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8/20/2019 Voltaire VII http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/voltaire-vii 1/470 EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION THE WORKS OF  VOLTAIRE  A CONTEMPORARY VERSION  W ITH NOTES BY  TOBIAS SMOLLETT, EVISED  AND MODERNIZED NEW TRANSLATIONS BY  W ILLIAM F. FLEMING, AND AN I NTRODUCTION BY O LIVER H . G . L EIGH  A CRITIQUE AND BIOGRAPHY BY THE RT. HON. JOHN MORLEY FORTY-THREE VOLUMES ONE HUNDRED ANS SIXTY-EIGHT DESIGNS, COMPRISINGS REPRODUCTIONS OF RARE OLD ENGRAVINGS, STEEL PLATES, PHOTOGRAVURES,  AND CURIOUS FAC-SIMILES  VOLUME VII  AKRON, OHIO THE WERNER COMPANY 1!"

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E D I T I O N D E L A P A C I F I C A T I O N

T H E W O R K S O F

 VOLTAIRE A CONTEMPORARY VERSION

 W ITH NOTES BY  TOBIAS SMOLLETT, R EVISED  AND MODERNIZED

NEW TRANSLATIONS BY W ILLIAM F. FLEMING, AND AN

INTRODUCTION BY OLIVER H. G. LEIGH

 A CRITIQUE AND BIOGRAPHY 

BY 

T H E R T . H O N . J O H N M O R L E Y  

F O R T Y - T H R E E V O L U M E S

ONE HUNDRED ANS SIXTY-EIGHT DESIGNS, COMPRISINGS REPRODUCTIONS

OF RARE OLD ENGRAVINGS, STEEL PLATES, PHOTOGRAVURES,

 AND CURIOUS FAC-SIMILES

 VOLUME VII

 AKRON, OHIO

THE WERNER COMPANY

1!"

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 The WORKS of VOLTAIRE

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EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION

Limited to one thousand sets

for America and reat !ritain"

#!et$een t$o ser%ants of &umanit'( $ho a))eared

ei*hteen hundred 'ears a)art( the rf +, a m'sterious re-ation"

. / / / Let us sa' it $ith a sentiment of

)rofound res)ect0 1ES2S WEPT0 VOLTAIRE S3ILED"

Of that di%ine tear and of that human smi-e is com)osed the

s$eetness of the )resent ci%i-i4ation"#

VICTOR &2O"

VOLTAIRE RECEIVES 3 3 E" O5ERINA6 AT

L"E7 DEL8ICES

EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION

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 T&E WORKS OF

VO LTAI R E

A CONTE3PORAR6 VERSION

WIT& NOTES !6 TO!IAS S3OLLETT( REVISED AND 3ODERNI9ED

NEW TRANSLATIONS !6 WILLIA3 F" FLE3IN( AND AN

INTROD2CTION !6 OLIVER &" " LEI&

A CRITI:2E AND !IORAP&6

!6

 T&E RT" &ON" 1O&N 3ORLE6

FORT68T&REE VOL23ES

ONE &2NDRED AND SI;T68EI&T DESINS( CO3PRISIN REPROD2CTIONS

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OF RARE OLD ENRAVINS( ST!!L PLATES( P&OTORAV2RES(

A3D C2RIO2S FAC8<I3IL!S

VOL23E V&

AKRON( O&IO

 T&E WERNER CO3PAN6

=>?@

COP6RI&T =>?=

!6 E" R" Du3oNT

OWNED !6

 T&E WEENER CO3PAIS5T

AKRON( O&IO

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 T&E WERNER CO3PAN6

AKRON( O&iO

Stac

AnneB

P:

?<

E<S@

I>O@

if8 8

VOLTAIRE

A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR6

IN TEN VOL23ES

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VOL" III"

CANNI!ALS CO2NCILS

LIST OF PLATES

VOL" VII

PAE

VOLTAIRE5S RECEPTION OF 3ADA3E D5EPINA6

AT LES DELICES " " " Frontis)iece

 T&E DEAT& OF COLIN6 """" 7

CAT&ERINE II" OF R2SSIA """" =7

%

 T&E AL3ONER AND T&E ANA!APTIST " "

A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR6"

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CANNI!ALS"

SECTION I"

WE &AVE s)oen of -o%e" It is hard to )ass from

)eo)-e issin* to )eo)-e eatin* one another" It is(

ho$e%er( ut too true that there ha%e een cannia-s"

We ha%e found them in America G the' are( )erha)s(

sti-- to e found G and the C'c-o)s $ere not the on-'

indi%idua-s in antiHuit' $ho sometimes fed on human

esh" 1u%ena- re-ates that amon* the E*')tians

that $ise )eo)-e( so reno$ned for their -a$s those

)ious $orshi))ers of crocodi-es and onions the

 Tent'rites ate one of their enemies $ho had fa--en

into their hands" &e does not te-- this ta-e on hear8

sa'G the crime $as committed a-most efore his

e'es G he $as then in E*')t( and not far from Ten8

t'ra" On this occasion he Huotes the ascons and

the Sa*untines( $ho former-' fed on the esh of

their countr'men"

In =< four sa%a*es $ere rou*ht from the 3is8

sissi))i to Fontaine-eau( $ith $hom I had the honor

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of con%ersin*" There $as amon* them a -ad' of the

countr'( $hom I ased if she had eaten menG she

ans$ered( $ith *reat sim)-icit' that she had" I a)8

)eared some$hat scanda-i4ed G on $hich she eB8

<

@ Phi-oso)hica-

cused herse-f ' sa'in* that it $as etter to eat one5s

dead enem' than to -ea%e him to e de%oured '

$i-d easts( and that the conHuerors deser%ed to ha%e

the )reference" We i-- our nei*hors in att-es( or

sirmishes G and( for the meanest consideration( )ro8

%ide mea-s for the cro$s and the $orms" There is

the horrorG there is the crime" What matters it(

$hen a man is dead( $hether he is eaten ' a so-dier(

or ' a do* and a cro$J

We ha%e more res)ect for the dead than for the

-i%in*" It $ou-d e etter to res)ect oth the one and

the other" The nations ca--ed )o-ished ha%e done

ri*ht in not )uttin* their %anHuished enemies on the

s)it G for if $e $ere a--o$ed to eat our nei*hors( $e

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shou-d soon eat our countr'men( $hich $ou-d e

rather unfortunate for the socia- %irtues" !ut )o-8

ished nations ha%e not a-$a's een so G the' $ere a--

for a -on* time sa%a*e G and( in the innite numer

of re%o-utions $hich this *-oe has under*one( man8

ind ha%e een sometimes numerous and sometimes

scarce" It has een $ith human ein*s as it no$

is $ith e-e)hants( -ions( or ti*ers( the race of $hich

has %er' much decreased" In times $hen a countr'

$as ut thin-' inhaited ' men( the' had fe$ arts G

the' $ere hunters" The custom of eatin* $hat the'

had i--ed easi-' -ed them to treat their enemies -ie

their sta*s and their oars" It $as su)erstition that

caused human %ictims to e immo-ated G it $as neces8

sit' that caused them to e eaten"

Which is the *reater crime to assem-e )ious-'

Dictionar'"

to*ether to )-un*e a nife into the heart of a *ir-

adorned $ith --ets( or to eat a $orth-ess man $ho

has een i--ed in our o$n defenceJ

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 6et $e ha%e man' more instances of *ir-s and

o's sacriced than of *ir-s and o's eaten" A-most

e%er' nation of $hich $e no$ an'thin* has sacri8

ced o's and *ir-s" The 1e$s immo-ated them"

 This $as ca--ed the AnathemaG it $as a rea- sacri8

ceG and in Le%iticus it is ordained that the -i%in*

sou-s $hich sha-- e de%oted sha-- not e s)ared G ut

it is not in an' manner )rescried that the' sha-- e

eaten G this is on-' threatened" 3oses te--s the 1e$s

that un-ess the' oser%e his ceremonies the' sha--

not on-' ha%e the itch( ut the mothers sha-- eat their

chi-dren" It is true that in the time of E4eie- the

 1e$s must ha%e een accustomed to eat human esh G

for( in his thirt'8ninth cha)ter( he forete--s to them

that od $i-- cause them to eat( not on-' the horses

of their enemies( ut moreo%er the horsemen and the

rest of the $arriors" And( indeed( $h' shou-d not

the 1e$s ha%e een cannia-s J It $as the on-' thin*

$antin* to mae the )eo)-e of od the most aom8

ina-e )eo)-e u)on earth"

SECTION II"

In the essa' on the #3anners and S)irit of Na8

tions# $e read the fo--o$in* sin*u-ar )assa*e 0

#&errera assures us that the 3eBicans ate the human

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%ictims $hom the' immo-ated" 3ost of the rst

tra%e--ers and missionaries sa' that the !ra4i-ians(

the Cariees( the IroHuois( the &urons( and some

7 Phi-oso)hica-

other tries( ate their ca)ti%es taen in $ar G and the'

do not consider this as the )ractice of some indi%id8

ua-s a-one( ut as a nationa- usa*e" So man' $riters(

ancient and modern( ha%e s)oen of cannia-s( that

it is dicu-t to den' their eBistence" A huntin*

)eo)-e( -ie the !ra4i-ians or the Canadians( not

a-$a's ha%in* a certain susistence( ma' sometimes

ecome cannia-s" Famine and re%en*e accustomed

them to this ind of foodG and $hi-e in the most

ci%i-i4ed a*es $e see the )eo)-e of Paris de%ourin*

the -eedin* remains of 3arsha- d5Ancre( and the

)eo)-e of The &a*ue eatin* the heart of the *rand

)ensionar'( De Witt( $e ou*ht not to e sur)rised

that a momentar' outra*e amon* us has een con8

tinua- amon* sa%a*es"

#The most ancient oos $e ha%e -ea%e no room

to dout that hun*er has dri%en men to this eBcess"

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 The )ro)het E4eie-( accordin* to some commen8

tators( )romises to the &ere$s from od that if

the' defend themse-%es $e-- a*ainst the in* of

Persia( the' sha-- eat of 5the esh of horses and of

mi*ht' men"5

#3arco Po-o sa's that in his time in a )art of

 Tartar' the ma*icians or )riests it $as the same

thin* had the )ri%i-e*e of eatin* the esh of crim8

ina-s condemned to death" A-- this is shocin* to

the fee-in*s G ut the )icture of humanit' must

often ha%e the same eMect"

