particular significations; each of which The compounds of paro, are apin bringing the thing to the state desired. Castle says, comparo, to prepare or 1. To create from nothing, or to produce something new or excellent pnro, to prepare, to furnish, accouler or set out make ready ; from another thing. Gen. i. Is. xiii. 5. procure, to make equal, to compare, to join, to dress or to regain, to comIs. xlviii. 7. Ps. cii. 19. 2. In Niph. To be renewed or re-created. ;c;>ai"o, to repair, to create anew, /irrsparo, to prepare Let the Latin uses of this word be compared to pensate to bear away, or remove also to select 3. To cut off; to take away separo. to separate. with the same Hebrew word in Joshua xvii. 15, where it is rendered cut Josh. xvii. 15. 18. Ezek. xxiii. 47. prepare. down. " Ascend to the wod country and cut down for thyself;" SeptuaGesenius says, This is one mo signifies to come to, to happen, to reach, [to The meet,] to be ripe or mature, to cause to come, to bring or produce. first sense gives that of finding, and tlie latter gives that of maturing, and

we observe tliat matter, or pus, is from the Arabic J^^ madda, and the sense ai mature from the Chaldee NBO mita. Yet in the use o( maturate from the Latin maturo, we connect tlie words, for to maturate, is to ripen, and to generate matter. In Syriac, this verb signifies the same as the Chaldee, to come to; andalso to be strong, to prevail, that is, to strain or stretch, the radical sense of power. In Hebrew, NXD has the sense of the foregoing verb in the Chaldee, to find, to come to, to happen. In Chaldee, this verb signifies to find, and to be strong, to prevail ; bencr both in Hebrew and Chaldee, to be sufficient. Here we see the Danish and Swedish, matter, and mhlta, to be sufficient. This is also meet, dialec-

These significations give to meet, to fall on, to come to, to happen. lically varied. the sense of finding, and are closely allied to the senses of the Arabic verb In Syriac also this verb signifies to be strong or powerful ; also in Pah. to bring or press out, to defecate, which sense unites this word with the Heb. infra. nSD, to press, to squeeze. In Ethiopic, this verb signifies to come, to hapThe Dauisli verb is mijder, to meet, but in both the Swedish and Danish, pen, to cause to come, to bring in, to bring forth. Now it is evident tjiat Sw. tii^ita, the sense of measure is expressed by a different orthography. NYD, and the Chaldee XBD, are dialectical forms of the same word ; tiie In these two former to measure ; matt, measure ; Dan. maade, measure, mode. coinciding with the German mass, in orthography, but with the and to satisfy. See infra, the otlier languages wo find also the sense of sufficiency, languages, in signification. In Chaldee, ysn signifies the middle, and as a verb, to set in the miiUlc. and Heb. .and Ch. xxn. Ar. Jv to pass the middle, in Qu. bnot fliis a Syriac, to be divided in the middle. But in these Gothic dialects, there is one application of racet"'Ps". Lat. mensura, Fr. mesure, Eng. measure, Lat. modui, mode. Sax. and Goth, mod, mind, anger, whence moody, Eng. moot, Lat maturus, This word in .\rabic madda, signifies, mature, and Eng. matter. 1. To stretch or extend, to draw out, to make or be long, to delay or give In Welsh, niadu signifies, to cause to proceed; to send, [Lit mitto;'] to lime, to forbear, to bring forth. To extend is the radical sense of measure. and mdd sigto become beneficial suffer to go off; to render productive 2. To separate, or throw offer out; to secern, secrete or discharge. Hence and mad, the or goes forward, hence what is good Here we have nifies, what proceeds to become matter or sanies, to produce pus, to maturate. or beneficial. adjective, signifies, proceeding, advancing, progressive, good the origin of the word matter, in the sense ofpus. It is an excretion, from This word then affords a clear proof of the radical sense ot good. We have throwing out, separating, freeing, discharging. Here we have the sense of like evidence in the English better, best, and in prosperity, which is from the Latin mitto, eniitto. the Greek irpcaf^p", to advance. 3. To assist, to supply. This sense is probably from coming to, that is, to " I was sick and In Welsh also we find madrez, matter, pus mMiru, to dissolve, to putrevisited me. 1 was in prison and ye approach or visit. ye That these words are from the same root as the Arabic came to me." Math. fy, to become pus.,-

;

nO

;

;

A^

;

;

;

;

xxv.

Vol.

I.

D.

