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This article was downloaded by: [The University Of Melbourne Libraries]On: 12 September 2014, At: 09:28Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK
Journal of Cultural GeographyPublication details, including instructions for authorsand subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjcg20
Waterfalls, science andaestheticsBrian J. Hudsona
a School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,AustraliaPublished online: 24 Sep 2013.
To cite this article: Brian J. Hudson (2013) Waterfalls, science and aesthetics, Journalof Cultural Geography, 30:3, 356-379, DOI: 10.1080/08873631.2013.828482
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Waterfalls, science and aesthetics
Brian J. Hudson*
School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Queensland University of
Technology, Brisbane, Australia
Waterfalls and rapids are a subject of study by scientists and scholars
from a variety of academic and professional backgrounds. Unlike cave
research, known as speleology, which also involves many different
disciplines, the study of waterfalls is not generally regarded as a distinct
branch of knowledge. Long neglected as subjects of research, waterfalls
have received considerable attention since the 1980s. This paper traces
the study of waterfalls from the late eighteenth century, a period when
both a scientific and an aesthetic interest in landscape developed in
Europe, to the present. The work of geographers, geologists and others
who studied landforms and landscapes is examined, with particular
attention to those who expressed a special interest in waterfalls, notably
Alexander von Humboldt. The study argues that the scientific and
aesthetic approaches to landscape research are not incompatible and
supports the view that both are necessary for a full understanding
and appreciation of the environment in which we live.
Keywords: waterfalls; landscape research; science and aesthetics;
Humboldt
‘‘. . . the interesting phenomenon of cataracts’’
*Alexander von Humboldt (1821, p. 66).
Introduction
Despite the interest shown by Alexander von Humboldt, waterfalls, longappreciated by painters and poets, were largely neglected by scientists and
scholars until relatively recently. In contrast, other landforms, such as
mountains and caves, received considerable attention from researchers
from a wide range of disciplines, including geography. Questions which are
raised by ‘‘the phenomenon of cataracts’’ relate to their formation, their
significance within the ecosystem, their economic value and their role in the
history and cultures of the regions in which they are found. The following
discussion suggests that studies of waterfalls should be undertaken within acomprehensive framework that includes a consideration of their aesthetic
*Brian J. Hudson is Adjunct Professor in the School of Civil Engineering
and Built Environment at Queensland University of Technology, 2 George
Street, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, Qld. 4001, Australia. Ph: �61 7 3138 5375
Email: [email protected]
Journal of Cultural Geography, 2013
Vol. 30, No. 3, 356�379, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08873631.2013.828482
# 2013 JCG Press, Oklahoma State University
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qualities as well as their geographical significance and scientific aspects, such
as their geology and ecology. Humboldt raised the question of terminology
in relation to waterfalls, commenting on the vagueness of words such as
‘‘cataract’’, ‘‘cascade’’, ‘‘falls’’ and ‘‘rapids’’ (Humboldt 1821, p. 57). In this
essay, the word ‘‘waterfall’’ embraces all of these fluvial phenomena. Whilefocusing on waterfalls, this paper supports the view expressed by Laura
Dassow Walls, that ‘‘We in the twenty-first century need to reclaim
Humboldt’’ (Walls 2009, p. x), which ‘‘means revisioning science as an
intrinsic constituent of the humanities, reading beyond the ‘two cultures’
to grasp a worldview that knew how to distinguish the natural and social
sciences, the arts and the humanities, but knew also how fully each
interpenetrated all the others’’ (Walls 2009, p. xi). Arguing for synthesis in
the study of waterfalls, this essay refers to the literature about mountain andcave research, as well as on that relating specifically to falls and rapids.
Mountain geography and waterfall studies
Mountains have been studied intensively by geographers, geomorpholo-
gists and others (Barsch and Caine 1984; Friend 2003; Smethurst 2000).
David Smethurst observed, ‘‘Scholars have studied the mountain world
for better than two centuries, yet no agreed-upon body of mountain
literature has emerged. Instead, there is a vast array of scatteredpublications dealing with high places . . .’’ (Smethurst 2000, p. 35). A
response to this situation is the proposed new field of study known as
‘‘montology’’ (Friend 2003). Smethurst’s words equally apply to the study
of waterfalls. The array of publications on waterfalls may not be as vast as
that devoted to mountain topics, but it is certainly scattered. As is
demonstrated later in this essay, papers on many aspects of waterfalls are
found in scholarly journals of various kinds. Geographers are amongst
the writers who have contributed to this body of literature, but waterfallshave also been the subject of study by scientists and scholars from fields as
diverse as geology, freshwater ecology and tourism. Indeed, much of the
literature on waterfalls is in the form of tourist guidebooks designed for
the use of ‘‘waterfall lovers’’ who engage in ‘‘waterfalling’’, to use a term
in current use (Hudson 1998). Some of these guidebooks, though not
intended as scholarly or scientific works, are written by geographers with
specialised knowledge of waterfalls. The waterfall guides by Gregory
Plumb (2005, 2008) in the USA and Florian Spichtig and ChristianSchwick (2007) in Switzerland are examples of these.
In view of arguments in support of a ‘‘need to develop a mountain
geography literature that expands the study of mountains to include the
political, economic, cultural and social dimensions of their environments
and peoples’’ (Smethurst 2000, p. 35), it might be suggested that a field
known as waterfall geography should be similarly developed. Indeed, we
could take the argument further and propose the recognition of a new
Journal of Cultural Geography 357
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branch of knowledge equivalent to montology, or to speleology, the study
of caves, a field of research and scholarship devoted to waterfalls instead
of the underground world.