#&o$ can it ha%e een that nations constant-'

se)arated from one another ha%e united in so horri-e

Dictionar'" >

a customJ 3ust $e e-ie%e that it is not so aso-ute-'

o))osed to human nature as it a))ears to eJ It is

certain that it has een rare( ut it is eHua--' certain

that it has eBisted" It is not no$n that the Tartars

and the 1e$s often ate their fe--o$ creatures" Durin*

the sie*es of Sancerre and Paris( in our re-i*ious

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$ars( hun*er and des)air com)e--ed mothers to feed

on the esh of their chi-dren" The charita-e Las

Casas( isho) of Chia)a( sa's that this horror $as

committed in America( on-' ' some nations amon*

$hom he had not tra%e--ed" Dam)ierre assures us

that he ne%er met $ith cannia-sG and at this da'

there are not( )erha)s( an' tries $hich retain this

horri-e custom"#

Americus Ves)ucius sa's in one of his -etters that

the !ra4i-ians $ere much astonished $hen he made

them understand that for a -on* time the Euro)eans

had not eaten their )risoners of $ar"

Accordin* to 1u%ena-5s fteenth satire( the as8

cons and the S)aniards had een *ui-t' of this ar8

arit'" &e himse-f $itnessed a simi-ar aomination

in E*')t durin* the consu-ate of 1unius" A Huarre-

ha))enin* et$een the inhaitants of Tent'ra and

those of Omi( the' fou*ht G and an Omian ha%in*

fa--en into the hands of the Tent'rians( the' had

him cooed( and ate him( a-- ut the are ones" !ut

he does not sa' that this $as the usua- custom G on

the contrar'( he s)eas of it as an act of more than

ordinar' fur'"

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 The 1esuit Char-e%oiB( $hom I ne$ %er' $e--(

io Phi-oso)hica-

and $ho $as a man of *reat %eracit'( *i%es us c-ear-'

to understand in his #&istor' of Canada(# in $hich

countr' he resided thirt' 'ears( that a-- the nations

of northern America $ere cannia-sG since he re8

mars( as a thin* %er' eBtraordinar'( that in ===

the Acadians did not eat men"

 The 1esuit !reeuf re-ates that in =@? the rst

IroHuois that $as con%erted( ha%in* unfortunate-'

*ot drun $ith rand'( $as taen ' the &urons(

then at $ar $ith the IroHuois" The )risoner( a)8

ti4ed ' Father !reeuf ' the name of 1ose)h( $as

condemned to death" &e $as )ut to a thousand tor8

tures( $hich he endured( sin*in* a-- the $hi-e( ac8

cordin* to the custom of his countr'" The' nished

' cuttin* oM a foot( a hand( and -ast-' his headG

after $hich the &urons )ut a-- the memers into a

cau-dron( each one )artoo of them( and a )iece $as

oMered to Father !reeuf"

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Char-e%oiB s)eas in another )-ace of t$ent'8t$o

&urons eaten ' the IroHuois" It cannot( then( e

douted( that in more countries than one( human

nature has reached this -ast )itch of horror G and this

eBecra-e custom must e of the hi*hest antiHuit'G

for $e see in the &o-' Scri)tures that the 1e$s $ere

threatened $ith eatin* their chi-dren if the' did not

oe' their -a$s" The 1e$s are to-d not on-' that

the' sha-- ha%e the itch( and that their $i%es sha--

*i%e themse-%es u) to others( ut a-so that the' sha--

eat their sons and dau*hters in an*uish and de%asta8

tion G that the' sha-- contend $ith one another for

Dictionar'" = =

the eatin* of their chi-dren G and that the husand

$i-- not *i%e to his $ife a morse- of her son( ecause(

he $i-- sa'( he has hard-' enou*h for himse-f"

Some %er' o-d critics do indeed assert that the

!oo of Deuteronom' $as not com)osed unti- after

the sie*e of Samaria ' !enhadad( durin* $hich( it

is said in the Second !oo of Kin*s( that mothers

ate their chi-dren" !ut these critics( in considerin*

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Deuteronom' as a oo $ritten after the sie*e of

Samaria( do ut %erif' this terri-e occurrence"

Others assert that it cou-d not ha))en as it is re-ated

in the Second !oo of Kin*s" It is there said 0 #And

as the in* of Israe- $as )assin* ' u)on the $a--

of Samaria ( there cried a $oman unto him( sa'in*(

5&e-)( m' -ord( O in*"5 And he said( 5If the Lord

do not he-) thee( $hence sha-- I he-) thee J out of the

arn oorJ or out of the $ine8)ressJ5 And the

in* said unto her( 5What ai-eth thee J5 And she an8

s$ered( 5This $oman said unto me( *i%e th' son(

that $e ma' eat him to8da'( and $e sha-- eat m' son

to8morro$" So $e oi-ed m' son( and did eat him G

and I said unto her on the neBt da'( 5i%e th' son(

that $e ma' eat him(5 and she hath hid her son"5 #

 These censors assert that it is not -ie-' that $hi-e

Kin* !enhadad $as esie*in* Samaria( Kin* 1oram

)assed Huiet-' ' the $a--( or u)on the $a--( to sett-e

diMerences et$een Samaritan $omen" It is sti--

-ess -ie-' that one chi-d shou-d not ha%e satised

t$o $omen for t$o da's" There must ha%e een

enou*h to feed them for four da's at -east" !ut -et

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= Phi-oso)hica-

these critics reason as the' ma'( $e must e-ie%e

that fathers and mothers ate their chi-dren durin*

the sie*e of Samaria( since it is eB)ress-' foreto-d

in Deuteronom'" The same thin* ha))ened at the

sie*e of 1erusa-em ' Neuchadne44arG and this(

too( $as foreto-d ' E4eie-"

 1eremiah eBc-aims( in his #Lamentations# 0 #Sha--

the $omen eat their fruit( and chi-dren of a s)an

-on*J# And in another )-ace0 #The hands of the

)itifu- $omen ha%e sodden their o$n chi-dren"#

&ere ma' e added the $ords of !aruch 0 #3an

has eaten the esh of his son and of his dau*hter"#

 This horror is re)eated so often that it cannot ut

e true" Last-'( $e no$ the stor' re-ated in

 1ose)hus( of the $oman( $ho fed on the esh of her

son $hen Titus $as esie*in* 1erusa-em" The oo

attriuted to Enoch( cited ' St" 1ude( sa's that the

*iants orn from the commerce of the an*ers $ith the

dau*hters of men $ere the rst cannia-s"

In the ei*hth homi-' attriuted to St" C-ement( St"

Peter( $ho is made to s)ea in it( sa's that these same

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*iants Huenched their thirst $ith human -ood and

ate the esh of their fe--o$ creatures" &ence re8

su-ted( adds the author( ma-adies unti- then un8

no$nG monsters of a-- inds s)run* u) on the

earth G and then it $as that od reso-%ed to dro$n a--

human ind" A-- this sho$s us ho$ uni%ersa- $as

the rei*nin* o)inion of the eBistence of cannia-s"

What St" Peter is made to sa' in St" C-ement5s

homi-' has a )a-)a-e anit' $ith the stor' of

Dictionar'" =

L'caon( one of the o-dest of ree fa-es( and $hich

$e nd in the rst oo of O%id5s #3etamor8

)hoses"#

 The #Re-ations of the Indies and China(# $ritten

in the ei*hth centur' ' t$o Aras( and trans-ated

' the Ae Renaudot( is not a oo to $hich im)-icit

credit shou-d e attached G far from it G ut $e must

not reQect a-- these t$o tra%e--ers sa'( es)ecia--'

$hen their testimon' is corroorated ' that of other

authors $ho ha%e merited some e-ief" The' te--

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us that there are in the Indian Sea is-ands )eo)-ed

$ith -acs $ho ate menG the' ca-- these is-ands

Ramni"

3arco Po-o( $ho had not read the $ors of these

t$o Aras( sa's the same thin* four hundred 'ears

after them" Archisho) Na%arette( $ho $as after8

$ards a %o'a*er in the same seas( conrms this ac8

count 0 #Los Euro)eos Hue co*en( es consta$te Hue

%i%os se -os %an comiendo"#

 TeBeira asserts that the )eo)-e of 1a%a ate human

esh( $hich aomina-e custom the' had not -eft oM

more than t$o hundred 'ears efore his time" &e

adds that the' did not -earn mi-der manners unti-

the' emraced 3ahometanism"

 The same thin* has een said of the )eo)-e of

Pe*u( of the Kars( and of se%era- other African

nations" 3arco Po-o( $hom $e ha%e Qust no$ cited(

sa's that in some Tartar hordes( $hen a crimina- had

een condemned to death the' made a mea- of him 0

#&anno costoro un estia-e e orrii-e costume( che

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= Phi-oso)hica-

Huando a-cuno e *uidicato a morte( -o to-*ono( e cuo8

cono( e man*ian5 se-o"#

What is more eBtraordinar' and incredi-e is that

the t$o Aras attriuted to the Chinese $hat 3arco

Po-o sa's of some of the Tartars 0 that( #in *enera-(

the Chinese eat a-- $ho ha%e een i--ed"# This

aomination is so re)u*nant to Chinese manners(

that it cannot e e-ie%ed" Father Parennin has re8

futed it ' sa'in* that it is un$orth' of refutation"

It must( ho$e%er( e oser%ed that the ei*hth cen8

tur'( the time $hen these Aras $rote their tra%e-s(

$as one of those most disastrous to the Chinese" T$o

hundred thousand Tartars )assed the *reat $a--(

)-undered Pein( and e%er'$here s)read the most

horri-e deso-ation" It is %er' -ie-' that there $as

then a *reat famine( for China $as as )o)u-ous as it

is no$ G and some )oor creatures amon* the -o$est

of the )eo)-e mi*ht eat dead odies" What interest

cou-d these Araians ha%e in in%entin* so dis*ustin*

a fa-eJ Perha)s the'( -ie most other tra%e--ers(

too a )articu-ar instance for a nationa- custom"

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Not to *o so far for eBam)-es( $e ha%e one in our

o$n countr'( in the %er' )ro%ince in $hich I $rite G

it is attested ' our conHueror( our master( 1u-ius

Caesar" &e $as esie*in* A-eBia( in the AuBois"

 The esie*ed ein* reso-%ed to defend themse-%es to

the -ast eBtremit'( and $antin* )ro%isions( a *reat

counci- $as assem-ed( in $hich one of the chiefs(

named Crito*natus( )ro)osed that the chi-dren shou-d

e eaten one after another to sustain the stren*th of

Dictionar'" = <

the comatants" &is )ro)osa- $as carried ' a ma8

 Qorit' of %oices" Nor is this a-- G Crito*natus in his

haran*ue te--s them that their ancestors had had re8

course to the same ind of sustenance in the $ar $ith

the Cimri and Teutones"

We $i-- conc-ude $ith the testimon' of 3on8

tai*ne" S)eain* of $hat $as to-d him ' the com8

)anions of Vi--e*a*non( returned from !ra4i-( and

of $hat he had seen in France( he certies that the

!ra4i-ians ate their enemies i--ed in $ar( ut mar

$hat fo--o$s 0 #Is it more ararous to eat a man

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$hen dead than to ha%e him roasted ' a s-o$ re(

or torn to )ieces ' do*s and s$ine( as is 'et fresh

in our memories and that not et$een ancient ene8

mies( ut amon* nei*hors and fe--o$8citi4ens and(

$hich is $orse( on )retence of )iet' and re-i*ionJ#

What a Huestion for a )hi-oso)her -ie 3ontai*ne

 Then( if Anacreon and Tiu--us had een IroHuois(

the' $ou-d ha%e eaten men A-as a-as

SECTION III"