INTRODUCTION.jthe

To show the great importance, or rather the absolute necessity, of ascertaining the primary sense of words, in older to obtain clear ideas of the sense of ancient authors, more particularly of difficult passages in dead languages, let the reader attend to the following remarks. same radix. In commenting on certain parts of Isaiah xxviii, Lowth observes in his Preliminary Dissertation, the difficulty of determining the meaning of niH, in verse 15th. In our version, as in others, it is rendered agreement but, " The Greek ^i^u is rendered, to speak or say ; to tell, count, or number says Lowth, the word means no such thing in any part of the Bible, exin the ISth verse following nor can the lexicographers give any satisto gather, collect, or choose ; to discourse and to lie down. This last defi- cept account of the word in this sense." Vet he nition shows that this word is tlie English he and and from this appli- factory agrees with Vitringa, lay ; that in these passages it must have this The difficulty, it signification. cation, doubtless, the Latins had their lectus, a bed, that is, a spread, a lay The Latin lego, the same verb, is rendered, to gather; to choose; to seems, has arisen from not understanding the primary sense of seeing, for the verb generally signifies to sef,- and as a noun the word read to steal, or collect by signifies sight, stealing; and the phrase, legere oram, signifies vision and so it is rendered in the Latin version annexed to to coast, to sail along a coast ; Vanderhooghf s legere vela, i< to furl the sails ; legere halt Bible. The seventy render it by o-uwBin.i, a covenant or league ; and they are turn, to take breath; legere littus, to sail close to the shore legere milites, followed " Nous avons intelligence avec le sepulchre." by the moderns. to enlist or muster soldiers; legere pvgno, to strike, perhaps to lay on with French. " Noi habbiam fatta lega col sepulcro." Italian of Diodati. the fist. Parkliurst understands the word to signify, to fasten, to settle, and he cites It would seem, at first view, that such various significations cannot pro" Joab took Amasa by the beard." Here the sense is ceed from one radix. But the fact that they do is indubitable. The prima- 2 Sam. XX, 9, ;nn, obvious and fiom this and other passages, we may infer with certainty, ry sense of the root must be to throw, strain or extend, which in this, as in that the radical sense is to reach to, or to seize, hold, or If the sense is almost all cases, gives the sense of speaking. The sense of fix. collecting, to reach to, then it accords with covenant, conveniens, coming to ; if the choosing, gathering, is from throwing, or drawing out, or separating by some such act or from throwing together. The sense of lying down is, sense is to fix, or fasten, then it agrees with league, Lat. ligo, and with pact, The sense of reading, in Latin, pactum, from pango, to make fast; all from the sense of extension, stretchprobably, from throwing one's self down. Hence the meaning of ntn, the breast; that is, the firm, is the same as that of speaking in the Greek, unless it may be from collect- ing, straining. And if the English gaze is the same word, which is not ing , that is, separating the letters, and uniting them in syllaliles and fixed, strong part. words for in the primitive mode of writing, diacritical points were not used. improbable, this determines the appropriate sense of seeing in this word, to be to fix, or to look or reach with the eye fixed. But probably the sense of reading is the same as in speaking. But we have other and decisive evidence of the primary The phrases legere oram, legere littus, in Latin, may coincide with that of signification of our seamen, to stretch or lay along the shore or coast, or to hxig the land ; this word in the obvious, undisputed meaning of iriN, the same word with to seize ; hence, behind, especially if this word lay in Sanscrit signifies to cling, as I have seen it a prefix, which signifies to catch, or lay hold on stated in some author, but for which I cannot vouch. If this sense is at- following, as if attached to ; and hence drawing out in time, to delay. tached to the word, it proves it closely allied to the L. ligo, to bind. That the .sense of throwing, or driving, is contained in this word, is cerit is not improbable that the Arabic jLs* hauz, may be a word tain from its derivatives. Thus, in Greek, airUiyw signifies to select, to collect; of the same stock and this signifies among other senses, to collect, contract and also to reject, to repudiate, and to forbid ; which imply throwing, or draw together, to accumulate, to have intercourse or commerce with thrusting away. another. The latter sense would give nearly the signification of the HeNow, if throwing, sending, or driving, is the primary sense, then the Lat- brew word. in lego, to read, and lego, legare, to send, are the radically the same word Lexicographers are often embarrassed to account for the difTerent signifiinflections of the verb being varied, arbitrarily, to designate the distinct ap- cation of words that are evidently derived fiom the same root. Thus, plications, just as iupello, appello, appeUere, to drive, and appello, appelin Hebrew, llty is rendered to sing to look, behold, or observe ; and to lare, to call. And here it may be worth a moment's consideration, whether several; rule; and its derivatives, a ruler, a wall, the navel-string, a chain or can a word signify to rule, and to sing, and to look ? necklace, &c. words with prefixes, such as slay, flog, and the Latin plico, W. plygu, are; Nothing can be more easy or natural. The sense is in both cases to stretch not formed on the root of lay, that is, lag or lak. The sense of slay. Sax. or To sing is to strain the voice ; to rule is to restrain strain, to reach. " slogan, slcean, is properly to strike, to beat; hence in Saxon, Hig slo- men ; and to see is to reach, or to hold in view. gon heora wedd," they sleic their league, or contract ; that is, they struck In Latin sero, signifies to sow, to plant, to beget, to spread ; consero. a bargain. It signifies also to throw, as to slag one into prison ; also to fall to set or lay. The sense of killing is derivative from that of striking,! ito sow, and to close or join ; desero, to leave off, to desert ; assero, to plant a striking down. by or near, and to assert, affirm, and pronounce; dissero, to discourse ; to insert, to implant ; resero, to unlock, to open, to disclose. Desero, Ftog-, Lat. _^ig-o, signifies primarily to rwsA, drive, strike, Eng. to lick ; [insero, " utsit desertum and if formed on the root of lay, is precisely the desert, Ainsworth says, is a compound of de and sero, popular i)hrase, to lay on. [to And dissero he supposes must be a metaIf plico is formed with a prefix on or its root, it must have been ori- Iquod non seritur nee colitur." /ay Then to fold, would be to lay on or phorical use of the word. Now, on the principles 1 have unfolded, nothing ginally pe/jco, that is, belico, belay. is easier than an explanation of these words. The sense of sero is to throw, close ; to lay one part to another. this word is ihe Welsh plygu, Ito thrust ; its literal sense is applied to sowing and to fold, which Owen makes to be a planting ; consero is to compound of py and lly. The latter thrust or drive together; desero is to throw from; assero is to throw, in word must be a contraction of llyg. know that the word rejUy is from the French repliquer, the Latin words, or to throw out, as in appello ; dissero is to throw words or arguments, to reply, is not to fold back, but to send back, to throw 'with the sense of spreading, expatiating; itisero is to throw or thrust in; Now, replica. back, as words, or an answer ; and this gives the precise sense of lay, to 'resero is to throw or drive from, hence to unlock or open. It is by resorting to the primary idea of words that we are able to exthrow, to send, which must be the sense of the radical word. It is no inconsiderable evidence of the truth of my conjecture, that wei plain applications, apparently, or in tact, diverse and even contrary. A veconstantly use the phrase to lay on, or lay to, as synonymous with pli/, a ry comnion example of this contrariety occurs in words which signify to word belonging to this family. To pledge, another of this family, is to or defend. For instance, the Latin arceo signifies to drive oft", and to prolay guard down, to deposit ; and the primary sense of play. Sax. plegan, Dan. leger,, tect, secure, hold, restrain, or keep from departingor escaping; two senses diSw. leka, is to strike or drive. This is extremely natural for o/cco signifies to thrust off, jrectly opposite. In Welsh, //wfiau' signifies to throw, Or if or dart; to pelt ; to drift; repel, drive back and this act defends the person or object attacked. fling, cast, from llur. a darting, a flash, glance, or sudden throw ; hence llu(;ed. we suppose tlie sense of strai)iing \o be anterior to that of repulsion, which lightLlug signifies also, that breaks, or begins to open, a gleam, a break- lis not improbable, then the act of straining or holding produces both efi'ecls; ning. ing out in blotches the plague. Llwg siunihes also, that is apt to break to repel or stop what advances to assault, and protect what is inclosed or asout, that is bright, a tumor, eruption. These words coincide with Eno-- saulted. The word- guard and warren present a similar application of the lish light, Lat. luceo ; the and all languages which I have examined, furnish a multiprimary sense of which is lo throw, shoot, or dart primary idea and these words all contain the elements of ^o^ and fling. tude of similar examples.

S^ supra, think to he very obTious; and here we observe that the Welsh have one important sense derived from the root, that of gooiiy which occurs in none of the other lanpiuages. But the primary sense is the same as that of the other significations, to go forward, to advance ; hence to promote interest or happiness. Here we have undeniable evidence that the sense of good, Welsh mad, and the sense of matter, pus, proceed from theI

the

same as that of light. So the river .9ar, in Europe, is doubtless fiom same source as the Orienntal IIN, to shine, whence air. And inj,as to shine, chiefly signi-

which, in Hebrew, signifies to flow as water, as well fies in Chaldee and Syiiac, to shine.

LEGO.

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Now

;

;

;

How

;

Now

We

I

|

I

I

;

;

;

!

;

;

;

In Welsh, llyru signifies to fiill fiat, to lie is evidently allied to lay and lie.

exaiiiples illustrate Ihe utility of extensive researches in language ; cogmite languages throw light on each other one language often reThese senses agree also with that of luck, to fall, or come suddenly ; that taining the radical meaning of a word which the others have lost. Who, to rush or drive along. js, for instance, that is acquainted only with the English use of the verb to In Russ. vlagayu is to lay, or put in equivalent to the German einlegen. have, would suspect that this word and happen arc radically one, and that The Latin ^iw is contracted from _^uo-o; and the radical sense of flow is the primary sense is to fall or rush, hence to fall on and seize ? Vet nothingas all; ;

extended, or

to squat.

This

These

INTHODUCriON.7. To swell, distend, expand, spread. 8. To stir, shake, agitate, rouse, excite. /lafter,9. To .shoot as a plant to grow allied to No. 1. 10. To break, or burst; allied sometimes to No. 3. In like manner the primary sense of venio in Latin, cannot be certainly 11. To lift, raise, elevate; allied to No. 9. determined without resorting to other words, and to kindred languages. In 12. To tlcc, withdraw, escape to fly; often allied to No. 1. word signifies to come or arrive but in Spanish, venida, from Latin, the 13. To rage ; to burn ; allied to No. 7 and 8. venir, the Latin venio, signities not only a coming or arrival, but an attack 14. To fall; to fail; whence fading, Venio coincides in origin with the English yiurf , Saxon Jindin fencing. dying, fitc. 15. To approach, come, arrive, extend, reach. ThisU usually (he sense an ; German and Dutch finden, to tind, to fall or Ught on Danish_^;ider ; Swedish finna, to find, to discover, to meet, to strike against [otfendere.] of gaming. No. 34. 16. To go, walk, pass, advance; allied to No. 6. The primary sense o{ venio then is not merely to come or arrive, but to rush or 17. To -seize, take, hold sometimes allied to No. 31. move with a driving force ; and this sense i.s applicable to coining or going. 18. To strike; to beat; allied to No. 1. That the primary sense is to fall or rush, we have evidence in the Latin We have still 19. To swing to vibrate. No. 29. ventus, and English wind, both from the root of this verb. 20. To lean; to incline ; allied to the sense of further evidence in the word venom, which in Welsh is gwenivyn; gwen, wandering, or departing. 21. To rub, scratch, scrape; often connected with Venom is that while, and gwyn, rage, smart, whence gwynt, wind. driving, and with which frets or excites a raging pain. Hence we may infer that L. venor, to roughness. 22. To swim ; to float. hunt, to chase, is of the same family ; and so is venia, leave, or leave to de23. To stop, cease, rest; sometimes at least from a leaving, coinciding in signiiication with leave. straining, holding, faspai't, or a departure, * Tlie latter word, venia, proves another fact, that the primary sense of ve- tening. 24. To creep to crawl sometimes connected with scraping. nio is, in general, to move in any direction, and that the Latin sense, to come,^

U more

certain.

tained in cation.