Waterfalls, caves and their study
Both caves and waterfalls have long been popular with tourists and day
trippers with a taste for the curiosities and beauties of nature (Erikstad
2008; Hose 2008; Hudson 1998).
Since the nineteenth century, largely due to the work of Frenchman
Edouard-Alfred Martel (1859�1938), the systematic exploration and
study of caves has become widely recognised as a distinct branch ofknowledge which became known as speleologie, a word coined by
archaeologist Emile Riviere. Today, speleology brings together diverse
disciplines, including geography, geology, geomorphology, climatology,
hydrology, botany, zoology, chemistry, palaeontology, archaeology,
anthropology, tourism studies and the study of rock art. Cave exploration
and surveying continue to be important aspects of speleology, while
caving and potholing, or spelunking as it is called in the USA, remain
popular recreational activities.Like caves, waterfalls continue to attract visitors who are content to
enjoy their natural beauty passively, and others who use waterfall sites to
engage in pursuits ranging from moderate exploration, bathing and
photography to extreme sports such as white water rafting, canyoning,
rock climbing, ice climbing and abseiling. Recently, however, waterfalls
have received increased attention from scientists and other scholars from a
wide variety of backgrounds. This paper explores the wide range of
waterfalls research, a field probably as diverse as speleology. Seventy yearsago these popular landscape features were largely neglected as subjects of
serious study, something that was noted with disapproval by one eminent
geomorphologist who wrote:
Waterfall sites more than any other geomorphic feature attract and hold the
interest of the general public. Because they have such a popular approval
waterfalls are not given serious attention by some students of systematic
geomorphology. This attitude is not to be commended. Waterfalls are
significant items for geomorphic investigation. (Engeln 1942, p. 179)
They are also significant items for investigation by geographers, a fact
appreciated by Alexander von Humboldt, the polymath considered bysome to be ‘‘[t]he founder of modern geography’’ (Crone 1970, p. 14).
Waterfalls and cultural geography
Humboldt’s intellectual curiosity was unbounded, and it is not surprising
that waterfalls were among the features of the landscape that interested
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him (Humboldt 1821, p. 66). Indeed, Humboldt lived at a time when a
taste for landscape beauty was fashionable, and waterfalls were widely
admired for their sublime and picturesque qualities (Hudson 2000, 2012).
Cascades and cataracts were commonly chosen as subjects by painters and
poets of that Romantic period. In view of the interest shown by
Humboldt, it is surprising that, until late in the twentieth century,
waterfalls were relatively neglected by geographers, both those specialising
in geomorphology and those whose interests were mainly in the cultural
landscape (Engeln 1942; Hudson 2000; Young 1985). For cultural
geographers, waterfalls and rapids are significant for a variety of reasons.
As barriers to navigation, they have influenced patterns and modes of
transport with consequences that have affected economic development
and the location and growth of human settlements. This was one of the
great concerns of nineteenth-century European explorers and others
involved in the ‘‘opening up’’ of the African interior where river transport
was often hindered by falls and rapids. In the view of British geographer
George Chisholm, for example, ‘‘The most signal example of the effect of
waterfalls and rapids in retarding the development of civilisation is
undoubtedly presented by the continent of Africa, the ‘darkness’ of which
is almost entirely due to this cause’’ (Chisholm 1885, p. 420). Since
Chisholm’s time, ironically, many of Africa’s falls and rapids have been
harnessed to generate light and power. Some have become important
tourist attractions. Indeed, Victoria Falls (Figure 1) is one of the two or
three great cataracts in the world that can be classed as tourist
destinations; the others being Niagara and, possibly, Iguassu Falls
(Hudson 1998).
Figure 1. Victoria Falls, on the boundary between Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Photograph by the author.
Journal of Cultural Geography 359
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Waterfalls can have huge economic impacts. Their exploitation for
power generation and tourism has stimulated local, regional and national
economies, with notable consequences for industry, settlement patterns and
urban development. Niagara Falls (Figure 2), Victoria Falls, Yosemite
National Park, various fall line cities, Switzerland and Norway are among
the many different geographical examples of this. Several of the world’s
greatest waterfalls are located on international boundaries, for example,
Niagara, Victoria and Iguassu Falls, a fact that has serious implications for
their exploitation and management. The influences of waterfalls on cultures
around the world range from the economic to the religious and artistic.
Some waterfalls are sites where opportunities for fishing are particularly
favourable, as at salmon leaps on numerous European and North American
rivers. A notable African example is the Wagenia fishery at Boyoma Falls
on the Congo River near Kisangani. Celilo Falls on the Columbia River,
USA, was an important tribal fishing site until it was flooded when the
Dalles Dam was constructed in 1957. Similarly, the traditional Laotian
fishery at the Khone Falls on the Mekong River is now under threat from a
planned hydroelectric power scheme (Baird et al. 2001).
Figure 2. This early image of Niagara Falls shows the cataract before its setting
was transformed by urban development associated with tourism and industry. The
height of the falls is greatly exaggerated. (From Louis Hennepin’s Nouvelle
decouverte, Utrecht, 1697.)
360 B.J. Hudson
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Problems such as these raise questions relating to ownership and
control. Having ownership of a waterfall by possessing the land and water
in which it is located does not give complete control of it. The volume and
quality of the water passing over the falls are strongly influenced by what
happens upstream, something that is largely determined by other ownersof land and water rights elsewhere. The abstraction of water from rivers
and streams for a wide range of purposes has reduced the flow of water at
many falls, while dams built downstream have submerged others.