We--G t$o En*-ishmen ha%e sai-ed round the

$or-d" The' ha%e disco%ered that Ne$ &o--and is

an is-and -ar*er than Euro)e( and that men sti-- eat

one another there( as in Ne$ 9ea-and" Whence come

this race J su))osin* that the' eBist" Are the' de8

scended from the ancient E*')tians( from the ancient

)eo)-e of Ethio)ia( from the Africans( from the In8

dians or from the %u-tures( or the $o-%es J What

a contrast et$een 3arcus Aure-ius( or E)ictetus(

and the cannia-s of Ne$ 9ea-and 6et the' ha%e

= @ Phi-oso)hica-

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the same or*ans( the' are a-ie human ein*s" We

ha%e a-read' treated on this )ro)ert' of the human

race G it ma' not e amiss to add another )ara*ra)h"

 The fo--o$in* are St" 1erome5s o$n $ords in one

of his -etters 0 #:uid -oHuar de cateris nationius(

Huum i)se ado-escentu-us in a--ia %iderim Scotos(

*entem !ritannicam( humanis %esci carnius( et Huum

)er si-%as )orcorum *re*es )ecudumHue re)eriant(

tamen )astorum nates et faminarum )a)i--as so-ere

ascindere et has so-as ciorum de-icias aritrariJ#

#What sha-- I sa' of other nations G $hen I m'8

se-f( $hen 'oun*( ha%e seen Scotchmen in au-( $ho(

thou*h the' mi*ht ha%e fed on s$ine and other ani8

ma-s of the forest( chose rather to cut oM the )os8

teriors of the 'ouths and the reasts of the 'oun*

$omen( and considered them as the most de-icious

food"#

Pe--outier( $ho sou*ht for e%er'thin* that mi*ht

do honor to the Ce-ts( too the )ains to contradict

 1erome( and to maintain that his credu-it' had een

im)osed on" !ut 1erome s)eas %er' *ra%e-'( and of

$hat he sa$" We ma'( $ith deference( dis)ute $ith

a father of the church aout $hat he has heard G ut

to dout of $hat he has seen is *oin* %er' far" After

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a--( the safest $a' is to dout of e%er'thin*( e%en of

$hat $e ha%e seen ourse-%es"

One $ord more on cannia-ism" In a oo $hich

has had considera-e success amon* the $e--8dis8

)osed $e nd the fo--o$in*( or $ords to the same

eMect0 #In Crom$e--5s time a $oman $ho e)t a

Dictionar'" =

ta--o$ chand-er5s sho) in Du-in so-d eBce--ent can8

d-es( made of the fat of En*-ishmen" After some

time one of her customers com)-ained that the can8

d-es $ere not so *ood" 5Sir said the $oman( 5it is

ecause $e are short of En*-ishmen"5 #

I as $hich $ere the most *ui-t' those $ho as8

sassinated the En*-ish( or the )oor $oman $ho made

cand-es of their fatJ And further( I as $hich $as

the *reatest crime to ha%e En*-ishmen cooed for

dinner( or to use their ta--o$ to *i%e -i*ht at su))er J

It a))ears to me that the *reat e%i- is the ein* i--ed G

it matters -itt-e to us $hether( after death( $e are

roasted on the s)it or are made into cand-es" Indeed(

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no $e--8dis)osed man can e un$i--in* to e usefu-

$hen he is dead"

CASTIN IN 3ETALU"

 T&ERE is not an ancient fa-e( not an o-d asurdit'

$hich some sim)-eton $i-- not re%i%e( and that in a

ma*isteria- tone( if it e ut authori4ed ' some

c-assica- or theo-o*ica- $riter"

L'co)hron if I rememer ri*ht-'U re-ates that a

horde of roers $ho had een Qust-' condemned in

Ethio)ia ' Kin* Actisanes to -ose their ears and

noses( ed to the cataracts of the Ni-e and from

thence )enetrated into the Sand' Desert( $here the'

at -en*th ui-t the tem)-e of 1u)iter Ammon"

L'co)hron( and after him Theo)om)us( te--s us

that these anditti( reduced to eBtreme $ant( ha%in*

neither shoes( nor c-othes( nor utensi-s( nor read(

Vo-"

= 7 Phi-oso)hica-

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ethou*ht themse-%es of raisin* a statue of *o-d to

an E*')tian *od" This statue $as ordered one e%en8

in* and made in the course of the ni*ht" A memer

of the uni%ersit' much attached to L'co)hron and

the Ethio)ian roers asserts that nothin* $as more

common in the %enera-e a*es of antiHuit' than to

cast a statue of *o-d in one ni*ht( and after$ards

thro$ it into a re to reduce it to an im)a-)a-e )o$8

der( in order to e s$a--o$ed ' a $ho-e )eo)-e"

!ut $here did these )oor de%i-s( $ithout reeches(

nd so much *o-dJ #What( sir# sa's the man of

-earnin*( #do 'ou for*et that the' had sto-en enou*h

to u' a-- Africa and that their dau*hters5 ear8rin*s

a-one $ere $orth nine mi--ions %e hundred thousand

-i%res of our currenc'J#

!e it so" !ut for castin* a statue a -itt-e )re)ara8

tion is necessar'" 3" Le 3oine em)-o'ed near-' t$o

'ears in castin* that of Louis ;V" #Oh ut this

 1u)iter Ammon $as at most ut three feet hi*h"

o to an' )e$tererG $i-- he not mae 'ou ha-f a

do4en )-ates in a da' J#

Sir( a statue of 1u)iter is harder to mae than

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)e$ter )-ates( and I e%en dout $hether 'our thie%es

had $here$ith to mae )-ates so Huic-'( c-e%er as

the' mi*ht e at )i-ferin*" It is not %er' -ie-' that

the' had the necessar' a))aratus G the' had more

need to )ro%ide themse-%es $ith mea-" I res)ect L'8

co)hron much( ut this )rofound ree and his 'et

more )rofound commentators no$ so -itt-e of the

arts the' are so -earned in a-- that is use-ess( and so

Dictionar'" =>

i*norant in a-- that concerns the necessaries and con8

%eniences of -ife( )rofessions( trades( and dai-' occu8

)ations that $e $i-- tae this o))ortunit' of inform8

in* them ho$ a meta- *ure is cast" This is an

o)eration $hich the' $i-- nd neither in L'co)hron(

nor in 3anetho( nor e%en in St" Thomas5s dream"

I omit man' other )re)arations $hich the enc'c-o8

)aedists( es)ecia--' 3" Diderot( ha%e eB)-ained much

etter than I cou-d do( in the $or $hich must im8

morta-i4e their *-or' as $e-- as a-- the arts" !ut to

form a c-ear idea of the )rocess of this art the artist

must e seen at $or" No one can e%er -earn in a

oo to $ea%e stocin*s( nor to )o-ish diamonds( nor

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to $or ta)estr'" Arts and trades are -earned on-'

' eBam)-e and )ractice"

CATO"

ON S2ICIDE( AND T&E A!!E ST" C6RAN5S !OOK LEITI8

3ATIN S2ICIDE"

 T&E in*enious La 3otte sa's of Cato( in one of

his )hi-oso)hica- rather than )oetica- odes 0

Caton( dine dme )-us e#*a-e t

Sous rheureuB %ainHueur de Pharsa-e(

Eut souMert Hue Rome )-idt G

3ais( inca)a-e de se rendre(

II rieut )as -a force d 5attendre

2n )ardon Hui rhumi-iat"

Stern Cato( $ith more eHua- sou-(

&ad o$ed to Caesar5s $ide contro-

With Rome had to the conHueror o$ed8

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!ut that his s)irit( rou*h and )roud(

&ad not the coura*e to a$ait

A )ardoned foe5s too hum-in* fate"

It $as( I e-ie%e( ecause Cato5s sou- $as a-$a's

O Phi-oso)hica-

eHua-( and retained to the -ast its -o%e for his countr'

and her -a$s that he chose rather to )erish $ith her

than to crouch to the t'rant" &e died as he had -i%ed"

Inca)a-e of surrenderin* And to $hom J To the

enem' of Rome to the man $ho had forci-' roed

the )u-ic treasur' in order to mae $ar u)on his

fe--o$8citi4ens and ens-a%e them ' means of their

o$n mone'" A )ardoned foe It seems as if La

3otte8&oudart $ere s)eain* of some re%o-ted su8

 Qect $ho mi*ht ha%e otained his maQest'5s )ardon

' -etters in chancer'"

It seems rather asurd to sa' that Cato s-e$ him8

se-f throu*h $eaness" None ut a stron* mind can

thus surmount the most )o$erfu- instinct of nature"

 This stren*th is sometimes that of fren4'( ut a

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frantic man is not $ea"

Suicide is foridden amon*st us ' the canon -a$"

!ut the decreta-s( $hich form the Quris)rudence of a

)art of Euro)e( $ere unno$n to Cato( to !rutus(

to Cassius( to the su-ime Arria( to the Em)eror

Otho( to 3ar Anton'( and the rest of the heroes

of true Rome( $ho )referred a %o-untar' death to a

-ife $hich the' e-ie%ed to e i*nominious"

We( too( i-- ourse-%es( ut it is $hen $e ha%e -ost

our mone'( or in the %er' rare eBcess of foo-ish )as8

sion for an un$orth' oQect" I ha%e no$n $omen

i-- themse-%es for the most stu)id men ima*ina-e"

And sometimes $e i-- ourse-%es $hen $e are in ad

hea-th( $hich action is a rea- $eaness"

Dis*ust $ith our o$n eBistence( $eariness of our8

Dictionar'" =

se-%es is a ma-ad' $hich is -ie$ise a cause of sui8

cide" The remed' is a -itt-e eBercise( music( huntin*(

the )-a'( or an a*reea-e $oman" The man $ho(

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in a t of me-ancho-'( i--s himse-f to8da'( $ou-d

ha%e $ished to -i%e had he $aited a $ee"

I $as a-most an e'e8$itness of a suicide $hich

deser%es the attention of a-- cu-ti%ators of )h'sica-

science" A man of a serious )rofession( of mature

a*e( of re*u-ar conduct( $ithout )assions( and ao%e

indi*ence( i--ed himse-f on Oct" =( =@>( and -eft

to the to$n counci- of the )-ace $here he $as orn( a

$ritten a)o-o*' for his %o-untar' death( $hich it

$as thou*ht )ro)er not to )u-ish -est it shou-d en8

coura*e men to Huit a -ife of $hich so much i-- is

said" Thus far there is nothin* eBtraordinar' G such

instances are a-most e%er' da' to e met $ith" The

astonishin* )art of the stor' is this 0

&is rother and his father had each i--ed himse-f

at the same a*e" What secret dis)osition of or*ans(

$hat s'm)ath'( $hat concurrence of )h'sica- -a$s(

occasions a father and his t$o sons to )erish ' their

o$n hands( and ' the same ind of death( )recise-'