In the Spanish language the senses ol both verbs are reand the Welsh Aapiaio gives us the true original signifi-

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

:

is

peel, to strip, whence spoiling. leap, to spring; allied to No. 9 and 1. 27. bring, bear, carry; in some instances connected with producing, ry to recur to tlie derivan\es. Thus the Latin livdo is rendered to hurt ; but, by adverting to allido, elido, and collide), we find that the original sig- throwing out. 28. To sweep. Hurt then is the secondaryi nification is to strike, hit, or dash against. 29. To hang. No. 19. sense ; the effect of the primary action expressed by the verb. 30. To shrink, or contract; that is, to draw. So the Latin rapio, to seize, does not give the sense of rapidus, rapid, See No. 3.

a particular appropriation of that sense. In ascertaining the primary sense of words,

2.'>.

it

is

often useful or necessa-

26.

To To To

but the sense of the latter proves the primary .sense of rapio to be to rush, and in its application, to rush on and seize. These examples will be sufficient to show how little the affinities of language have been understood. Men have been generally satisfied with a knowledge of the appropriate sense of words, without examining from

31. 32. 33. 34.

To run to rush forward; allied to No. 1. To put on or together; to unite allied to No. To knit, to weave. To gain, to win, to get. See No. 1.5.;

;

1

and

3.

These and a few more verbs express the literal sense of all the primary But it must be remarked that all the foregoing significations are not visible or physical action, or ;)?^/;^a?t/ sense, that particular application roots. has been derived. Hence the obscurity that still rests on the theory of lan- distinct. So far from it, that the whole may be brought under the significaguage. It has been supposed that each word, particularly each verb, has tion of a very few words. The English words to send, throw, thrust, strain, an original specific sense, or application, distinct from every other verb. stretch, draw, drive, urge, press, embrace the primary sense of a great part We find, however, on a close examination and comparison of the same of all the verbs in every language which I have examined. Indeed it must word in different languages, that the fact is directly the reverse that a be so, for the verb is certainly the root of most words ; and the verb expresverb expressing some action, in a general sense, gives rise to various ap- ses mof ion, which always imphes the application offeree. Even the verbs which signify to hold or stop, in most instances at least, if And in the course of my repropriate senses, or particular applications. searches, 1 have been struck with the similarity of manner in which differ- not in all, denote primarily to strain or restrain by exertion of force ; and to ent nations have appropriated derivative and figurative senses. For exam- lie is primarily to throw down, to lay one's self down. So that intransitive ple, all nations, as far as my researches extend, agree in expressing the verbs are rarely exceptions to the general remark above made, that all sense oi pistice aniright, by straightness, and sin, iniquity, tcrong, by a verbs primarily express motion or exertion of force. The substantive verb deviation from a straight line or course. Equally remarkable is the simpli- has more claims to be an exception, than any other for this usually denotes, city of the analogies in language, and the small number of radical signifi- I think, permanence or continued being ; but the primary sense of this verb cations ; so small indeed, that I am persuaded the primary sensie of all the may perhaps be to set or fix ; and verbs having this sense often express exverbs in any language, may be expressed by thirty or forty words. tension in time or duration. So iiiu in Greek is to stretch, but the same We cannot, at tliis period of the world, determine, in all cases, which word teneo in Latin, is to hold ; hence continuance. words are primitive, and which are derivative nor whether the verb or Let us now attend to the radical sense of some of the most common verbs. the noun is the original word. Mon. Gebelin, in his Monde Primitif, Speaking, calling, crying, praying, utterance of sounds, is usually from maintains that the noun is the root of all other words. Never was a great- the sense of driving or straining. Thus in Latin, appello and compello, That some nouns may have been formed before the verbs though of a different conjugation from pello, depello, impello, are from the er mistake. with which they are connected, is possible ; but as languages are now con- same root and although the Latin repello does not signify to recall, yet the structed, it is demonstrably certain, that the verb is the radix or stock from corresponding word in Italian rappellare, and the French rappeler, signify which have sprung most of the nouns, adjectives, and other parts of speech to recall, and hence the English repeal. Hence also peal, either of a bell belonging to each family. This is the result of all my researches into the or of thunder. This is the Greek i3a^Xtij, and probably waUw is from the We find, indeed, that many modern verbs are form- same root. The sense o( striking is found in the Greek verb, and so it is in origin of languages. ed on nouns ; as to practice from practice; but the noun is derived from a the Lat. loquor, Eng. clock. But in general, speaking, in all its modificaGreek verb. So we use wrong as a verb from the adjective wrong tions, is the straining, driving, or impulse of sounds. Sometimes the sense but the latter is primarily a participle of the verb to wring. Indeed coincides more exactly with ihaXof breaking or bursting. a large part of all nouns were originally participles or adjectives, and Singing is a driving or straining of the voice ; and we apply strain to a the tilings which they denote were named from their quahties. So pard, passage of music, and to a course of speaking. I am not confident that I can refer the sensation ot hearing to any visible pardus, is from T13 barad, hail ; and the animal so named from his spots as if sprinkled with hail, or rather from the sense of it may sometimes be from striking, hitting, touching. But separation. Crape, action. Possibly the Fr. crfpe, is from crfper, to crisp. Sight signifies, primarily, seen ; it we observe that hear is connected in origin with car, as the Latin audio is being the participle of seon contracted from sigan. Draught is the parti- with the Greek on, wtm, the ear whence it appears probable that the verb ciple of draw, that which is drawn, or the act of drawing ; thought is tlie to hear, is formed from the name of the ear, and the ear is from some verb which signifies to shoot or extend, for it signifies a limb. participle of think. As the verb is the principal radix of other words, and as the The primary sense of seeing, is commonly to extend to, to reach ; as it proper province of this part of speech is to of behold, for the radical sense express action, almost all the modifica- were, to reach with the eye. Hence the use tions of tlie primary sense of the verb may be comprehended in one word, othotd is to strain and hence its signification in beholden, held, bound, obto move. See the verb See in the Dictionary. ligated. The principal varieties of motion or action may be expressed by the folThe sense of look may be somewhat different from that of see. It appear! in some instances to have for its primary signification to setid, throw, coat ; lowing verbs. 1. To drive, throw, thrust, send, that is, to send or cast the eye or sight. urge, press. 2. To set, fix, But these are usually from thrusting, or throwing down. The primary sense of feeling is to touch, hit, or strike ; and probably this lay. 3. To strain, stretch, draw, whence holding, binding, strength, power, and is the sense of taste. often health. Wonder and astonishment arc usually expressed by some word that sig4. To turn, wind, roll, wander. Hence the Latin miror, to wonder, is the Armoric nifies to stop or hold. 5. To flow, to blow, to rush. miret, to stop, hold, hinder ; coinciding with the English moor, and Spanish 6. To open, See No. 16. amarrar, to moor, as a ship. part, spht, separate, remove, scatter.