Fortunately, many of the world’s most spectacular and beautiful waterfalls
are protected by inclusion in national parks, nature reserves and other
conservation areas, but even in these preserves, pressure for commercial
development, including tourism, is commonly a threat to the environment.
The problem is exacerbated where, as is common, a river or stream formsa boundary between countries, states, local authority areas or private
properties.
The names of past property owners are preserved in the names of some
waterfalls, such as Dillon Falls and Cline Falls, both in Oregon. The
names of waterfalls, like those of other places, are of very diverse origin,
and this is an area of toponymy that has received attention recently
(Hudson 2013). In many different cultures, the naming of waterfalls is
commonly associated with historical incidents, and, particularly, mythsand legends. Many falls have important religious significance. Some, such
as the falls at Nachi in Japan, Tirupati in India and Villa Bonheur in
Haiti, are places of pilgrimage. Waterfalls have inspired artists in cultures
as far apart in space and time as the Song Dynasty China (960�1276 AD)
and the eighteenth-and nineteenth-century Europe, in both of which
tumbling rivers and streams were popular subjects for poets and landscape
painters. In the world of music, too, waterfalls have a role which is notably
expressed in the songs of the Kaluli people of Papua, New Guinea (Feld1981). Perhaps nowhere is the cultural importance of waterfalls in some
traditional societies better illustrated than in Harner’s study of an
indigenous tribe in Ecuador: The Jivaro; People of the Sacred Waterfalls
(Harner 1984). In today’s world, the importance of waterfalls is
particularly well recognised in connection with their roles as providers
of renewable energy and as resources for the development of ecotourism.
The earlier studies of waterfalls, however, were mainly associated with the
development of geology and geomorphology, and even among scientistsworking in those related fields, cascades and cataracts were, apparently,
not regarded as very significant features of the landscape.
Waterfalls and geomorphological research
Among the few researchers who gave serious attention to waterfalls was
Oscar von Engeln. In addition to the chapter entitled ‘‘Waterfall Sites’’ in
his book Geomorphology: Systematic and Regional, he wrote two papers
Journal of Cultural Geography 361
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on waterfalls which were published in 1929 and 1940 (Engeln 1929, 1940,
1942). The earlier of these papers describes the erosive action of water and
discusses various waterfalls, including Niagara, particularly the role of
stream flow and other agencies in their formation. The later article
considers the development of knickpoints and their relationship to caprock waterfalls. While decrying the neglect of waterfalls as subjects of
research, Engeln acknowledged the contributions of previous scholars
who had studied these landforms, referring to the work of Davis (1884),
Gilbert (1895) and Noyes (1926). He made no mention of books on
waterfalls by authors such as Holley (1883), Gibson (1887) and Rashleigh
(1935), probably because these are mainly descriptive works for the
general reader rather than scientific studies. Chisholm’s paper ‘‘Waterfalls
and rapids’’ published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine was a rarecontribution to scholarly discussion of waterfalls at this time, a broad
study notable for its treatment of both the physical and human
geographical aspects of the subject (Chisholm 1885).
A century later, a writer observed that ‘‘waterfalls remain a very much
neglected aspect of river studies’’ (Young 1985, p. 82). Young mentioned a
few other papers on waterfalls published since Engeln’s time, two
reporting field studies (Schwarzbach 1967; Mainguet 1972), and three
mainly describing laboratory simulation exercises (Philbrick 1970; Hollandand Pickup 1976; Gardner 1983). Young’s 1985 paper is particularly
important for emphasising that cap rock falls exemplified by Niagara,
and commonly described in textbooks, are but one of the several types
of waterfalls, and that many falls are buttressed outward at their base,
instead of overhanging. His paper demonstrates that the formation and
retreat of waterfalls can be caused in a variety of ways, commonly related
to stress distribution in the rockface, and that even the well-known
processes of undercutting are not fully understood. After the publicationof Gilbert’s monograph on Niagara Falls (Gilbert 1895), the formation
and retreat of waterfalls by undercutting was widely accepted as the norm,
and versions of his diagram of the erosion process were reproduced in
numerous textbooks.
The process described by Gilbert was not a new idea. In 1830, Charles
Lyell published the first volume of his Principles of Geology in which he
described in detail the undercutting at cap rock waterfalls (Lyell 1830, pp.
179�180). Another observation on waterfalls that Lyell noted was theformation of travertine and tufa deposits as seen at ‘‘the cataract of
Tivoli’’ (Lyell 1830, p. 208), a phenomenon that had long been recognised.
Lyell was a proponent of uniformitarianism, first propounded by
Hutton in 1785, and later disseminated by Playfair (Hutton 1788, 1795;
Playfair 1802). In contrast to proponents of catastrophism, uniformitar-
ianists saw waterfalls as ever-evolving landforms where natural processes
continue to act as they have always acted, operating on the land surface in
a way that contributes to its disintegration and reduction. Thornton
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Force, a waterfall in Yorkshire, provided Playfair with striking evidence
that supports Hutton’s theory (Playfair 1822, p. 225). Here, Playfair
observed an unconformity which indicates that geological processes of the
past are the same as those operating today, continued over vast periods of
time. Later, W. M. Davis, the ‘‘father of American geography’’, con-tributed to the discussion of the origins of waterfalls when he considered
the role of stream displacement by deposits of glacial drift (Davis 1884).