$hen the' ha%e attained such a 'earJ Is it a disease

$hich unfo-ds itse-f successi%e-' in the diMerent

memers of a fami-' as $e often see fathers and

chi-dren die of sma--)oB( consum)tion( or an' other

com)-aint J Three or four *enerations ha%e ecome

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deaf or -ind( *out' or scorutic( at a )redetermined

)eriod"

Ph'sica- or*ani4ation( of $hich mora- is the oM8

Phi-oso)hica-

s)rin*( transmits the same character from father to

son throu*h a succession of a*es" The A))ii $ere

a-$a's hau*ht' and ineBi-e( the Catos a-$a's se8

%ere" The $ho-e -ine of the uises $ere o-d( rash(

factious G com)ounded of the most inso-ent )ride(

and the most seducti%e )o-iteness" From Francis

de uise to him $ho a-one and in si-ence $ent and

)ut himse-f at the head of the )eo)-e of Na)-es( the'

$ere a--( in *ure( in coura*e( and in turn of mind(

ao%e ordinar' men" I ha%e seen $ho-e -en*th )or8

traits of Francis de uise( of the !a-afre( and of his

son 0 the' are a-- siB feet hi*h( $ith the same fea8

tures( the same coura*e and o-dness in the forehead(

the e'e( and the attitude"

 This continuit'( this series of ein*s a-ie is sti--

more oser%a-e in anima-s( and if as much care $ere

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taen to )er)etuate ne races of men as some nations

sti-- tae to )re%ent the miBin* of the reeds of their

horses and hounds the *enea-o*' $ou-d e $ritten

in the countenance and dis)-a'ed in the manners"

 There ha%e een races of crooed and of siB8n*ered

)eo)-e( as $e see red8haired( thic8-i))ed( -on*8

nosed( and at8nosed races"

!ut that nature shou-d so dis)ose the or*ans of a

$ho-e race that at a certain a*e each indi%idua- of

that fami-' $i-- ha%e a )assion for se-f8destruction

this is a )ro-em $hich a-- the sa*acit' of the most

attenti%e anatomists cannot reso-%e" The eMect is

certain-' a-- )h'sica-( ut it e-on*s to occu-t )h'sics"

Indeed( $hat )rinci)-e is not occu-t J

Dictionar'"

We are not informed( nor is it -ie-' that in the

time of Caesar and the em)erors the inhaitants of

reat !ritain i--ed themse-%es as de-ierate-' as

the' no$ do( $hen the' ha%e the %a)ors $hich the'

denominate the s)-een"

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On the other hand( the Romans( $ho ne%er had

the s)-een( did not hesitate to )ut themse-%es to

death" The' reasoned( the' $ere )hi-oso)hers( and

the )eo)-e of the is-and of !ritain $ere not so" No$(

En*-ish citi4ens are )hi-oso)hers and Roman citi8

4ens are nothin*" The En*-ishman Huits this -ife

)roud-' and disdainfu--' $hen the $him taes him(

ut the Roman must ha%e an indu-*entia in articu-o

mortisG he can neither -i%e nor die"

Sir Wi--iam Tem)-e sa's that a man shou-d de8

)art $hen he has no -on*er an' )-easure in remain8

in*" So died Atticus" 6oun* $omen $ho han* and

dro$n themse-%es for -o%e shou-d then -isten to the

%oice of ho)e( for chan*es are as freHuent in -o%e as

in other aMairs"

An a-most infa--i-e means of sa%in* 'ourse-f

from the desire of se-f8destruction is a-$a's to ha%e

somethin* to do" Creech( the commentator on Lu8

cretius( mared u)on his manuscri)ts 0 #N" !" 3usiG

han* m'se-f $hen I ha%e nished"# &e e)t his

$ord $ith himse-f that he mi*ht ha%e the )-easure of

endin* -ie his author" If he had undertaen a com8

mentar' u)on O%id he $ou-d ha%e -i%ed -on*er"

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Wh' ha%e $e fe$er suicides in the countr' than

in the to$nsJ !ecause in the e-ds on-' the od'

Phi-oso)hica-

suMers G in the to$n it is the mind" The -aorer has

not time to e me-ancho-' G none i-- themse-%es ut

the id-e the' $ho( in the e'es of the mu-titude( are

so ha))'"

I sha-- here re-ate some suicides that ha%e ha)8

)ened in m' o$n time( se%era- of $hich ha%e a-8

read' een )u-ished in other $ors" The dead ma'

e made usefu- to the -i%in* 0

A !rief Account of Some Sin*u-ar Suicides"

Phi-i) 3ordaunt( cousin8*erman to the ce-erated

ear- of Peterorou*h so $e-- no$n in a-- the Eu8

ro)ean courts( and $ho oasted of ha%in* seen more

)osti--ions and in*s than an' other man $as a

'oun* man of t$ent'8se%en( handsome( $e-- made(

rich( of no-e -ood( $ith the hi*hest )retensions(

and( $hich $as more than a--( adored ' his mis8

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tress( 'et 3ordaunt $as sei4ed $ith a dis*ust for

-ife" &e )aid his dets( $rote to his friends( and

e%en made some %erses on the occasion" &e dis8

)atched himse-f $ith a )isto- $ithout ha%in* *i%en

an' other reason than that his sou- $as tired of his

od' and that $hen $e are dissatised $ith our

aode $e ou*ht to Huit it" It seemed that he $ished

to die ecause he $as dis*usted $ith his *ood for8

tune"

In =@ Richard Smith eBhiited a stran*e s)ec8

tac-e to the $or-d from a %er' diMerent cause" Rich8

ard Smith $as dis*usted $ith rea- misfortune" &e

had een rich( and he $as )oorG he had een in

Dictionar'" <

hea-th( and he $as inrm G he had a $ife $ith $hom

he had nau*ht ut his miser' to share G their on-' re8

mainin* )ro)ert' $as a chi-d in the crad-e" Richard

Smith and !rid*et Smith( $ith common consent(

ha%in* emraced each other tender-' and *i%en their

infant the -ast iss e*an $ith i--in* the )oor chi-d(

after $hich the' han*ed themse-%es to the )osts of

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their ed"

I do not no$ an' other act of co-d8-ooded hor8

ror so striin* as this" !ut the -etter $hich these

unfortunate )ersons $rote to their cousin( 3r"

!rind-e'( efore their death( is as sin*u-ar as their

death itse-f" #We e-ie%e(# sa' the'( #that od $i--

for*i%e us We Huit this -ife ecause $e are

misera-e $ithout resource( and $e ha%e done our

on-' son the ser%ice of i--in* him( -est he shou-d

ecome as unfortunate as ourse-%es # It must

e oser%ed that these )eo)-e( after i--in* their son

throu*h )arenta- tenderness( $rote to recommend

their do* and cat to the care of a friend" It seems

the' thou*ht it easier to mae a cat and do* ha))'

in this -ife than a chi-d( and the' $ou-d not e a ur8

den to their friends"

Lord Scarorou*h Huitted this -ife in =( $ith

the same coo-ness as he had Huitted his oce of 3as8

ter of the &orse" &e $as re)roached( in the &ouse

of Peers( $ith tain* the in*5s )art ecause he had

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a *ood )-ace at court" #3' -ords(# said he( #to )ro%e

to 'ou that m' o)inion is inde)endent of m' )-ace( I

resi*n it this moment"# &e after$ards found him8

@ Phi-oso)hica-

se-f in a )er)-eBin* di-emma et$een a mistress

$hom he -o%ed( ut to $hom he had )romised noth8

in*( and a $oman $hom he esteemed( and to $hom

he had )romised marria*e" &e i--ed himse-f to es8

ca)e from his emarrassment"

 These tra*ica- stories $hich s$arm in the En*-ish

ne$s)a)ers( ha%e made the rest of Euro)e thin that(

in En*-and( men i-- themse-%es more $i--in*-' than

e-se$here" &o$e%er( I no$ not ut there are as

man' madmen or heroes to e found in Paris as in

London" Perha)s( if our ne$s)a)ers e)t an eBact

-ist of a-- $ho had een so infatuated as to see their

o$n destruction( and so -amenta-' coura*eous as

to eMect it( $e shou-d( in this )articu-ar( ha%e the

misfortune to ri%a- the En*-ish" !ut our Qourna-s

are more discreet" In such of them as are acno$-8

ed*ed ' the *o%ernment )ri%ate occurrences are

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ne%er eB)osed to )u-ic s-ander"

A-- I can %enture to sa' $ith assurance is that

there is no reason to a))rehend that this ra*e for

se-f8murder $i-- e%er ecome an e)idemica- disorder"

A*ainst this( nature has too $e-- )ro%ided" &o)e and

fear are the )o$erfu- a*ents $hich she often em)-o's

to sta' the hand of the unha))' indi%idua- aout

to strie at his o$n reast" Cardina- Duois $as

once heard to sa' to himse-f 0 #Ki-- th'se-f Co$8

ard( thou darest not#

It is said that there ha%e een countries in $hich

a counci- $as esta-ished to *rant the citi4ens )er8

mission to i-- themse-%es $hen the' had *ood and

Dictionar'"

sucient reasons" I ans$er either that it $as not so

or that those ma*istrates had not much to do"

It mi*ht( indeed( astonish us( and does( I thin(

merit a serious eBamination( that a-most a-- the an8

cient Roman heroes i--ed themse-%es $hen the' had

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-ost a att-e in the ci%i- $ars" !ut I do not nd(

neither in the time of the Lea*ue( nor in that of the

Fronde( nor in the trou-es of Ita-'( nor in those of

En*-and( that an' chief thou*ht )ro)er to die ' his

o$n hand" These chiefs( it is true( $ere Christians(

and there is a *reat diMerence et$een the )rinci)-es

of a Christian $arrior and those of a Pa*an hero"

!ut $h' $ere these men $hom Christianit' re8

strained $hen the' $ou-d ha%e )ut themse-%es to

death( restrained ' nothin* $hen the' chose to

)oison( assassinate( and rin* their conHuered ene8

mies to the scaMo-d J Does not the Christian re-i*ion

forid these murders much more than se-f8murder(

of $hich the Ne$ Testament maes no mention J

 The a)ost-es of suicide te-- us that it is Huite a-8

-o$a-e to Huit one5s house $hen one is tired of it"

A*reed( ut most men $ou-d )refer s-ee)in* in a

mean house to -'in* in the o)en air"