what

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INTRODUCTION.on to thrust on. Wc h.ive a familiar examand capio ; for caplo is primarily to fall or rush ple in the Latin incipio, in on and seize. See Begin in the Dictionary. See AsAttempt is expressed by straining, stretching, as in Latin tento. say and Kssay. exPower, strength, iui the corresponding verb, to be able, are usually and this is the radical sense of ruling or pressed by straining, stretching, is an example, which gives rectus, right, governing. Of this the Latin rego

To begin

is to

come, or

fall

;

hard, have

all

the

from onethe

root, the

more inclined

to this opinion, for these

same elementary letters, and I suppose them all to be sense of which is, to draw, strain, shrink, contract. I am words coincide with calleo, to be

strong or able, to

that

is,

stretched, straight.is

Care, as has been stated,the mind.

usually from strainmg, ftiat

is,

a tension ot

To think is to set or fix or hold in the is expressed by setting. approaches to the sense of Si(;V)ose, Lat. /;>po;!o. And under this word, let us consider the various applications of the Latin verb puto is rendered to prune, lop or dress, as vines, puto. The simple that is, according to Ainsworth, putum, i. e. puruni reddo, purgo, by which or used I understand him to mean, thatj)i((u; is either a change ofpunim, r are not for it a most improbable supposition, for the radical letters t and coramutable. Puto is rendered also, to make even, clear, adjust, or cast up Its compounds accounts ;Uso to think or consider; to suppose to debate. are amputo, to cut off, prune, amputate, to remove computo, to compute. to to reckon, to think or deem ; disputo, to make clear, to adjust or settle, or debate, to jeason ; impitto, to impute, to ascribe or lay to, to dispute to reckon up, to impute. place to account ; reputo, to consider, to revolve, account or reckon, The Latin depute signifies to think, judge or esteem, to and to prune ; but the Italian deputare, Spanish diputar, and French depuHow can the sense o( think, ter, from the Latin word, all signify, to send. and that of lop or prune, be deduced from a common root or radical sense ? We find the solution of this question in the verb to depute. The primary sense is to throw, thrust or send, or to set or lay, which is from throwing, To prune is to separate, remove, or drive oft"; to force off; to driving. think Is a setting in the mind ; to compute is to throw or put together, either in the mind or in numbers ; to dispute is to throw against or apart, like deand to repute, is to impute, is to throw or put to or on to beat fromThinkingIt

mind.

know ; a sense that imples straining and holding. Hope is probably from reaching tbrward. We express strong desire by longing, reaching towards. Earnestness, boldness, daring, peril, promptness, readiness, willingness, love and favor, are expressed by advancing or inclining. Light is often expressed by opening, or the shooting of rays, radiation; and probaiily in many cases, the original word was applied to the dawn of Whiteness is often connected in origin with light. day in the morning. We have an instance of this in the Latin caneo, to shine and to be white. And that the primary sense of this word, is to shoot, to radiate, that is, to throw out or off, we have evidence in the verb cano, to sing, whence canto, the sense of which is retained in our popular use of cant ; to cant a stone ; to cant over a cask ; give the thing a cant ; for all these words are from onestock.

;

;

;

;

The Latin virtus, the English worth, is from the root of vireo, to grow, is, to stretch forward, to shoot; hence the original sense is strength, a Hence the Lasense we retain in its application to the qualities oif plants. tin sense of virtus, is bravery, coinciding with the sense of boldness, a projecting forward. Pride is from swelling or elevation, the primary sense of some other wordsthat

bate, ; to think or throw in the mind, repeatedly.

;

To amputate,

is

to separate

by

Puto then in Latin is from the same root probably, as the and also the Dutch English put, or the same word differently applied; a or shoot, Gr. ipuiuv, &c. pooten, to plant ; pool, a paw, twig In attempting to discover the primary sense of words, we are to carry our state of mankind, and consider how rude reflections back to the primitivecutting round.

men would effect their pui-poses, before the invention or use of the instru driving or thrusting. Eating seems to have a somewhat different sense. The English verb to cut, signifies or Drinking is from drawing, or from wetting, plunging. Drench and raents which the moderns employ. and we are apt to consider this as drink are radically one word. dinarily to separate with an edged tool ; But if so, how can cut, the stroke of a whip Anger, and the like violent passions imply excitement, or violent action. the chief and original sense. which is a legitimate sense of the word, be deduced from the act of severing Hence their connection with burning or inflammation, the usual sense of commotion. have, in this popular use of the word, a clew to guide which is raging or violent by an edged tool ? Agreement, harmony, are usually from meeting, or union, or from exus to the primary sense, which is, to drive, urge, press, and applied to the to. arm, to strike. But we have better evidence. In the popular practice of tending, reaching are from the sense of throwing or setting down, or to ancall Dwelling, abiding, England, it is not uncommon to hear one person speaking in the Latin continuo, from teneo, other when running, and say, cut on, cut on; that is, hurry, run faster, resting, or from stretching ; as we see by This is Gr. Tiivu, to extend. drive, press on ; probably from striking a beast which one rides on. Hence we see, that this verb is the Latin Guarding and defending, are fiom roots that signify to stop, or to cut off; the original sense of the word. or more generally, from the sense of driving off, a repelling or striking ccedo, to strike, to cut down, somewhat differently applied, and cado, to fall, In some cases perhaps from holding. is only a modified sense of the same root, ;uid the compounds incido, to cut, back. the prepositions Opposition is usually expressed by meeting, and licnce and incido, to fall on, are of one family. To cut, is therefore primarily to Thus the Danish preposition mod, Swedish mot if applied to the severing of bodies, before wliich express opposition. strike, or drive, and to cut off, or emot, against, contrary, is the English word to meet. edged tools were used, was to force otT, or to strike oft"; hence the sense of denote primarily breath, air, wind, the radiWords which expiess"s;V;t separating in the phrase to cut off a. retreat or communication. Hence the connection between So the Latin carpo is the English carve, originally to separate by plucking, cal sense of which is to flow, move or rush. hence passion, animosity. So in spirit and courage, animus, animostis ; pulling, seizing and tearing, afterwards, by cutting. have Greek (p?iiii!, frenzy, is from (r?i', the mind, or rather from its primary sense, the sense oS is

nearly allied to it. Fear is usually from shrinking or from shaking, trembling; or sometimes perhaps from striking, a being struck, as with surprise. Holiness and sacredness are sometimes expressed by separation, as from common things. The Teutonic word holy however seems to be from the sense of sowidness, entireness. Faith and belief seem to imply a resting on, or a leaving. It is certain that the English belief i^ a compound of the prefix be and leaf, leave, perTo believe one then is to leave with him, to rest or suffer to rest mission. with him, and hence not to dispute, contend or deny. Color may by from spreading over or put'ing on but in some instances, See Dye and Tinge. the primary sense is to dip. Spots are from the sense of separating or from sprinkling, dispersion. The radical sense of making is to press, drive, or force. We use make in its true literal sense, in the phrases, make your horse draw, make your servant do what you wish. Feeding is from the sense of pressing, crowding, stuffing, that is, from;