The impact of glaciation on waterfall formation and distribution reminds
us of the importance of climate and climate change on stream flows and
fluvial processes. Today, we are witnessing a proliferation of waterfalls in
polar and high mountain regions where ice and snow are in retreat, while
elsewhere, there are signs that the falls are diminishing due to declining
rainfall and removal of vegetation (Hudson 2012).
Waterfalls, geography and aesthetics
While the focus of waterfall research in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries was on their geology, the Scottish geographer, George Chisholm,
extended his study of these landforms to include their broader geogra-
phical significance. After describing the formation and global distribution
of waterfalls and rapids, Chisholm discusses ‘‘the effects of these
obstructions on human intercourse and civilisation’’ (Chisholm 1885, p.417). Surprisingly, he focused his attention only on the disadvantages of
falls and rapids, ignoring entirely their important role as sources of
mechanical and hydroelectric power. He also failed to acknowledge their
growing importance as attractions in the then burgeoning tourism
industry.
The tourism industry which developed in Europe during the eight-
eenth and nineteenth centuries had its origin partly in the Grand Tour
which, at first, involved travellers who went mainly to see places ofcultural significance, such as great cities, famous buildings, classical ruins
and important art collections. Later, however, as the taste for landscape
beauty became fashionable, more tourists travelled to the wild, mountai-
nous regions where waterfalls were among the most popular scenic
attractions (Figure 3). Landscape painters both reflected and stimulated
this interest. Cotman and Turner in Britain and artists belonging to the
Hudson River School in America are among those particularly notable for
their waterfall paintings. Educated travellers and writers of the period,such as Thomas Pennant (1726�1798) and Arthur Young (1741�1820)
expressed an interest in both the aesthetic and the scientific aspects of the
landscapes they saw. Typically, both men took great delight in waterfalls.
Scientists, too, were attracted to these areas in order to study the natural
landscapes on the spot. While making systematic observations for their
scientific purposes, they were also aware of the scenic beauty of the places
they visited. This was the Romantic era when the concepts of the
Journal of Cultural Geography 363
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beautiful, the sublime and the picturesque were important topics of
discussion in intellectual circles (Hudson 2000).
Although the word ‘‘Romanticism’’ is usually associated with the arts,
including literature, painting and music, scholars have recognised ‘‘the
potential interconnections in the Romantic period between literature,
aesthetic theory and the emergence of Earth sciences’’ (Furniss 2010, p.
305). In his study of James Hutton’s Theory of the Earth, Furniss argues
that the author, widely acknowledged as the founder of modern geology,
developed ideas ‘‘that drew on and reconfigured what Heringman calls the
‘geological sublime’*a geo-aesthetic category that was common to the
aesthetic geology and geological aesthetics of the period’’ (Furniss 2010,
p. 307, Herringman 2004). Charles Lyell, like Hutton and Playfair, had
little to say about aesthetics when writing Principles of Geology (Lyell
1830, 1832, 1833), but, in the two volume account of his Travels in North
America, written for ‘‘the general reader’’ (Lyell 1855, vol. 1, p. v), he
remarks on the beauty of some of the landscapes he saw on the journey.
Understandably, he spent much of his time at Niagara Falls, described and
discussed at length in both volumes of his Travels. Apart from writing
extensively on their geological formation and history, Lyell also describes
the aesthetic qualities of the Falls which, ‘‘though continually in motion,
Figure 3. The Cascata delle Marmore was a popular scenic attraction on the
Grand Tour. Originally created by a Roman engineering project in 271 BC, the
waterfall has since been harnessed for hydroelectric power generation. The falls are
turned on for tourists at advertised times. (Photograph courtesy Tourist Office,
Terni.)
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have all the effect of a fixed and unvarying feature in the landscape’’ (Lyell
1855, vol.2, p. 91).
Darwin and Humboldt
Later, geologists who, like Lyell, built on the work of Hutton and Playfair,
broadened their approach to landscape studies, introducing an aestheticdimension to their analyses. Charles Darwin, too, was greatly influenced
by Lyell and took a copy of Principles of Geology with him on his voyage
on the Beagle. Darwin was concerned with the relationship between
science and aesthetics, and Livingstone observes that in the early years of
the scientist’s career, ‘‘there are suggestions that Darwin was already
working toward a scientific explanation of landscape appreciation’’
(Livingstone 2011, p. 108). There is evidence that Darwin’s appreciation
of landscape beauty began to emerge when he was a boy. In a letter writtenin 1838, he recalls a holiday in Wales when he was ten-and-a-half years
old: ‘‘I remember a certain shady green road (where I saw a snake) & a
waterfall with a degree of pleasure, which must be connected with the
pleasure from scenery, though not directly recognized as such’’ (Darwin
2012). Darwin’s record of his scientific travels in 1831�1836 is replete with
detailed observations on scenic qualities of the landscapes he saw, but he
had little to say about waterfalls (Darwin 1961).
In this, he differed from the man who probably had the greatestinfluence on him, Alexander von Humboldt. Darwin declared that
Humboldt, ‘‘like another sun illumines everything I behold’’ (Keynes
2001, p. 42). In his Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions
of the New Continent, Humboldt includes his reflections on ‘‘the
interesting phenomenon of cataracts’’ (Humboldt 1821, p. 66). The
discussion is comprehensive and holistic, reflecting Humboldt’s belief
that the expression of scientific views required a new kind of artistic
writing.