I once recei%ed a circu-ar -etter from an En*-ish8

man( in $hich he oMered a )ri4e to an' one $ho

shou-d most satisfactori-' )ro%e that there are occa8

sions on $hich a man mi*ht i-- himse-f" I made no

ans$er0 I had nothin* to )ro%e to him" &e had

on-' to eBamine $hether he -ied etter to die than to

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-i%e"

7 Phi-oso)hica-

Another En*-ishman came to me at Paris in = G

he $as i--( and )romised me that he $ou-d i-- him8

se-f if he $as not cured ' 1u-' ?" &e accordin*-'

*a%e me his e)ita)h in these $ords 0 #Va-ete cum#

#Fare$e-- care# and *a%e me t$ent'8%e -ouis to

*et a sma-- monument erected to him at the end of

the Fauour* St" 3artin" I returned him his mone'

on 1u-' ?( and e)t his e)ita)h"

In m' o$n time the -ast )rince of the house of

Courtenai( $hen %er' o-d( and the -ast ranch of

Lorraine8&arcourt( $hen %er' 'oun*( destro'ed

themse-%es a-most $ithout its ein* heard of" These

occurrences cause a terri-e u)roar the rst da'( ut

$hen the )ro)ert' of the deceased has een di%ided

the' are no -on*er ta-ed of"

 The fo--o$in* most remara-e of a-- suicides has

 Qust occurred at L'ons( in 1une( =?0 A 'oun*

man $e-- no$n( $ho $as handsome( $e-- made(

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c-e%er( and amia-e( fe-- in -o%e $ith a 'oun* $oman

$hom her )arents $ou-d not *i%e to him" So far

$e ha%e nothin* more than the o)enin* scene of a

comed'( the astonishin* tra*ed' is to fo--o$"

 The -o%er roe a -ood8%esse- and the sur*eons

informed him there $as no remed'" &is mistress

en*a*ed to meet him( $ith t$o )isto-s and t$o da*8

*ers in order that( if the )isto-s missed the da**ers

mi*ht the neBt moment )ierce their hearts" The'

emraced each other for the -ast time 0 rose8co-ored

rions $ere tied to the tri**ers of the )isto-s G the

-o%er ho-din* the rion of his mistress5s )isto-( $hi-e

Dictionar'" >

she he-d the rion of his" !oth red at a si*na-

*i%en( and oth fe-- at the same instant"

Of this fact the $ho-e cit' of L'ons is $itness"

Psetus and Arria( 'ou set the eBam)-e( ut 'ou $ere

condemned ' a t'rant( $hi-e -o%e a-one immo-ated

these t$o %ictims"

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La$s A*ainst Suicide"

&as an' -a$( ci%i- or re-i*ious( e%er foridden a

man to i-- himse-f( on )ain of ein* han*ed after

death( or on )ain of ein* damned J It is true that

Vir*i- has said0

ProBimo( deinde tenent mcesti -oca( Hui sii -ethum

Insontes )e)erere manu( -ucemHue )erosi

ProQecere animas" :uam %e--ent ethere in a-to

Nunc et )au)eriem et duros )erferre -aores

Fata ostant( tristiHue )a-us inamai-is unda

A--i*at( et na%ies St'B interfusa coercet"

( -i" %i" %" et seH"

 The neBt in )-ace( and )unishment( are the'

Who )rodi*a--' thro$ their sou-s a$a'

Foo-s( $ho re)inin* at their $retched state(

And -oathin* anBious -ife( suorn their fateG

With -ate re)entance no$ the' $ou-d retrie%e

 The odies the' forsoo( and $ish to -i%eG

 Their )ains and )o%ert' desire to ear(

 To %ie$ the -i*ht of hea%en and reathe the %ita- airG

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!ut fate forids( the St'*ian oods o))ose(

And( $ith nine circ-in* streams( the ca)ti%e sou-s inc-ose"

DR6DEN"

Such $as the re-i*ion of some of the )a*ans(

'et( not$ithstandin* the $eariness $hich a$aited

them in the neBt $or-d it $as an honor to Huit this

' i--in* themse-%es so contradictor' are the $a's

of men" And amon* us is not due--in* unfortu8

nate-' sti-- honora-e( thou*h foridden ' reason(

' re-i*ion( and ' e%er' -a$J If Cato and Caesar(

? Phi-oso)hica-

Anton' and Au*ustus( $ere not due--ists it $as not

that the' $ere -ess ra%e than our Frenchmen" If

the due of 3ontmorenc'( 3arsha- de 3ari--ac(

de Thou( CinH83ars( and so man' others( chose

rather to e dra**ed to eBecution in a $a*on( -ie

hi*h$a'men( than to i-- themse-%es -ie Cato and

!rutus( it $as not that the' had -ess coura*e than

those Romans( nor -ess of $hat is ca--ed honor" The

true reason is that at Paris se-f8murder in such cases

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$as not then the fashion G ut it $as the fashion at

Rome"

 The $omen of the 3a-aar coast thro$ them8

se-%es( -i%in*( on the funera- )i-es of their husands"

&a%e the'( then( more coura*e than Corne-iaJ NoG

ut in that countr' it is the custom for the $i%es to

urn themse-%es"

In 1a)an it is the custom for a man of honor(

$hen he has een insu-ted ' another man of honor(

to ri) o)en his e--' in the )resence of his enem'

and sa' to him 0 #Do 'ou -ie$ise if thou hast the

heart"# The a**ressor is dishonored for e%er if he

does not immediate-' )-un*e a *reat nife into his

e--'"

 The on-' re-i*ion in $hich suicide is foridden '

a c-ear and )ositi%e -a$ is 3ahometanism" In the

fourth sura it is said 0 #Do not i-- 'ourse-f( for

od is mercifu- unto 'ou( and $hosoe%er i--eth

himse-f throu*h ma-ice and $icedness sha-- as8

sured-' e urned in he-- re"#

 This is a -itera- trans-ation" The teBt( -ie man'

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Dictionar'" =

other teBts( a))ears to $ant common sense" What

is meant ' #Do not i-- 'ourse-f for od is merci8

fu-#J Perha)s $e are to understand Do not sin

under 'our misfortunes( $hich od ma' a--e%iate 0

do not e so foo-ish as to i-- 'ourse-f to8da' since

'ou ma' e ha))' to8morro$"

#And $hosoe%er i--eth himse-f throu*h ma-ice

and $icedness"# This is 'et more dicu-t to eB8

)-ain" Perha)s( in a-- antiHuit'( this ne%er ha))ened

to an' one ut the Phrasdra of Euri)ides( $ho

han*ed herse-f on )ur)ose to mae Theseus e-ie%e

that she had een forci-' %io-ated ' &i))o-'tus"

In our o$n times a man shot himse-f in the head(

after arran*in* a-- thin*s to mae another man sus8

)ected of the act"

In the )-a' of eor*e Dandin( his Qade of a $ife

threatens him $ith i--in* herse-f to ha%e him

han*ed" Such cases are rare" If 3ahomet foresa$

them he ma' e said to ha%e seen a *reat $a'" The

famous Du%er*er de &aurane( aot of St" C'ran(

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re*arded as the founder of Port Ro'a-( $rote( aout

the 'ear =@?7( a treatise on #Suicide(# $hich has

ecome one of the scarcest oos in Euro)e"

#The Deca-o*ue(# sa's he( #forids us to i--" In

this )rece)t se-f8murder seems no -ess to e com5

)rised than murder of our nei*hor" !ut if there

are cases in $hich it is a--o$a-e to i-- our nei*hor

there -ie$ise are cases in $hich it is a--o$a-e to

i-- ourse-%es"

#We must not mae an attem)t u)on our -i%es

 Q Phi-oso)hica-

unti- $e ha%e consu-ted reason" The )u-ic author8

it'( $hich ho-ds the )-ace of od( ma' dis)ose of

our -i%es" The reason of man ma' -ie$ise ho-d the

)-ace of the reason of od0 it is a ra' of the eterna-

-i*ht#

St" C'ran eBtends this ar*ument( $hich ma' e

considered as a mere so)hism( to *reat -en*th( ut

$hen he comes to the eB)-anation and the detai-s

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it is more dicu-t to ans$er him" &e sa's0 #A

man ma' i-- himse-f for the *ood of his )rince(

for that of his countr'( or for that of his re-ations"#

We do not( indeed( see ho$ Codrns or Curtius

cou-d e condemned" No so%erei*n $ou-d dare to

)unish the fami-' of a man $ho had de%oted him8

se-f to death for himG na'( there is not one $ho

$ou-d dare ne*-ect to recom)ense ft" St" Thomas(

efore St" C'ran( had said the same thin*" !ut $e

need neither St" Thomas( nor Cardina- !ona%entura(

nor Dn%er*er de &anrane to te-- us that a man $ho

dies for his countr' is deser%in* of )raise"

 The aot of St" C'ran conc-udes that it is a-8

-o$a-e to do for ourse-%es $hat it is no-e to do for

others" A-- mat is ad%anced ' P-utarch( ' Seneca(

' 3ontai*ne( and ' ft' other )hi-oso)hers( in

fa%or of suicide is sucient-' no$n ft is a hac8

ne'ed to)ic a $ornout common)-ace" I see not to

a)o-o*i4e for an act $hich the -a$s condemn( ut

neither the O-d Testament( nor the Ne$ has e%er

foridden man to de)art this -ife $hen it has ecome

insu))orta-e to him" No Roman -a$ condemned

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Dictionar'"

se-f8murderG on the contrar'( the fo--o$in* $as the

-a$ of the Em)eror Antoine( $hich $as ne%er re8

%oed0

#If 'our father or 'our rother not ein* accused

of an' crime i-- himse-f( either to esca)e from

*rief( or throu*h $eariness of -ife( or throu*h de8

s)air( or throu*h menta- deran*ement( his $i-- sha--

e %a-id( or( if he die intestate his heirs sha-- suc8

ceed"#

Not$ithstandin* this humane -a$ of our masters

$e sti-- dra* on a s-ed*e and dri%e a stae throu*h

the od' of a man $ho has died a %o-untar' death G

$e do a-- $e can to mae his memor' infamousG

$e dishonor his fami-' as far as $e are a-eG $e

)unish the son for ha%in* -ost his father( and the

$ido$ for ein* de)ri%ed of her husand"

We e%en conscate the )ro)ert' of the deceased(

$hich is roin* the -i%in* of the )atrimon' $hich

of ri*ht e-on*s to them" This custom is deri%ed

from our canon -a$( $hich de)ri%es of Christian

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uria- such as die a %o-untar' death" &ence it is

conc-uded that $e cannot inherit from a man $ho

is Qud*ed to ha%e no inheritance in hea%en" The

canon -a$( under the head #De Parnitentia# assures

us that 1udas committed a *reater crime in stran*8

-in* himse-f than in se--in* our Lord 1esus Christ"

CELTS"