We

New

This verb signi- a moving or rushing. a clear proof of this in the Latin peto and its compounds. So in our mother-tongue, mod is mind or spirit; whence mood, in Engfies primarily to rush, to drive at, to assault, and this sense, in Dictionaries, in the sense of purpose, have the force of the ori- hsh, and Sax. modig, nioody, angry. Hence ought to stand first in the order of definitions. and impetuous. So tiie Latin rogu, comcides its primary signification, is a setting forward, as intention is from intendo, ginal in the words impetus to stretch, to strain, the sense that ought to stand first in a Dictionary. in elements with reach. of scolding, or throwing The act of understanding is expressed by reaching or taking, holding, Reproach, chiding, rebuke, are from the sense have a pop- out words with violence. sustaining ; the sense of comprehend, and of"understand. 1 take your meaning or your Sin, is generally from the sense of deviating, wandering, as is the pracular phrase which well expresses this sense, tice of lewdness. So in German, begreife7i, to begripe, to apprehend. idea." of stretching, making straight, Right, justice, equity, are from the sense .knowing seems to have the same radical sense as understanding. and iJie like affections, are usually expressed by or from laving, making smooth. Pain, grief, distress, Falsehood is from falling, failing, or from deviation, wandering, drawpressure or straining. Affliction is from striking. of rousing, excit- ing aside. Joy, mirth, and the like affections, are from the sense The primary sense of strange and /orei^n, is distant, and from some verb ing, lively action. to depart. Wild :ind fierce are from a like sense. Covering, and the like actions are from spreading over or cutting off, in- signifying arc from e.vhamting, drawing r'aJH.ua/iif]/, Ji'ane, and kindred words, terruption. Hiding, is from covering or from withdrawing, depai-ture; or concealment out, or fiom departing, withdrawing, falling away. Paleness is usually fromfailure, a departure of color. be from withholding, restraining, suppressing, or making fast, as in the may clear. is fiom expanding, display, or making Glon/ opening, Latin celo. or straining. Heat usually iniplies excitement ; but as the effect of heat as well as of Binding, making fast or close, is from pre.s.sure, of all primitive words cald is sometimes to contract, I think both are sometimes from the same raWriting is fiom scratching, engraving, the sense 4lix. Thuscoid and the Lat. caleo, to be warm, and callus and calleo, to be which express this act.

Asking

usually expressed by

pressing, urging.

We

We

mmd

We

INTRODUCTION.some guftenio is a prefix, the root of this word may be the same. The object however for which this word is here mentioned, is chiefly to show tlie unimen have observed in expressing their ideas making use of Vapor, steam, smoke, are usually from verbs which signify to exhale or formity which 'the same visible physical action to represent tlie operations of the mind and throw olf. Thus passus moral ideas. Stepping seems to be from opening, e.xpaniling, stretching. in Latin i> from pani/o, to open, .but this agrees in origin with pateo, and Silence, deafness, dumbness, are from stopping, holding, or making Grad}is in Latin coinciiles with the Welsh rhawd, \fast. with the (;reek jrar-i.'. War is from the sense of striving, driving, struggling. a way, and thi; radah, to go, to pass. Chaldoe, Evil is from wandering, departing, or sometimes from softness, weakness, Walking may be sometimes from a like source but the word walk siguilics flowing or fluxibility, as is the case with the Latin malum, from tlie Welsh primaiily to roll, pre.^.s, work and full, as a hat, whence walker signifies a

A

crowd,

a

mass, a wood. Sac

,

are from collecting or pressing, or

allied sigriitication.

;

I

I

;

mall.

fuller.

Softness and weakness are usually

Softness smoothness, and perhaps with moisture.

drawing,

as

is

relaxation.to

The primary sense of the names of natural and material objects cannot named from yielding, bending, withbe ascertained. The reasons are obvious. Some of these names are however is sometimes connected with always

Sweetness seemsness.

have

for its

primary sense, either soflness or smooth;

Soughncss is from sharp points, wrinkling or breaking and acidity is sharpness or pungency, and nearly allied to roughness Death is expressed by falling or departure life by fixedness or continuother language. ance, or from animation, excitement;

detached branches of a family of words, which no longer form a part of our language, the verb and all the derivatives, except a single name, being extinct or found only in some remote country. Others of these names navie suffered such changes of orthography, that it isdillicult or impossible to asfrom certain the primary or radical letters, and of course the family to which they Numerous examples of such words occur in English, as in every belong.

.S in English expresses merely a small number, yet the same word and ray, radius ; that is, a shoot. Spurge is undoubtedly from the root of the Latin purgo. in French, peu, and in the Italian, poco, signifies little in quantity, as well as There is reason to think that many names of plants were originally adjecfew in number. Cause is from the sense of urging, pressing, Hence it well tives, expressing their qualities, or the name was a compound used for the impelling. expresses that which produces an effect and hence it is pecuUarly expres- same purpose, one part of which has been dropped, and the other remaining sive of that by which a man seeks to obtain a claim in law. A cause in as the name of the plant. Thus pine, pinus, is from pin, pinna, penna ; for in Welsh pin is a pin and a pen or style for writing, and pinbren is a pinecourt is properly a pressing for like action from ago ; and prosecu ri^ht, tion from the Latin sequor, which is our word seek. Hence the Latin ac tree. The tree then was named from its leaf. Fir has a similar origin and signification. cuso, to accuse, to throw upon, to press or load with a charge. The Saxon It is probable or rather certain that some natural saca. contention, suit in law, is synonymous with cause, and from the root objects, as plants and minerals, received their names from their supposed qualities ; as in ages of otseek, sequor. It is the English sake. The word thingm nearly synonymous with cause and sake. See Thing ignorance end superstition, men might ascribe effects to them, by mistake. The whole history of magic and enchantment leads us to this conclusion. tn the Dictionary. Minerals are, in many instances, named from their obvious qualities, as The piimary sense of time, luck, chance, fortune, is to fall, to come, to arrive, to happen. Tide, time and season, have a like original sense. Tide gold from its yellowness, and iron from its hardness. The names can, in some cases, be traced to their original, as that of gold and of the Latin^ifrin Saxon is time, not a flow of the sea, the latter and mod being a em application of the word. This primary signification secondary unfold rum ; but many of them, are not easily ascertained. Indeed tiie greatest of time will of the specific names of animals, plants and minerals appear to be obto us what I formerly could not understand, and what I could find no person part to explain, that is, why the Latin tempora should signify times and the tem- scure. Some of them appear to have no connection with any family of words It seems that ples. tempora are ihe falls of the head. Hence also we un- in our language, and many of them are derived tons from Asia, and from derstand why tempest is roots which can be found only, if found at all, in the .\siatic languages. naturally deducible from tempus, as the primary sense is to fall, to rusb. These observations and explanations will be sulficient to show the imporHence tempestivus, seasonable, that comes in itance of developing, as far as possible, tiie origin of words, and of good time. Season has a like sense. comparing Hence also we are led to understand, what has seemed the ditlerent uses of the same word indifferent languages, in order to underinexplicable, how the French heureux, stand either tlie philosophy of speech, or the real force and signification of lucky, happy, can be regularly deduced from heure, an AV e hnd that in Greek and hour. words in their practical application. Latin, the prima'ry sense of hour is time, and time is a coming, a If it should be found to be true, that many of the Shemitic verbs are formfalling, a happening, like the English luck, and hence the sense ol lucky hence fortunate and ed with prefixes, Ukc those of the European languages, this may lead to new happy. The ifordfortunate IS precisely of the same character. illustrations of the original languages of the scriptures. In order to determine this fact, it will be useful to examine whether the Chaldee and Hebrew The primary sense of the Shemitic lan davar, or althavar, corresponds most precisely with that of eausc and 3 is not often a prefix answering to be in tlie Teutonic languages whether thing in EngUsh, that is, to sUain, Hence it signifies, to speak, and in Ch. and Syr. J and 3 are not prefixes answering to the ga and ge of the Gothic and Teuurge, drive, tall or ruali. to lead to direct, to whether T, and n, and I, a dialectical form of D, do not coincide govern. As a noun, it signifies a word, that which is tonic uttered a thing, cause or matter, tliat is. that which with the Gothic du, the Saxon laken facts, and he, a.s well as Whifalls very short of truth in a most the words used in relation to the species, the imai, is the time of their dis:'