More broadly, Alexander von Humboldt called for a language that would
mirror his conception of nature. He defined nature as a harmonious whole,
a unity in the manifold whose diversity could be explained by universal
constitutive forces (e.g. chemical and physical) operating under different
local circumstances and in varying combinations. (Kenosian, 2004, p. 505)
Humboldt begins by noting the lack of precision in terminology used in
describing waterfalls and rapids:
In hydrographic descriptions of countries, the vague names of cataracts,
cascades, falls and rapids (saltos, chorros, pongos, cachoeiras, and raudales),
which denote those tumultuous movements of water, which arise from very
different circumstances of the ground, are generally confounded with one
another. (Humboldt 1821, p. 57)
Journal of Cultural Geography 365
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Humboldt follows this with his thoughts on a wide range of topics related
to waterfalls and rapids, drawing on examples from various parts of the
world. Variety in formation, processes of erosion, influence of geology,
behaviour of currents, evaporation of droplets in the spray and
consequences of falls for navigation are among the aspects of waterfalls
that Humboldt considers. It is interesting to note that while Humboldt
accepts that flowing water loaded with sand and pebbles is capable of
eroding channels, he believes that large chasms at waterfall sites where the
bedrock is very resistant cannot have been formed in this way and must
have been caused by past convulsions of the earth’s crust. Humboldt also
comments on the visual and aural qualities of falls and rapids. He
observes,
A solitary cataract, like Niagara or the cascade of Terni, affords an
admirable but single picture that varies only as an observer changes his
place. The rapids, on the contrary, above all when they are adorned with
large trees, embellish a landscape during a length of several leagues.
(Humboldt 1821, p. 59)
The sound generated by rapids such as those on the Nile and the Orinoco,the latter ‘‘eminently picturesque from the varied appearance of the
waters, the palm trees, and the rocks’’ (Humboldt 1821, p. 60), also receive
the scientist’s attention. As Bunkse observes, ‘‘Humboldt demonstrated
that art could be an integral part of the scientist’s world view’’ (Bunkse
1981, p. 146). This is well demonstrated by Humboldt in his illustrated
accounts of the South American Cordilleras in which he describes some of
the waterfalls he saw. Notable among these is Humboldt’s detailed
description of Tequendama Falls on the Bogota River (Humboldt 1814,
pp. 72�80), illustrated with a plate based on the author’s own sketch of the
waterfall (Figure 4). Humboldt’s interest in every aspect of the phenom-
ena he observed is demonstrated by his account of the ‘‘Indian fable,
which attributes the cataract of Tequendama to the founder of the empire
of Zaque’’ (Humboldt 1814, p. 75), as well as providing details about
geology, vegetation, microclimate, height and volume of the fall and other
matters. Humboldt attributes the origin of the chasm at the waterfall site
to past earthquake activity. In his discussion of the magnificent scenery at
Tequendama, Humboldt reflects on the aesthetic qualities of waterfalls in
general: ‘‘The impression they leave on the mind of the observer depends
on the concurrence of a variety of circumstances. The volume of the water
must be proportioned to the height of the fall, and the scenery around
must wear a wild and romantic aspect’’ (Humboldt 1814, p. 76).
Humboldt then briefly considers these qualities in relation to some of
the world’s most famous waterfalls*Pissevache, Staubbach, Niagara and
the Rhine Falls. Humboldt emphasises the difficulty of describing the
beauties of waterfalls and notes that his book illustration of Tequendama
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Falls ‘‘can give but a very feeble idea of this majestic spectacle’’, where the
falling mass of water generates a ‘‘column of vapour, rising like a thick
cloud’’, and ‘‘rainbows reflecting the most vivid colours’’ are constantly
changing. When measured against Humboldt’s aesthetic standards,
Figure 4. Tequendama Falls, Colombia. This engraving, first published in 1810,
is based on a sketch made by Alexander von Humboldt who visited the waterfall
in 1801. (Source: Alexander von Humboldt, 1814.)
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‘‘Tequendama forms an assemblage of everything that is sublimely
picturesque in beautiful scenery’’ (Humboldt 1814, pp. 76�77).
Very different are the cataracts of the Orinoco, described by
Humboldt in his Views of Nature as:
A foaming surface, several miles in length, intersected with iron-black
masses of rock projecting like battlemented ruins from the waters, [which] is
seen at one view. Every island and every rock is adorned with forest trees. A
perpetual mist hovers over the watery mirror, and the summits of the lofty
palms pierce through the clouds of vapoury spray. When the rays of the
glowing evening sun are refracted in the humid atmosphere, an exquisite
optical illusion is produced. Coloured bows appear, vanish and re-appear,
while the ethereal picture dances, like an ignis fatuus, with every motion of
the sportive breeze. (Humboldt 1850, p. 167)
Here again, we see Humboldt’s aesthetic appreciation of landscape, but
elsewhere, he reveals something deeper in his emotional response to the
experience of nature in the wild:
For the physical world is reflected with truth and animation on the inner
susceptible world of the mind. Whatever marks the character of a landscape;
the profile of mountains, which in the far and hazy distance bound the
horizon; the deep gloom of pine forests; the mountain torrent, which rushes
headlong to its fall through overhanging cliffs: all stand alike in ancient and
mysterious communion with the spiritual life of man.