A3ON those $ho ha%e had the -eisure( the

means( and the coura*e to see for the ori*in of

Vo-

Phi-oso)hica-

nations( there ha%e een some $ho ha%e found that

of our Ce-ts( or at -east $ou-d mae us e-ie%e that

the' had met $ith it" This i--usion ein* the on-'

recom)ense of their immense tra%ai-( $e shou-d not

en%' them its )ossession"

If $e $ish to no$ an'thin* aout the &uns

$ho( indeed( are scarce-' $orth no$in* an'thin*

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aout( for the' ha%e rendered no ser%ice to man8

ind $e nd some s-i*ht notices of those arar8

ians amon* the Chinese that most ancient of a-- na8

tions( after the Indians" From them $e -earn that(

in certain a*es( the &uns $ent -ie famishin*

$o-%es and ra%a*ed countries $hich( e%en at this

da' are re*arded as )-aces of eBi-e and of horror"

 This is a %er' me-ancho-'( a %er' misera-e sort of

no$-ed*e" It is( dout-ess( much etter to cu-ti8

%ate a usefu- art at Paris( L'ons( or !ordeauB( than

serious-' to stud' the histor' of the &uns and the

ears" Ne%erthe-ess $e are aided in these researches

' some of the Chinese archi%es"

!ut for the Ce-ts there are no archi%es" We

no$ no more of their antiHuities than $e do of

those of the Samo'eds or the Austra-asians"

We ha%e -earned nothin* aout our ancestors eB8

ce)t from the fe$ $ords $hich their conHueror(

 1u-ius Caesar( condescended to sa' of them" &e e8

*ins his #Commentaries# ' di%idin* the au-s

into the !e-*ians( AHuitanians( and Ce-ts"

Whence some of the darin* amon* the erudite

ha%e conc-uded that the Ce-ts $ere the Sc'thians(

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Dictionar'" <

and the' ha%e made these Sc'thio8Ce-ts inc-ude a--

Euro)e" !ut $h' not inc-ude the $ho-e earthJ

Wh' sto) short in so ne a career J

We ha%e a-so een du-' to-d that Noah5s son(

 1a)het( came out of the Ar( and $ent $ith a-- s)eed

to )eo)-e a-- those %ast re*ions $ith Ce-ts( $hom he

*o%erned mar%e--ous-' $e--" !ut authors of *reater

modest' refer the ori*in of our Ce-ts to the to$er of

!ae- to the confusion of ton*ues to Corner( of

$hom no one e%er heard unti- the %er' recent )eriod

$hen some $ise men of the West read the name of

Comer in a ad trans-ation of the Se)tua*int"

!ochart( in his #Sacred Chrono-o*'# $hat a

chrono-o*' taes Huite a diMerent turn" Of these

innumera-e hordes of Ce-ts he maes an E*')tian

co-on'( si-fu--' and easi-' -ed ' &ercu-es from

the ferti-e ans of the Ni-e into the forests and

morasses of erman'( $hither( no dout( these co-8

onists carried the arts and the -an*ua*e of E*')t

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and the m'steries of Isis( no trace of $hich has e%er

een found amon* them"

I thin the' are sti-- more to e con*ratu-ated

on their disco%eries( $ho sa' that the Ce-ts of the

mountains of Dau)hin' $ere ca--ed Cottians( from

their Kin* Cottius G that the !erichons $ere named

from their Kin* !etrichG the We-sh( or au-ish(

from their Kin* Wa--us( and the !e-*ians from !a-8

*em( $hich means Huarre-some"

A sti-- ner ori*in is that of the Ce-to8Pannon8

ians( from the Latin $ord )annus( c-oth( for( $e are

@ Phi-oso)hica-

to-d the' dressed themse-%es in o-d )ieces of c-oth

ad-' se$n to*ether( much resem-in* a har-eHuin5s

 Qacet" !ut the est ori*in of a-- is( undenia-'( the

to$er of !ae-"

CERE3ONIES TITLES PRECEDENCE"

ALL these thin*s( $hich $ou-d e use-ess and

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im)ertinent in a state of )ure nature( are( in our

corru)t and ridicu-ous state( of *reat ser%ice" Of a--

nations( the Chinese are those $ho ha%e carried the

use of ceremonies to the *reatest -en*th G the' cer8

tain-' ser%e to ca-m as $e-- as to $ear' the mind"

 The Chinese )orters and carters are o-i*ed( $hen8

e%er the' occasion the -east hindrance in the streets(

to fa-- on their nees and as one another5s )ardon

accordin* to the )rescried formu-a" This )re%ents

i-- -an*ua*e( -o$s and murders" The' ha%e time

to *ro$ coo- and are then $i--in* to assist one an8

other"

 The more free a )eo)-e are( the fe$er ceremonies(

the fe$er ostentatious tit-es( the fe$er demonstra8

tions of annihi-ation in the )resence of a su)erior(

the' )ossess" To Sci)io men said #Sci)io# G to

Caesar( #Caesar# G ut in after times the' said to the

em)erors( #'our maQest'(# #'our di%init'"#

 The tit-es of St" Peter and St" Pau- $ere #Peter#

and #Pau-"# Their successors *a%e one another the

tit-e of #'our ho-iness(# $hich is not to e found in

the Acts of the A)ost-es( nor in the $ritin*s of the

disci)-es"

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Dictionar'"

We read in the histor' of erman' that the

dau)hin of France( after$ards Char-es V"( $ent to

the Em)eror Char-es IV" at 3et4 and $as )resented

after Cardina- de Peri*ord"

 There has since een a time $hen chance--ors $ent

efore cardina-sG after $hich cardina-s a*ain too

)recedence of chance--ors"

In France the )eers )receded the )rinces of the

-ood( *oin* in the order of their creation( unti- the

consecration of &enr' III"

 The di*nit' of )eer $as( unti- that time( so eB8

a-ted that at the ceremon' of the consecration of

E-i4aeth( $ife to Char-es I;"( in =<( descried

' Simon !ouHuet( eche%in of Paris( it is said that

the Hueen5s dames and demoise--es ha%in* handed to

the dame d5honneur the read( $ine and $aB( $ith

the si-%er( for the oMerin* to e )resented to the

Hueen ' the said dame d5honneur( the said dame

d5honneur( ein* a duchess( commanded the dames

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to *o and carr' the oMerin* to the )rincesses them8

se-%es( etc" This dame d5honneur $as the $ife of the

consta-e 3ontmorenc'"

 The armchair( the chair $ith a ac( the stoo-( the

ri*ht hand and the -eft $ere for se%era- a*es im8

)ortant )o-itica- matters" I e-ie%e that $e o$e the

ancient etiHuette concernin* armchairs to the circum8

stance that our ararians of ancestors had at most

ut one in a house( and e%en this $as used on-' '

the sic" In some )ro%inces of erman' and En*8

-and an armchair is sti-- ca--ed a sic8chair"

7 Phi-oso)hica-

Lon* after the times of Atti-a and Da*oert( $hen

-uBur' found its $a' into our courts and the *reat

men of the earth had t$o or three armchairs in their

donQons( it $as a no-e distinction to sit u)on one

of these thrones G and a caste--ain $ou-d )-ace amon*

his tit-es ho$ he had *one ha-f a -ea*ue from home

to )a' his court to a count( and ho$ he had een re8

cei%ed in an eas'8chair"

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We see in the 3emoirs of 3ademoise--e that that

au*ust )rincess )assed one8fourth of her -ife amid

the morta- a*onies of dis)utes for the ac8chair"

Were 'ou to sit in a certain a)artment( in a chair( or

on a stoo-( or not to sit at a-- J &ere $as enou*h to

in%o-%e a $ho-e court in intri*ue" 3anners are no$

more eas'G -adies ma' use couches and sofas $ith8

out occasionin* an' disturance in societ'"

When Cardina- de Riche-ieu $as treatin* $ith the

En*-ish amassadors for the marria*e of &enriette

of France $ith Char-es I"( the aMair $as on the )oint

of ein* roen oM on account of a demand made

' the amassadors of t$o or three ste)s more to8

$ards a doorG ut the cardina- remo%ed the di8

cu-t' ' tain* to his ed" &istor' has carefu--'

handed do$n this )recious circumstance" I e-ie%e

that( if it had een )ro)osed to Sci)io to *et et$een

the sheets to recei%e the %isit of &annia-( he $ou-d

ha%e thou*ht the ceremon' somethin* -ie a Qoe"

For a $ho-e centur' the order of carria*es and

tain* the $a-- $ere testimonia-s of *reatness and

the source of )retensions( dis)utes( and conicts" To

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Dictionar'" >

)rocure the )assin* of one carria*e efore another

$as -ooed u)on as a si*na- %ictor'" The amas8

sadors $ent a-on* the streets as if the' $ere con8

tendin* for the )ri4e in the circus G and $hen a S)an8

ish minister had succeeded in main* a Portu*uese

coachman )u-- u)( he sent a courier to 3adrid to

a))rise the in*( his master( of this *reat ad%anta*e"

Our histories re*a-e us $ith ft' )u*i-istic com8

ats for )recedence as that of the )ar-iament $ith

the isho)s5 c-ers at the funera- of &enr' IV"( the

chamre des com)tes $ith the )ar-iament in the ca8

thedra- $hen Louis ;III" *a%e France to the Vir*in(

the due of E)ernon $ith the ee)er of the sea-s(

Du Vair( in the church of St" ermain" The )res8

idents of the enHuetes uMeted Sa%are( the do'en of

the consei--ers de *rand5 chamre( to mae him Huit

his )-ace of honor so much is honor the sou- of mo8

narchica- *o%ernments U ( and four archers $ere

o-i*ed to -a' ho-d of the President !ari--on( $ho

$as eatin* the )oor do'en $ithout merc'" We nd

no contests -ie these in the Areo)a*us( nor in the

Roman senate"

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In )ro)ortion to the ararism of countries or

the $eaness of courts( $e nd ceremon' in %o*ue"

 True )o$er and true )o-iteness are ao%e %anit'" We

ma' %enture to e-ie%e that the custom $i-- at -ast e

*i%en u) $hich some amassadors sti-- retain( of

ruinin* themse-%es in order to *o a-on* the streets

in )rocession $ith a fe$ hired carria*es( fresh

)ainted and *i-ded( and )receded ' a fe$ footmen"

O Phi-oso)hica-

 This is ca--ed #main* their entr'# G and it is a ne

 Qoe to mae 'our entr' into a to$n se%en or ei*ht

months efore 'ou arri%e"

 This im)ortant aMair of )uncti-io( $hich consti8

tutes the *reatness of the modern Romans this

science of the numer of ste)s that shou-d e made

in sho$in* in a monsi*nor( in dra$in* or ha-f dra$8

in* a curtain( in $a-in* in a room to the ri*ht or to

the -eft this *reat art( $hich neither Faius norCato

cou-d e%er ima*ine( is e*innin* to sinG and the

train8earers to the cardina-s com)-ain that e%er'8

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thin* indicates a dec-ine"