Is not the distributive effect of either and every, such a* to demand a singu' The lar verb? So in the following: judicial and every other power is accountable to the legislative." Palet), Phil. 6. 8. NoTK 2. Wiien names and substitutes belonging to different persons, are thus joined, the plural substitute must be of the first person in preference to the second and third, and of the second in preference to the third. /, you and he are represented by ive ; you and he, by you. Pope in one of " Either hi, letters makes you or / to be represented by ice or you. you or j ^j.^ ijQj jij JQ^jg ^^.j([j jj^j, Qtij(.r." The sentence is an awkward one, and not to be imitated. Rule VU. When an affirmation or predicate refers to one subject only among a number, which are separately named in the singular number, the subjects are joined by the alternative or, or nor, with a verb, substitute and name in the singular number; as, " Either John or Peter was at the Exchange yesterday; but neither John nor Peter is there to day." Errors. " A circle or square are the same in idea." Locke, 2. 8. ' But whiteness or redness are not in the porphyry." Ibm. " Neither of them [Tillotson and Temple,] arc remarkable for precision." lair. Substitutes for sentences, whether they represent a single clause, or the Locke, 1. 2. parts of a compound sentence, are always in the singular number; as, "It is covery." That any thing can exist unthout existing in space, is to my mind in true indeed that fnany have neglected opportunities of raising themselves honor and to wealth, and rejected the kindest offers of fortune." Ramcomprehensible." Darwin, Zoon. sect. li. Here the definitive suhstitutePto " It is " Any thing can exist bier, jVo. 58. Here it and that refer to the clauses which follow may be transferred to a place next before the verb true that, many have rejected the kindest offers," &c. without existing in space," that [whole proposition] is incomprehensible. Rule IV. The infinitive mode may be the nominative to a personal Rule VUl. Collective or aggiegate names, comprehending two or verb ; as, *' to see is desiraldo ;" " to 'lie is the inevitable lot of men." Sonie- more individuals under a term in liio singular number, have a verb or sub" to be blind is calamitimes an attribute is joined with the infinitive ; as, stitute to agree with them in the ..iingular or plural ; as, the council is or In this case the attribute has no name expressed to which it refers are unanimous ; the company was or ivere collected ; this people, or these tous." The proposition is abstract, and applicable to any human being, but not ap- people. No precise rule can be given to direct, in every case, which number is to plied to any. Rule V. In some cases the imperative verb is used without a definite be used. Much regard is to be had to usage, and to the unity or plurality nominative ; as, " I will not take any thing that is thine sauc only that of idea. In general, modern practice inchnes to the use of the plural verb Gen. xiv. 23. 24. and substitute; as may he seen in the daily use of clergy, nobility, court, which the young men have eaten." " Israel burned none, save Hazor Josh. xi. 13. council, commonalty, audience, enemy and the like. only." " I would that all were such as I am, "The clergy began to withdraw themselves from the temporal courts." except these bonds, .ficts xxvi. 29. " Our ideas are movements of the nerves of sense, as of the Blackstone's Comni. Introduction. optio nerve in " Let us take a view of the recollecting visible ideas, suppose of a triangular piece of ivory. principal incidents, attending the nobility, exDarwin. Zoon. sect. 39. clusive of their capacity as hereditary counselors of the crown." This use of certain verbs in the imperative is very frequent, and there is a Blackstone's Comm. 1. 12. " The Ibm. peculiar felicity in being thus able to use a verb in its true sense and with commonalty are divided into several degrees." for the verb is thus left its proper object, without specifying a nominative "The enemy were driven from their works." I may sa\'e or except, or you to the first, second or third person. applicable Portuguese Msia. .Mickle. ](>3. If we examine these sentences, we shall or we may suppose. "The chorus /)re/)a>e resistance at his first approach the chorus smgs may except, be convinced of the propriety of the idiom; for the ideas require no appli- of the battle the chorus entertains the stage." Johnson's Life of JUilton. " The carion to any person whatever. nobility are the pillars to support the throne." Rule VI. When the .same thing is affirmed or predicated of two or Blackstone's Comm. 1. 2. more subjects, in the singular number, the nominatives are joined by the Party and army, in customary language, are joined with a verb in the Constitution cannot be plural. Church may be singucopulative and, with a verb agreeing with them in the plural number; as,] singular number. " John and Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford." In this sentence, rm-| lar or plural. JUankind is almost always plural. dence at Oxford is a predicate common to three persons ; and instead of The most common and palpable mistakes in the application of this rule, octhree affirmations John resides at Oxford, Thomas resides at Oxibrd, Peter cur in the use of sort and kind, with a plural attribute these sort, those resides at Oxfoid, the three names are joined by and, and one verb in the kind. This fault infects the works of our best writers; but these words are plural applied to the whole number. strictly singular, and ought so to be used. " Reason and truth constitute intellectual When a collective name is preceded by a definitive which clearly limits gold, which defies destrucJohnson. " Why aie whiteness unA coldness snow?" Locke. the sense of the word to an aggregate with an idea of unity, it requires a verb tion." "Your /o( and minf, in this respect, have been very different." Cowp. and substitute to agree witii it in the singular number; as, a company of Lei. 38. t rt fA/s people i.< become troop of cavalry i/'os raised troops teas detache(l Note 1. The rule for the use of a plural verb with two or more names a great nation ; that assembly was numerous ; " a government established in the singular number, connected by and, is laid down by critics with tool by that people." Blackstone's Comm. 1. 2. and universality. On original principles, all the names, much positiveness Yet our language seems to be averse to the use of if, as the substitute for " How except the first, are in the objecMve case for it is probable that and contains names, even thus limited by a, this or that. long will this people " John and Thomas and Peter reside at in it the verb add. York," on prim- provoke me, and how long will it be ere they will believe me for all the itive principles must be thus resolved "John, add Thomas, add Petei- re-i signs that I have shewed among them ?" ,\'um. xiv. 11. " Liberty should But without resorting to first principles, which arc now lost each every individual of a people ; as they all share one common nature." side at York." or obscured, the use of the singular verb may be justified by considering the; Spectator, JVo. 287. In these passages, it in the place of they, would not be verb to be understood after each name, and that which is expressed, agree- i-elished by an English ear nor is it ever used in similar cases.* " Nor were the ing only with the last as, young fellows so wholly lost to a] Rule IX. When the nominative consists of several words, and tlie last sense of right, as pride and conceit has since made them affect to be." Ram-i of the names is in the plural number, the verb is commonly in the plural That is, as pride has and as conceit has. " Their safety and bier, JVo. 97. "The number of also; as, "Apart of the exports consist of raw silk." w^elfare is most concerned." Spectator, JVo. 121. In our best authors the "Of which seeming oysters increase." Golds. Anim. JVat. vol. 4, ch. 3. singular verb is fiequent in such sentences.} we have no other measure, but such as the train of our ideas equality " Tlie What will the hypercritic say to this sentence, " Either sex and every age have in our memories." Locke, '2. 14.21. greater part of lodged j/'os engaged in the pursuits of industry." Cribbon, Rom. Emp. ch. 10. philosophers have acknowledged the excellence of this government." Anarch, vol. 5. 2T2. Rule X. Pronouns or substitutes must agree with the names they rep^ Provided that, says Johnson, is an adverbial expression, and we some resent, in number, gender and person ; as, times fee provided numbered among the conjunctions, as its correspondent word is in French. What strange work has been made with (irunmar!

.

.

.

'

;

m

'

;

;

;

]

1

;

;

writers.