From this communion arises the nobler portion of the enjoyment which
nature affords. (Humboldt 1850, p. 154)
Despite Humboldt’s insightful observation, it was not until recently thatgeographers gave much attention to the role of emotion and affect in
landscape research. The past decade has seen a resurgence of geographical
research which has developed from the humanistic geographies of the
1970s and the psychoanalytic geographies of the 1990s (Pile 2010). Some
of the research has relevance to the experience of waterfalls, for example,
that undertaken by Andrews (2007) on acrophobia and Anderson on
Alpine landscapes (2012), although I am aware of no such study which
focuses specifically on these landscape features. In passages such as thosequoted above, Alexander von Humboldt, a man noted for meticulous
scientific observation and measurement, displays an equal passion for the
qualitative description of the phenomena he observes.
Quality as well as quantity
The scientific study of landscape continued to advance during the
nineteenth century. In his book The Scenery of Scotland, first published
in 1865, eminent geologist Archibald Geike offers a geological interpreta-
tion of the landscape, but says little about the beauty of the waterfalls he
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mentions. He does, however, make the significant observation that the
Scottish landscape is of interest to students of both geology and aesthetics
(Geike 1887, p. 11). Moreover, Geike advocates landscape analysis which
combines science with aesthetics:
To subject Scottish scenery to dissection and analysis may seem a sort of
ruthless proceeding, like that of a pedant who insists on cutting a flower to
pieces and showing you its structure in order that you may adequately enjoy
its beauty. But, fortunately, let the formal geologist do and say what he likes,
the beauty and grandeur of the landscape remain unimpaired. Nay, if only
he can present his results in simple and intelligible guise, they will be found
in no degree to lessen the charm of scenery. He cannot diminish the romance
that hangs like a golden mist over the country; on the contrary, he reveals
another kind of romance, different indeed in kind but hardly less attractive,
wherein firth and fell, mountain and glen, glow with all the fervour of a
poet’s dream. (Geike 1887, p. 12)
Geike reveals his aesthetic sensitivity in analysing the influence of geology
and vegetation on scenery when describing Scottish Highland landscapes:
The craggy Highland character of these hills is heightened by the softly
undulating contour of the clay-slate hills that come in front of them, while in
the Trossachs and along the shores of Loch Katrine and Loch Achray, their
ruggedness and gloom are softened by the fairy-like garniture of mountain-
ash, oak, birch, and willow which lend such charm to that district of the
Highlands. (Geike 1887, p. 212)
Elsewhere, he emphasises the role of geology in determining the aesthetic
qualities of certain Highland lakes that are ‘‘more picturesque, for as they
run across the strike they traverse a greater variety of rocks, and these
present their truncated ends along both declivities’’ (Geike 1887, p. 239).
It is easy to see how a similar approach to landscape analysis can be
applied to waterfalls. The following is an example in which Arthur
Raistrick relates the occurrence and the form of Pennine waterfalls (cf.
Pennine streams, Pennine farms) to the rhythmic succession of limestone,sandstone and shale strata:
This ‘‘rhythm’’ is responsible for the great abundance of waterfalls. Every
side-stream leaps over each limestone in turn, and there is no part of
England with anything to compare with the number of falls and with the
beauty of these tributary streams. Some of the falls over the thicker
limestones are high*like Hardraw Scar, 80 ft, Mill Gill Force and Parker
Gill Force near Askrigg, and Ashgill Force near Garrigill*while others
come down a series of steps, bed by bed. Every fall has its own particular
character and beauty. (Raistrick 1968, p. 37)
A notable proponent of the aesthetic study of landscape was Lieutenant
Colonel Sir Francis Younghusband. As President of Britain’s Royal
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Geographical Society (RGS), he expressed the view that ‘‘the character-
istic of the face and features of the earth most worth learning about,
knowing, and understanding is their beauty; and that knowledge of their
beauty may be legitimately included within the scope of geographical
science’’ (Younghusband 1920, p. 3). He continued,
It may be argued, indeed, that science is concerned with quantity*with
what can be measured*and that natural beauty is quality which is
something that eludes measurement. But Geographical science, at least,
should refuse to be confined within any such arbitrary limits and should
take cognizance of quality as well as quantity. (Younghusband 1920, p. 3)
These words, spoken by Younghusband in his Presidential Address to the
RGS in 1920, fell on the receptive ears of Vaughan Cornish who was in the
audience. Two decades later, Cornish wrote, ‘‘I responded immediately to
this appeal, and in works since published have recorded the advance in my
investigations. This has now reached the stage when the subject can be
formulated in a manual’’ (Cornish 1946, p. 15).That manual took the form
of a little book entitled The Beauties of Scenery, first published in 1943.
Up to the time of his decision to make a systematic study of landscape
beauty, Cornish devoted much of his geographical research to waves of
various kinds, those occurring in seas, sand deserts, snow fields and in
earthquake activity, for example (Goudie 1972). Much of the chapter on
‘‘The Falls and Rapids of Niagara’’ in his book, The Travels of Ellen
Cornish, is devoted to the study of waves in the rapids below the Falls, but
it also contains detailed observations of the sights and sounds that
Vaughan Cornish and his wife experienced during their three-week
scientific visit to Niagara Falls. There they witnessed ‘‘the glory of
cataracts and waterfalls, and added something to the science of waves’’
(Cornish 1913, p. 146). In his accounts of Niagara Falls and of
Minnehaha Falls near Minneapolis, Cornish demonstrates his interest in
the aesthetic qualities of waterfalls, a subject that, perhaps surprisingly,
receives comparatively little attention in The Beauties of Scenery.