A French co-one-( ein* at !russe-s a 'ear after

the tain* of that )-ace ' 3arsha- de SaBe( and

ha%in* nothin* to do( reso-%ed to *o to the to$n as8

sem-'" #It is he-d at a )rincess5(# said one to him"

#!e it so(# ans$ered the other( #$hat matters it to

meJ# #!ut on-' )rinces *o thereG are 'ou a

)rinceJ# #Psha$ # said the co-one-( #the' are a %er'

*ood sort of )rinces G I had a do4en of them in m'

anteroom -ast 'ear( $hen $e had taen the to$n(

and the' $ere %er' )o-ite"#

In turnin* o%er the -ea%es of #&orace# I oser%e

this -ine in an e)ist-e to 3aecenas( #Te( du-cis amice

re%isa%n"# #I $i-- come and see 'ou( m' *ood

friend"# This 3aecenas $as the second )erson in the

Roman Em)ire G that is( a man of *reater )o$er and

inuence than the *reatest monarch of modern Eu8

ro)e"

Looin* into the $ors of Cornei--e( I oser%ed

Dictionar'" =

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that in a -etter to the *reat Scuderi( *o%ernor of

Notre Dame de -a arde( etc"( he uses this eB)ression

in reference to Cardina- Riche-ieu 0 #3onsieur the

cardina-( 'our master and mine"# It is( )erha)s( the

rst time that such -an*ua*e has een a))-ied to a

minister( since there ha%e een ministers( in*s and

atterers in the $or-d" The same Peter Cornei--e(

the author of #Cinna(# hum-' dedicates that $or to

the Sieur de 3ontauron( the in*5s treasurer( $hom

in direct terms he com)ares to Au*ustus" I re*ret

that he did not *i%e 3ontauron the tit-e of mon8

sei*neur or m' -ord"

An anecdote is re-ated of an o-d ocer( ut -itt-e

con%ersant $ith the )recedents and formu-as of

%anit'( $ho $rote to the 3arHuis Lou%ois as )-ain

monsieur( ut recei%in* no ans$er( neBt addressed

him under the tit-e of monsei*neur( sti--( ho$e%er(

$ithout eMect( the un-uc' monsieur continuin* to

ran-e in the minister5s heart" &e na--' directed his

-etter #to m' od( m' od Lou%ois# G commencin*

it ' the $ords( #m' od( m' Creator"# Does not

a-- this sucient-' )ro%e that the Romans $ere ma*8

nanimous and modest( and that $e are fri%o-ous and

%ainJ

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#&o$ d5'e do( m' dear friendJ# said a due and

)eer to a *ent-eman" #At 'our ser%ice( m' dear

friend(# re)-ied he G and from that instant his #dear

friend# ecame his im)-aca-e enem'" A *randee of

Portu*a- $as once con%ersin* $ith a S)anish hida-*o

and addressin* him e%er' moment in the terms(

Phi-oso)hica-

#'our eBce--enc'"# The Casti-ian as freHuent-' re8

)-ied( #'our courtes'# %uestra mercedU( a tit-e e8

sto$ed on those $ho ha%e none ' ri*ht" The irri8

tated Portu*uese in return retorted #'our courtes'#

on the S)aniard( $ho then ca--ed the Portu*uese

#'our eBce--enc'"# The Portu*uese( at -en*th

$earied out( demanded( #&o$ is it that 'ou a-$a's

ca-- me 'our courtes'( $hen I ca-- 'ou 'our eBce-8

-enc'( and 'our eBce--enc' $hen I ca-- 'ou 'our

courtes' J# #The reason is(# sa's the Casti-ian $ith

a o$( #that a-- tit-es are eHua- to me( )ro%ided that

there is nothin* eHua- et$een 'ou and me"#

 The %anit' of tit-es $as not introduced into our

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northern c-imes of Euro)e ti-- the Romans had e8

come acHuainted $ith Asiatic ma*nicence" The

*reater )art of the so%erei*ns of Asia $ere( and sti--

are( cousins *erman of the sun and the moon G their

suQects dare not mae an' )retension to such hi*h

anit' G and man' a )ro%incia- *o%ernor( $ho st'-es

himse-f #nutme* of conso-ation# and #rose of de8

-i*ht# $ou-d e em)a-ed a-i%e if he $ere to c-aim the

s-i*htest re-ationshi) to the sun and moon"

Constantine $as( I thin( the rst Roman em)eror

$ho o%er$he-med Christian humi-it' in a )a*e of

)om)ous tit-es" It is true that efore his time the

em)erors ore the tit-e of *od( ut the term im)-ied

nothin* simi-ar to $hat $e understand ' it" Di%us

Au*ustus( Di%us TraQanus( meant St" Au*ustus( St"

 TraQan" It $as thou*ht on-' conforma-e to the

Dictionar'"

di*nit' of the Roman Em)ire that the sou- of its chief

shou-d( after his death( ascend to hea%en G and it fre8

Huent-' e%en ha))ened that the tit-e of saint( of

*od( $as *ranted to the em)eror ' a sort of antici8

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)ated inheritance" Near-' for the same reason the

rst )atriarchs of the Christian church $ere a-- ca--ed

55'our ho-iness"# The' $ere thus named to remind

them of $hat in fact the' ou*ht to e"

3en sometimes tae u)on themse-%es %er' hum-e

tit-es( )ro%ided the' can otain from others %er' hon8

ora-e ones" 3an' an ae $ho ca--s himse-f rother

eBacts from his mons the tit-e of monsei*neur" The

)o)e st'-es himse-f #ser%ant of the ser%ants of od"#

An honest )riest of &o-stein once addressed a -etter

55to Pius IV"( ser%ant of the ser%ants of od"# &e

after$ards $ent to Rome to ur*e his suit( and the in8

Huisition )ut him in )rison to teach him ho$ to ad8

dress -etters"

Former-' the em)eror a-one had the tit-e of

maQest'" Other so%erei*ns $ere ca--ed 'our hi*h8

ness( 'our serenit'( 'our *race" Louis ;I" $as the

rst in France $ho $as *enera--' ca--ed maQest'( a

tit-e certain-' not -ess suita-e to the di*nit' of a

)o$erfu- hereditar' in*dom than to an e-ecti%e )rin8

ci)a-it'" !ut -on* after him the term hi*hness $as

a))-ied to in*s of FranceG and some -etters to

&enr' III" are sti-- eBtant in $hich he is addressed

' that tit-e" The states of Or-eans oQected to

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:ueen Catherine de 3edici ein* ca--ed maQest'"

Phi-oso)hica-

!ut this -ast denomination *radua--' )re%ai-ed" The

name is indiMerentG it is the )o$er a-one that is

not so"

 The erman chancer'( e%er unchan*ea-e in its

state-' forma-ities( has )retended do$n to our o$n

times that no in*s ha%e a ri*ht to a hi*her tit-e than

serenit'" At the ce-erated treat' of West)ha-ia( in

$hich France and S$eden dictated the -a$ to the

ho-' Roman Em)ire( the em)eror5s )-eni)otentiar"s

continua--' )resented Latin memoria-s( in $hich #his

most sacred im)eria- maQest'# ne*otiated $ith the

#most serene in*s of France and S$eden# G $hi-e(

on the other hand( the French and S$edes fai- not to

dec-are that their #sacred maQesties of France and

S$eden# had man' suQects of com)-aint a*ainst the

#most serene em)eror"# Since that )eriod( ho$e%er(

the *reat so%erei*ns ha%e( in re*ard to ran( een

considered as eHua-s( and he a-one $ho eats his

nei*hor is adQud*ed to ha%e the )re8eminence"

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Phi-i) II" $as the rst maQest' in S)ain( for the

serenit' of Char-es V" $as con%erted into maQest'

on-' on account of the em)ire" The chi-dren of

Phi-i) II" $ere the rst hi*hnesses G and after$ards

the' $ere ro'a- hi*hnesses" The due of Or-eans(

rother of Louis ;III"( did not tae u) the tit-e of

ro'a- hi*hness ti-- =@= G then the )rince of Conde

c-aimed that the most serene hi*hness( $hich the

Dues de Vendome did not %enture to assume" The

due of Sa%o'( at that time ro'a- hi*hness( after8

$ards sustituted maQest'" The *rand due of

Dictionar'" <

F-orence did the same( eBce)tin* as to maQest' G and

na--' the c4ar( $ho $as no$n in Euro)e on-' as

the *rand due( dec-ared himse-f em)eror( and $as

reco*ni4ed as such"

Former-' there $ere on-' t$o marHuises in er8

man'( t$o in France and t$o in Ita-'" The marHuis

of !randenur* has ecome a in*( and a *reat

in*" !ut at )resent our Ita-ian and French mar8

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Huises are of a some$hat diMerent s)ecies"

If an Ita-ian citi4en has the honor of *i%in* a din8

ner to the -e*ate of his )ro%ince( and the -e*ate( $hen

drinin*( sa's to him( #3onsieur -e marHuis( to 'our

*ood hea-th(# he sudden-' ecomes a marHuis( he and

his heirs after him( fore%er" If the inhaitant of an'

)ro%ince of France( $hose $ho-e estate consists of

a Huarter )art of a -itt-e deca'ed cast-e8$ard( *oes to

Paris( maes somethin* of a fortune( or carries the

air of ha%in* made one( he is st'-ed in the deeds and

-e*a- instruments in $hich he is concerned #hi*h and

mi*ht' sei*neur( marHuis and count(# and his son

$i-- e denominated ' his notar' #%er' hi*h and

%er' mi*ht' sei*neur(# and as this fri%o-ous amition

is in no $a' inQurious to *o%ernment or ci%i- societ'(

it is )ermitted to tae its course" Some French -ords

oast of em)-o'in* erman arons in their sta-esG

some erman -ords sa' the' ha%e French marHuises

in their itchens G it is not a -on* time since a for8

ei*ner at Na)-es made his coachman a due" Custom

in these cases has more )o$er than ro'a- authorit'"

If 'ou are ut -itt-e no$n at Paris( 'ou ma' there e

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@ Phi-oso)hica-

a count or a marHuis as -on* as 'ou )-ease G if 'ou

are connected $ith the -a$ of nance( thou*h the

in* shou-d confer on 'ou a rea- marHuisate( 'ou $i--

not( therefore( e monsieur -e marHuis" The ce-e8

rated Samue- !ernard $as( in truth( more a count

than %e hundred such as $e often see not )ossessin*

four acres of -and" The in* had con%erted his es8

tate of Couert into a ne count' G 'et if on an' oc8

casion he had ordered himse-f to e announced as

Count !ernard( etc"( he $ou-d ha%e eBcited ursts

of -au*hter" In En*-and it is diMerent G if the in*

confers the tit-e of ear- or aron on a merchant( a--

c-asses address him $ith the desi*nation suita-e to

it $ithout the s-i*htest hesitation" !' )ersons of the

hi*hest irth( ' the in* himse-f( he is ca--ed m'