* example an evidence that mine is in the possessive case The Romans used a greater laUtude in joining plurals with collective " also a very common practice with the best Greek and Roman names, than we can. Magna j^ars in villis repleti cibo vinoque." Liv. 2. J\Iens enim, et ratio, et consilium, in senibps esf. Cicero, de 26. Here is an attribute plural of the masculine gender, agreeing with a, " Scd etiam ipsius terra vis ac natura delected. Senec. ca. V). Ibm. 15 noun in the singular, of the feminine gender.t

Is this last

I

i

This was

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.1 Cor. ix. 13. iheiu that do examine me is this." ' Soul. ix. 8. These arc not the children of God." ' Speak to the children of Israel and say to them, when ye come into the A'unih. xv. 18. land whither 1 bring i/ou." "This is the heirVcome, let u5 kill him, and let us seize on his inherit.Matt. xxi. 38. ance." " Ksther put on her royal apparel she obtained favor in his sight then'

Mine

ttiitiwcr to

tile

"A

king said unto her." river went out of Eden

verb, and the other is governed by the verb or a preposition in the " objective case, or by a noun in the possessive as, Locke, whom there is no reason to suspect of favoring idleness, has advanced." Ramb. 89. Here reason is the nominative to is, and whom is governed by suspect. " Take Geti. xxii. Here are thy only son Isaac, uJhoiu thou lovcst." two substitutes, one the nominative to the verb, and the other governed by it in the objective. " God is the Esth, v. sovereign of the universe, whose majesty ought to fill usto the;'

to

water the garden, and

it

sec in periods, a third clause introduced within a setirst, each with a distinct substitute for a " Paley, Evid. sect. 3. nominative; as, Those modilications of any simple idea, which, as has been said, I call simple modes, are distinct ideas." A letter, which is just received, gives us the news." Locke, 2. 13. Involution to this extent may be used with caution, without thou who rtilest in the heavens." embarrassing H'lio and whom arc exclusively the substitutes for persons; whose is of a period ; but beyond this, if ever used, it can hardly fail to occasion obscuIndeed the third member included in a second, must be very short, 11 Renders, and as correctly applied to things as to persons. rity. ' The question whose solution I require." Dryden. or it will perplex the reader. " When " That (brtjidden .Milton. .Substitutes are sometimes made to precede their )irincipals thus, fruit ji'/iose mortal taste." (Joldsmith. a rnan declares in autunni, when he is eating them, or in spring when there whose imagined suns." system " These are the arc none, that he loves grapes ." Locke, 2. 20. But this arrangement is charming agonies of love, Thomson. usually awkward and seldom allowable. Whose miseries deligh." Rule XIII. When there are antecedents in difTcrent persons, to which It, though neutei-, is used as the substitute for infant or child ; the disa nominative substitute I'efers, the substitute and verb following tinction of sex in the lirst period of life being disregarded. may "agree Formerly which was used as a substitute ia: pensons ; as appears "from old with either, though usage may sometimes oH'er a preference as, I am authors, and especially in the vulgar version of the scriptures mighty! the Lord that make "" things; that stretch forth the heavens alone; that men which were of old." But this use of the word is entirely discarded, jspread abroad the earth," &c. Isa. xliv. Here /and Lord are of di(li;rcnt W?i.nf , keep iny commandments." "0 righteous father, the world hath not known thee." Sometimes the object and often the objective case of substitutes precedes " The the goveining verb as, spirit of truth, whoin the world cannot rf" fVhoni ceive." ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." Whom and u-hieh, when in the objective case, always precede the verb. In verse, a greater license of transposition is used, than in prose, and nouns are often placed before the governing verb. " But through the heartpart."'

jectives,

and may precede the noun

it

qualifies

;

as, a

worthy man.

XX

Rule XXIII. One

Regimen or Government.nounsignifying the

same thing with another, or de-

scriptive of it, may be in apposition to it ; that is, may stand in a like character or case, without an intervening verb; as, Paul, the apostle; John, the baptist; Newton, the philosopher; Chathauj, the orator and statesman.1. In the Ibllowing sentence, a noun in the plural stands in appotwo nouns in the singular, joined by an alternative. "The terms of our law will hardly find words that answer them in the Spanish or Ital-

;