Among the waterfalls of the world: Rashleigh and after
While Vaughan Cornish was pursuing his studies of landscape aesthetics,
another global traveller, Edward C. Rashleigh, was gathering material for a
major work on waterfalls, a book published in 1935 under the title Among
the Waterfalls of the World. Rashleigh believed ‘‘that in this book, for the
first time under one cover, there is presented to the reader, a fairly complete
account of all the more notable waterfalls of the world accompanied for the
first time again, as far as such are available, by accurate engineers’ figures
as regards their respective volumes and dimensions’’ (Rashleigh 1935, p. 3).
Rashleigh’s motivation for this work is revealed when he states,
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It is, indeed, the rapidly increasing spoliation, amounting in some cases
almost to entire destruction, of so many of the notable waterfalls that has
prompted me to the task of compiling this book and to record some
descriptions of the most famous of them while they still retain something of
their pristine grandeur. (Rashleigh 1935, p. 15)
The main cause of the spoliation of waterfalls was, as it continues to be,
the abstraction of water from rivers for the generation of electricity and
for irrigation purposes. Today, among those with a serious interest in
waterfalls, Rashleigh’s book remains a highly regarded work.Ten years after Rashleigh’s book, another global study of waterfalls
was published, one that compares major falls around the world with those
in Yosemite National Park (Brockman 1945). Far more comprehensive
was the broad-based study of waterfalls by American geologist Richard
Pearl. Pearl who, as editor of a popular geology journal entitled Earth
Science, published a series of articles on the subject in 1973�1975. Most of
these appear under the heading ‘‘Waterfalls: an explanation’’, and are
written mainly as a geomorphological study (Pearl 1974; Pearl 1975). In
addition to a discussion of the various ways in which waterfalls originate
and develop, the articles include a comprehensive and detailed classifica-
tion of these landforms based on their origins. Pearl precedes his
‘‘explanation’’ of waterfalls with a series of articles entitled ‘‘Waterfalls;
an appreciation’’ in which he considers briefly other aspects of the subject,
including aesthetics, representation in art, ecology, hydropower and
related urban development (Pearl 1973). Had these articles been published
as a book, as the author appears to have intended (Pearl 1973, p. 183),
Pearl’s largely overlooked work on waterfalls might have received much
greater attention.
The ten years following Richard Pearl’s death in 1980 saw some
advance in the geomorphological study of waterfalls, notably the work of
Young, mentioned earlier. Since Young’s remark about the neglect of the
subject, geomorphologists around the world have done research on
various aspects of waterfalls. The following examples illustrate the global
distribution of waterfall sites investigated and the range of topics: geology
and waterfall formation in Amazonas, Brazil ( Nogueira and Sarges 2001),
and the Polish Outer Carpathian (Alexandrowicz, 1994); post-glacial
recession of waterfalls in Switzerland (Hayakawa 2011); recession of fault-
scarp waterfalls in Taiwan (Hayakawa et al. 2009); travertine deposition at
Indarri Falls, Queensland (Drysdale and Gale 1997), and morphology,
processes and evolution of two waterfalls in New South Wales (Bishop
and Goldrick 1992). Other aspects of waterfalls that have been studied
include their ecology and the impact of human activity on the flora and
fauna associated with tumbling rivers and streams (Ikpi and Offem 2011;
Patino et al. 2010; Torrente-Vilara et al. 2011). The economic importance
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of waterfalls as sources of hydropower and as tourism attractions has also
been examined (Hudson 1998, 2004, 2012; Ranasinghe 1997).
Problems of defining waterfalls and measuring their heights are
discussed by Mabin in the context of Australia (Mabin 2000). Among
those who study the subject, the debate continues on what constitutes a
waterfall in terms of angle of descent, volume, height and permanence.
Questions such as these have implications for waterfall databases such as
those compiled by Bryan Swan, Dean Goss and Scott Ensminger (North-
west Waterfall Survey 2012: Waterfalls of the Northeastern United States
2012; Western New York Waterfall Survey 2012; World Waterfall Database
2012). Newly recorded waterfalls continue to be added to published lists,
many of these falls being found in parts of the world that have long been
intensively explored and surveyed. The authors of a book published in 2000
claim to have ‘‘discovered’’ or at least recorded for the first time, about 200
waterfalls in Yellowstone National Park (Rubinstein et al. 2000). By
September, 2011, Scott Ensminger had recorded 1096 waterfalls in his
Western New York Waterfall Survey. While explorations in various parts of
the world continue to add ‘‘new’’ waterfalls to the records, it is in the regions
most intensely surveyed and studied that the greatest number of recorded
falls are found. Of the 7827 waterfalls recorded in the World Waterfall
Database, 7112 are in North America,. 245 are in Europe, 157 in Asia, 134
in Oceania (islands in the world’s oceans), 87 in South America, 47 in Africa
and 45 in Australia (World Waterfall Database). This database is, of course,
a work in progress and makes no claim to record all known waterfalls. An
indicator of the incompleteness of the data recorded is the fact that one
survey of Scottish waterfalls lists over 750 falls, which is four times more
than the total number accorded to the whole of Europe (Stott 1987).
Since 1980, there has been a flood of waterfall guidebooks produced
mainly for walkers and tourists. These books were usually written by
authors who had visited many of the falls in the countries or regions they
described, and some had specialist geographical and geological knowledge
which give authority to their work. Notable among these is geographer
Gregory Plumb who has written guides to the falls of the US Pacific
Northwest and Tennessee and devised a scale for comparing the visual
magnitude of waterfalls (Plumb 1993, 2005, 2008). Contemporaneous
with the work of Plumb is that of another geographer, Brian Hudson,
whose broad interest in waterfalls focuses mainly on their aesthetic
qualities, their role in the world of art and their importance as tourism
attractions and as influences on the growth and distribution of human
settlements (Hudson 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001a, 2001b, 2002, 2003, 2004,
2006). His recent book Waterfall: Nature and Culture ‘‘is comprehensive
in its approach’’, including accounts of the geomorphology and ecology of
waterfalls, but focusing mainly on ‘‘the roles that they play in the human
experience’’ (Hudson 2012, p. 7).
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Among the various topics discussed in Hudson’s book is artificial
waterfalls, a subject that has long received much attention from landscape
architects, but which has also attracted interest in terms of their economic
value as urban tourism attractions (New York City Economic Develop-
ment Corporation 2008). In many different cultures around the world,
artificial waterfalls have been incorporated in landscape design schemes,
great and small. From ancient China and Japan to Moghul India, from
Roman and Baroque Europe to the Inca Empire, cascades were created to
adorn the pleasure grounds of the rich and powerful. Today, artificial
cascades and fountains adorn public spaces in many towns and cities,
varying in design from the elaborate fountains of Rome to the
unembellished walls of falling water that mark the sites of New York’s
destroyed Twin Towers (Figure 5). Artificial waterfalls are now commonly
found indoors, in shopping malls, restaurants, hotels, offices and homes.
Even tabletop models are available. In addition to the artificial waterfalls
created for aesthetic reasons, there are those which are the products of
engineering schemes undertaken for urban water supply, irrigation and
the generation of mechanical and electrical power. Some of these dams,
particularly impressive when water spills over from the reservoir, have
become significant tourist attractions.
The proliferation of books on waterfalls in recent years reflects a
growing public interest in these landscape features. People who regularly
visit and enjoy the sights and sounds of tumbling streams are known
variously as waterfall lovers, fans, buffs or collectors. Like the poets
Wordsworth and Coleridge, they ‘‘hunt waterfalls’’ (Wordsworth 1941, p.
183), often taking photographs of them and, sometimes, compiling
detailed records of the falls they observe. Today, this activity is commonly
referred to as ‘‘waterfalling’’, and the term ‘‘waterfallology’’ has come into
popular use to describe the active interest in waterfalls. A much earlier
Figure 5. Watery Footprint: 9/11 memorial at Ground Zero. (Photograph by
Alina Oswald, www.alinaoswald.com).
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word for someone who took great interest in waterfalls was ‘‘cataractist’’
(Ousby 1990, p. 183), but ‘‘cataractology’’ is a term that today, is applied
to a branch of ophthalmology. In the world of science and scholarship
applied to the subject of waterfalls, no word comparable with speleology
has come into general use. While it has been shown to be useful to includeunder the umbrella term speleology, the many disciplines that are involved
in the study of caves, there is probably no need for similarly defined
branches of knowledge focusing on all other types of landforms such as
cliffs, gorges, estuaries or, indeed, waterfalls. Perhaps the aspect of
speleology that most distinguishes it from the study of waterfalls is the
great importance, in cave research, of specialised exploration techniques
for negotiating confined spaces, steep pitches, vertical shafts, underwater
passages and other hazards in darkness deep underground. Howeverwaterfalls are features that should not be overlooked in the study of
landscape. They deserve serious attention from geographers and other
scholars and scientists. Geographers, with their characteristically synthetic
approach to the study of the earth, are particularly well qualified to apply
scientific and aesthetic analysis to this research.
Conclusion
While not an exhaustive survey of the study of waterfalls, the foregoingdiscussion demonstrates the breadth of this field of science and scholar-
ship and shows the greatly increased interest in the subject over the past 30
years. These interesting phenomena are important not only for their
economic value as resources for energy supply and tourism development,
but also because, like mountains, they have a long-established cultural role
in the scientific and artistic worlds. Mountain studies have a long history,
and geographers have been very active in this field. Despite the pioneer
work of Humboldt, geographers and others largely neglected waterfallsuntil the late twentieth-century, since when there has been a significant
expansion of scientific and scholarly interest in the subject. Today, these
landforms attract the attention of scientists and scholars from a wide
range of disciplines. As features of the landscape under threat from a
variety of human activities, waterfalls are especially worthy of our serious
attention. Waterfalls research, a field in which some of the world’s greatest
scientists have made important contributions, continues to attract the
interest of scholars with diverse backgrounds and specialisations. Futureresearch might usefully include the impact of climate change and human
activity on waterfalls, with a consideration of the potential economic
consequences of these developments. This requires a study of the control
and management of river systems within which waterfalls are exploited for
power generation and the tourist industry. Further studies of the role of
waterfalls in tourism might focus on specific regions where the tourist
industry is established or where its introduction is being contemplated.
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Related to this is the question of landscape perception, specifically the
aesthetic qualities of river scenery, a subject deserving further investigation,
and the neglected topic of emotion and affect in relation to waterfalls.
While recognising the necessity for research to focus on specific aspects of
the subject, we should remember the importance of locating these detailed
studies within the broader global context. Humboldt’s synthetic approach
remains the model to which geographers and others should aspire.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable comments and suggestions made
by the editor and two anonymous reviewers on an earlier draft of the paper. He is
also grateful to the Tourist Office, Terni, Italy and Alina Oswald, New York, for
permission to use the images in Figures 3 and 5, respectively.
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