Note

sition to

Should jealousy its venom once diffuse." Thomson. " She with extended arms his aid TbTU. implores." infinites together ; nay, make one infinite infinitely bigA noun with whatever, ichatsoever or whichei^er, preceding, is placed beger than another: absurdities too gross to be confuted." Locke, 2. 17. 20. fore the governing verb as, "whatsoever positive ideas we have." Here the absurdities are the whole preceding propositions. Locke, 2. 17. " You are too humane and considerate; things few people can be charged Note 1. We have some verbs which govern two words in the objective with." Pope Let. Here things is in opposition to /iHmnnf and considaate. case ; as, " Did I Such a construction may be justified, when the ideas are correct, but it is request thee, maker, from my clay not very common. To mould me man?" Milton, 10. 744. " The Dutch were "God seems to have made him what he was." formerly in possession of the coasting trade and freight Life of Cowper. of almost all other trading nations; they were also the bankers for all Eu"Ask him his opinion." " Vou have asked me the neits." Will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical, for "ask oj him his rope advantages by which they have gained immense sums." Zimmerman's Survey, 170. Here advantages is put in apposition to the two first opinion ?" I appiehend this to be a mistake. According to the true idea ol members of the sentence. the government of a transitive verb, him must be the object in the phrase Rule XXJV. When two nouns are used, one denoting the possessor, under consideration, as much as in this, " Ask him for a guinea ;" or in this. the other the thing possessed, the name of the possessor precedes the otberl " ask him to go." " In in the possessive case This idiom is very ancient, as we often see it in the Latin. " Intcrrogaas, my Father's house are many mansions." Men's bravery ; England's fleet ; a Christian's hope ; Washington's pru- tus sententiam." Liv. 26. 33. " Se id Scipionem orare." Ibm. 27. 17. "Auxilia regem orabant." Ibm. lib. 2S. 5. The idiom in both languages dence. Note 1. When the Oiing possessed is obvious, it is usual to omit the had a common origin. '' He is at the PresiNote 2. Some verbs were formerly used as transitive, which are no noun ; as, " Let us go to St. Paul's," that is, church ; " he him" " flee thee away" longer considered as such ; as, dent's," that is, house. " he was swerved" " the sum was repented " Nor think a lover's are but fancied woes." amounted," &c. which are held imC'owper. " Whose book is this ? William's." That is, a lover's woes. proper. " Cease Note 2. When the possessor is described by two or more nouns, the Cease, however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers. Edward, the this impious rage." Miltmi. " Her lips their music cease." Hoole's Tasso. sio'n of the possessive is generally annexed to the last; as, Bacon on Empire. Rule XXVII. Intransitive verbs are followed by the name of the act se'cond of England's Queen." " In Edward the third's time." Blackstone's Comm. b. 1, ch. 2. or effect, which the verb expresses in action ; as, " to live a life of virtue ;" " John the Baptist's head." Matt. xiv. " to die the death of the righteous ;" " to dream dreams ," " to run a race ;" " jj member Burke. " to sleep the sleep of death." of parliament's paying court to his constituents." We observe, in these examples, life is the name of living supposed to be is represented as belonging to a number severBut if the thing possessed " He of the possessive is repeated with each ; as, complete, as race is the name of the act of running when accomplished. ally specified, the sign " It was Note. Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using, after verbs transitive has the surgeon's and the physician's advice." my father's, mothor intransitive, certain nouns which are not the objects of the verb, nor of er's, and uncle's opinion."* Note 3. When of is used before the possessive case of nouns, there is precisely the same sense, but which are either the names of the result of " Vital air the verb's "A action, or closely connected with it. a double possessive, the thing possessed not being repeated; as, Examples guinea *' " a crown Combustion, as now understood, was a weighs five penny weight, six grains;" was a discovery o/i-*)"ics?/ey's." weighs nineteen penny " a piece of cloth measures ten yards." discovery of Lavoisier's." The sense of which is, that vital air was one of weight;"* "And on their hinges grate harsh thunder." "And rivers run potable This idiom prevents the repetition of the the discoveries of Priestley. " The "Groves whose rich trees wept same word. crispid brook ran nectar." gold." Milton. Note 4. The possessive may be supplied by of, belbre the name of the odorous gums and balm." "Grin a ghastly smile." " Her But (/ does not always denote of a christian." Thomson. lips blusli deeper sweets." possessor; as, "the hope "To ascend or descend a flight of stairs, a ladder, or a mountain." or in, concerning, &c. and in these possession it denotes also consisting of, " To cost a Thus cloth of guinea." cases, its place cannot be supplied by the possessive case. Under this rule or the following may be arranged these expressions. wool, cannot be converted into wool's cloth ; nor a cup of water, into water's "When matters have been brought this cup ; nor an idea of an angel, into an angel's idea; nor the house of Lards, "Let them go their way." " We turn our into the Lord's house. length." Lavoisier, Translation. eyes this way or that Rule XXV. Participles are often used for nouns, and have the like way." " Reckoning any tvay from ourselves, a yard, a mile, &c." Locke, 2. 17. effect in governing them in the possessive case; as, "A courier arrived Similar to this idiom are tlie phrases, to go west or east pointing north from Madrid, with an account of his Catholic majesty's having agreed to " In case of his Catholic the neutrality." majesty's dying without issue." or south, north-west or south-east, and the hke, which I find to be Saxori " Averse to the nation's itself in another war." Hume, Contin. phrases and very ancient. involving " Who can have no notion of the same In some instances verbs of this sort are followed by two objects; as, "a vol. 7, 6.2, ch. I. person's possessSpectator, JV'u. 150. ring cost the purchaser an eagle." ing different accomplishments." Rule XXVIII. Names of certain portions of time and space, and espeThis is the true idiom of the language ; yet the omission of the sign of the possessive is a common fault among modern writers, who learn the Ian cially words denoting continuance of time or progression, are used without a " governing word ; as, Jacob said, I will serve thee seven years for Rachel.'" " And dust shalt thou eat all the " And he abode with * days of thy life." The contrary rule in Murray is egregiously wrong as exemplified in " This was this phrase, my father, mother and uncle's advice." This is not * The radical idea of weight is carry, bear or sustain, fiom the Saxon When we s. has an anomalpus past tense, and is followed by the infinitive without to; in short it has the form of an In these and similar piissages, the object of the verb is a whole auxiliary, and in the German, it is classed with proposi-! " 1 dare tion or statement, in a sentence or clause of a sentence. In this passage,! the auxiliaries. Examples; engage." Pope's Works, Letter to " I dare not confess." " I dare "Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish," the fact excepted is af- Gay. Swift to Gay. say." Locke. "But firmed in a single verb. Take away this fact " that you shall repent," and my Lord, you dare not do either." Junius, Let. 28. "Durst I venture to the consequence must be, you will perish.' This is oiie of the modes of ab-' deliver my own sentiments." Hume. Es. 7 breviation in language which I have .so frequently mentioned, and which The past tense, when regular, is followed by the infinitive with the usual " You have (/aicd to constitutes a principal excellence of the throw more than a suspicion iprefix. mine." English. We observe, in some of the passages here cited, the pronoun that, after !-^"""*' i*''- 20- The same remark may be extended to the upon tense. future the verb. This is probably the true He will not dare to attack his adversarj-." original construction ; the substitute, In like manner, need, when a transitive verb, is that, poinfing to the whole following clause. " He could do no regular in its inflections mighty works " A man needs more " The there, save that, [except that single fact which follows,] he laid his hand as, prudence" army needed provisions." But on a few sick and healed them." when intransiUve, it drops the personal terminations in the present tense, is formed like an auxiliary, and is followed by a verb, without the Note. It may be here observed that in some of the prefix ^oy passages cited the as. " need be afraid he shall not have scope enoiiub." Locke, 2. 22. 9. verb has no definitive nominative; the rerhs save, Nobody except, suppose, add, ^c. "I need not y^o any farther." ]bm. " Nor need we uonrffr." Ibm. "The are in the imperative mode, but the address is not made to any particular " There need be no dilfiperson or persons. .And this probably has led authors to cla.ss save and ex-\ lender need be under no fear." Anarch, ch. 69. " She need Bcddoes, Hygeia,l. 21. cept among conjunctions, preposifions or adverbs, or to consider them .is culty." dig no more." Spectator, " A man need not be used adverbially for it has been already observed that the class of adverbs .Xo. 121. uneasy on these grounds." Boswell, 3. 41. " He need not has been a sort of common sink to receive all words which authors have urge to this honorable court." Judge Chase. not! In the use of this verb, there is another been able to comprehend. irregularity, which is pecuhar. ^eib being without a nominative, expressed or implied. "Whereof here Is it not strange that suppose, add, admit, allow, and other verbs which 's"'* ieerfsno account." are constantly used in the same manner, should have hitherto "There is no evidence of the JUilton, P. L. 4. 235. escaped the This is an established use oi need. same doom? In the passages above cited from fact, and there needs none." Paley, suppose is used pre Note 2, The infinitive mode has. in its sense and use, a near affinity to ci.sely in the same manner, as except and save in others. Indeed nothin; a noun and often has the construction of one. but the most inexcusable It is much employed to intronegligence could have led critics to this classifica' duce sentences which are the nominatives to verbs, as well as the objects lion oisave and except for in many passagesof scripture, these very words them as, " To tmll is present with me, but to perform that which in the sense in which they are called conjunctions or adverbs, have an ob following ^"^ '^'^ ''.''** |n'J"''J^'^ is the nondnative to is, and the ject following them, like other transitive verbs as, " Israel burned none ofl'* ^"^ ' ''"'' '" them, .sfltie Hazor only." Josh. xi. 13. Ye shall not come into the land, second begins the sentence which is the object after^'nd. Note 3. A common mistake in the use of the infinitive is, to use the ,save Caleb and Joshua." JVum. xiv. 30. I would that all were as I am perfect tense after another verb in the past time, when in fast one of the except these bonds." Jlcts, xxvi. verbs in the past time would correctly express the sense thus, " It would This use of verbs without a definite nominative occasions no inconvenhave been no difficult matter to have compiled a volume of such amusing preience; for the address is not made to any particular person, but is equally Cowper to Hill, Let. 29. Here the first verb states the time apphcable to any one who will apply it. See the subject further expl.iined cedents." under rule 38. The following passage in Locke, 2. 27. 2. contains another past when it was not difTicult to compile a volume at that time the compilation could not be past; the verb therefore should have been to verb used in the same manner " Could two bodies be in the same compile, place at which is the same time, then those two parcels of matter must be one and the present and always indefinite. same, In the following passage, we have a like use of verbs which is correct. take them great or little." The error of con.sidering .wre as an adverb or conjunction, has however j" A free pardon was granted to the son, who was known to have offered inproduced a multitude of mistakes in construction, "as in these passages; jdignities to the body of Varus." Murphy's Tacitus, ti. I. Here the offer" Save he who " Which no man was a fact precedent to the time stated in the verb was reigns above." Milton. knowcth, saving ing of indignities he that receiveth it." Hev. ii. 17. The nominative he cannot be reconciled to known ; a!id therefore the verb, to have offered, is well employed. any principle of true construction. He ought to he him, the obitc' after the Rule XXXIII. The infinitive signifying motive or purpose, oflen inVerb. Except might have been used, anri'this word beine called a prcposi troduces a clause or sentence which is not the no.ninative or objective to any tion, would have required after it the " To see how far this But both words are objective case, reaches, and what are the causes of w'roiij, Jyerb; as, verbs, and ought to have the same construction. I'judgment, we must remember that things are judged good or bad in a doublefear lie will banish

"If he escapes being banished by

independent, standing as a substitute for a whole ten attempts that you can find the case you say nothing of those numerous points of conduct

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GRA3IMAR OF THETo pretenl property from being too unequally Locke, 2. 21. 61. distributed, no pei-son should be allowed to dispose of his possessions to thesense."

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shalt thou do unto the Levitcs, touchiiig their charge."

prejudice of his la^vful lieirs." Anarch, eh. 62. Note. This ionn of sentence seems to be derived from the use oi for before the verb,y'()r to set. The modern practice is to prefix some noun, as " With a view to ill order to see, or prevent." Rule