-ord" It is the same in Ita-' G there is a re*ister e)t

there of monsi*nori" The )o)e himse-f addresses

them under that tit-eG his )h'sician is monsi*nor(

and no one oQects"

In France the tit-e of monsei*neur or m' -ord is a

%er' serious usiness" !efore the time of Cardina-

Riche-ieu a isho) $as on-' #a most re%erend father

in od"#

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!efore the 'ear =@< isho)s did not on8-' not as8

sume the tit-e of monsei*neur themse-%es( ut the'

did not e%en *i%e it to cardina-s" These t$o customs

$ere introduced ' a isho) of Chartres( $ho( in fu--

canonica-s of -a$n and )ur)-e( $ent to ca-- Cardina-

Riche-ieu monsei*neur( on $hich occasion Louis

Dictionar'"

;III" oser%ed that #Chartrain $ou-d not mind

sa-utin* the cardina- au derriere"#

It is on-' since that )eriod that isho)s ha%e

mutua--' a))-ied to each other the tit-e of mon8

sei*neur"

 The )u-ic made no oQection to this a))-ication

of itG ut( as it $as a ne$ tit-e( not conferred on

isho)s ' in*s( the' continued to e ca--ed sieurs

in edicts( dec-arations( ordinances and a-- ocia- doc8

umentsG and $hen the counci- $rote to a isho)

the' *a%e him no hi*her tit-e than monsieur"

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 The dues and )eers ha%e encountered more di8

cu-t' in acHuirin* )ossession of the tit-e of mon8

sei*neur" The *rande no-esse( and $hat is ca--ed

the *rand roe( decided-' refuse them that distinc8

tion" The hi*hest *ratication of human )ride con8

sists in a man5s recei%in* tit-es of honor from those

$ho concei%e themse-%es his eHua-s G ut to attain

this is eBceedin*-' dicu-t G )ride a-$a's nds )ride

to contend $ith"

When the dues insisted on recei%in* the tit-e of

monsei*neur from the c-ass of *ent-emen( the )resi8

dents of the )ar-iaments reHuired the same from ad8

%ocates and )roctors" A certain )resident actua--'

refused to e -ed ecause his sur*eon ased0 #In

$hich arm $i-- 'ou e -ed( monsieurJ# An o-d

counse--or treated this matter some$hat more *a'-'"

A )-eader $as sa'in* to him( #3onsei*neur( mon8

sieur( 'our secretar'# """" &e sto))ed him short 0

7 Phi-oso)hica-

#6ou ha%e uttered three -unders(# sa's he( #in as

man' $ords" I am not monsei*neur G m' secretar'

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is not monsieurG he is m' c-er"#

 To )ut an end to this *rand conict of %anit' it

$i-- e%entua--' e found necessar' to *i%e the tit-e

of monsei*neur to e%er' indi%idua- in the nation G as

$omen( $ho $ere former-' content $ith mademoi8

se--e( are no$ to e ca--ed madame" In S)ain( $hen

a mendicant meets a rother e**ar( he thus accosts

him 0 #&as 'our courtes' taen choco-ate J# This

)o-iteness of -an*ua*e e-e%ates the mind and ee)s

u) the di*nit' of the s)ecies" Caesar and Pom)e'

$ere ca--ed in the senate Caesar and Pom)e'" !ut

these men ne$ nothin* of -ife" The' ended their

-etters $ith %a-e adieu" We( $ho )ossess more

eBa-ted notions( $ere siBt' 'ears a*o #aMectionate

ser%ants#G then #%er' hum-e and %er' oedient#G

and no$ $e #ha%e the honor to e# so" I rea--'

*rie%e for )osterit'( $hich $i-- nd it eBtreme-'

dicu-t to add to these %er' eautifu- formu-as" The

Due d5)ernon( the rst of ascons in )ride(

thou*h far from ein* the rst of statesmen( $rote

on his deathed to Cardina- Riche-ieu and ended his

-etter $ith 0 #6our %er' hum-e and %er' oedient"#

Reco--ectin*( ho$e%er( that the cardina- had used

on-' the )hrase #%er' aMectionate(# he des)atched

an eB)ress to rin* ac the -etter for it had een

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actua--' sent oMU( e*an it ane$( si*ned #%er' aMec8

tionate(# and died in the ed of honor"

We ha%e made man' of these oser%ations e-se8

Dictionar'" >

$here" It is $e--( ho$e%er( to re)eat them( $ere it

on-' to correct some )om)ous )eacocs( $ho $ou-d

strut a$a' their -i%es in contem)ti-' dis)-a'in*

their )-umes and their )ride"

CERTAIN CERTAINT6"

I A3 certain G I ha%e friends G m' fortune is

secure G m' re-ations $i-- ne%er aandon me G I sha--

ha%e Qustice done me G m' $or is *ood( it $i-- e

$e-- recei%ed G $hat is o$in* to me $i-- e )aid G m'

friend $i-- e faithfu-( he has s$orn it G the minister

$i-- ad%ance me he has( ' the $a'( )romised it

a-- these are $ords $hich a man $ho has -i%ed a

short time in the $or-d erases from his dictionar'"

When the Qud*es condemned L5An*-ade( Le

!run( a-as( Sir%en( 3artin( 3ontai--i( and so

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man' others( since acno$-ed*ed to ha%e een inno8

cent( the' $ere certain( or the' ou*ht to ha%e een

certain( that a-- these unha))' men $ere *ui-t' G 'et

the' $ere decei%ed" There are t$o $a's of ein*

decei%edG ' fa-se Qud*ment and se-f8-indness

that of errin* -ie a man of *enius( and that of decid8

in* -ie a foo-"

 The Qud*es decei%ed themse-%es -ie men of

*enius in the aMair of L5An*-adeG the' $ere

-inded ' da44-in* a))earances and did not su8

cient-' eBamine the )roai-ities on the other side"

 Their $isdom made them e-ie%e it certain that

L5An*-ade had committed a theft( $hich he certain-'

had not committed G and on this misera-e uncertain

Vo-"

<? Phi-oso)hica-

certaint' of the human mind( a *ent-eman $as )ut to

the ordinar' and eBtraordinar' Huestion G suseHuent

thro$n( $ithout succor( into a dun*eon and con8

demned to the *a--e's( $here he died" &is $ife $as

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shut u) in another dun*eon( $ith her dau*hter(

a*ed se%en 'ears( $ho after$ards married a coun8

se--or of the same )ar-iament $hich had condemned

her father to the *a--e's and her mother to anish8

ment"

It is c-ear that the Qud*es $ou-d not ha%e )ro8

nounced this sentence had the' een rea--' certain"

&o$e%er( e%en at the time this sentence $as )assed

se%era- )ersons ne$ that the theft had een com8

mitted ' a )riest named a*nat( associated $ith a

hi*h$a'man( and the innocence of L5An*-ade $as

not reco*ni4ed ti-- after his death"

 The' $ere in the same manner certain $hen( ' a

sentence in the rst instance( the' condemned to

the $hee- the innocent Le !run( $ho( ' an arret

)ronounced on his a))ea-( $as roen on the rac(

and died under the torture"

 The eBam)-es of a-as and Sir%en are $e-- no$n(

that of 3artin is -ess so" &e $as an honest a*ricu-8

turist near !ar in Lorraine" A %i--ain sto-e his dress

and in this dress murdered a tra%e--er $hom he ne$

to ha%e mone' and $hose route he had $atched"

3artin $as accused( his dress $as a $itness a*ainst

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him G the Qud*es re*arded this e%idence as a cer8

taint'" Not the )ast conduct of the )risoner( a num8

erous fami-' $hom he had rou*ht u) %irtuous-'(

Dictionar'" < =

neither the -itt-e mone' found on him( nor the eB8

treme )roai-it' of his innocence nothin* cou-d

sa%e him" The sua-tern Qud*e made a merit of his

ri*or" &e condemned the innocent %ictim to e

roen on the $hee-( and( ' an unha))' fata-it' the

sentence $as eBecuted to the fu-- eBtent" The senior

3artin is roen a-i%e( ca--in* od to $itness his

innocence to his -ast reath G his fami-' is dis)ersed(

his -itt-e )ro)ert' is conscated( and scarce-' are his

roen memers eB)osed on the *reat road $hen the

assassin $ho had committed the murder and theft is

)ut in )rison for another crime( and confesses on the

rac( to $hich he is condemned in his turn( that he

on-' $as *ui-t' of the crime for $hich 3artin had

suMered torture and death"

3ontai--i( $ho s-e)t $ith his $ife( $as accused

$ith ha%in*( in concert $ith her( i--ed his mother(

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$ho had e%ident-' died of a)o)-eB'" The counci- of

Arras condemned 3ontai--i to eB)ire on the rac(

and his $ife to e urnt" Their innocence $as dis8

co%ered( ut not unti- 3ontai--i had een tortured"

Let us cease ad%ertence to these me-ancho-' ad%en8

tures( $hich mae us *roan at the human condition G

ut -et us continue to -ament the )retended certaint'

of Qud*es( $hen the' )ass such sentences"

 There is no certaint'( eBce)t $hen it is )h'sica--'

or mora--' im)ossi-e that the thin* can e other8

$ise" What is a strict demonstration necessar' to

ena-e us to assert that the surface of a s)here is

eHua- to four times the area of its *reat circ-e G and

< Phi-oso)hica-

is not one reHuired to $arrant tain* a$a' the -ife of

a citi4en ' a dis*racefu- )unishmentJ

If such is the misfortune of humanit' that Qud*es

must e contented $ith eBtreme )roai-ities( the'

shou-d at -east consu-t the a*e( the ran( the conduct

of the accused the interest $hich he cou-d ha%e in

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committin* the crime( and the interest of his enemies

to destro' him" E%er' Qud*e shou-d sa' to himse-f 0

Wi-- not )osterit'( $i-- not entire Euro)e condemn

m' sentence J Sha-- I s-ee) tranHui--' $ith m' hands

tainted $ith innocent -ood J Let us )ass from this

horri-e )icture to other eBam)-es of a certaint'

$hich -eads direct-' to error"

Wh' art thou -oaded $ith chains( fanatica- and

unha))' Santon J Wh' hast thou added a -ar*e iron

rin* on th' misera-e scour*eJ It is ecause I am

certain of ein* one da' )-aced in the rst hea%en(

' the side of our *reat )ro)het" A-as( m' friend(

come $ith me to the nei*horhood of 3ount Athos

and thou $i-t see three thousand mendicants $ho are

as certain that thou $i-t *o to the *u-f $hich is under

the narro$ rid*e( as that the' $i-- a-- *o to the rst

hea%en

Sto)( misera-e 3a-aar $ido$( e-ie%e not the

foo- $ho )ersuades 'ou that 'ou sha-- e reunited to

'our husand in a-- the de-i*hts of another $or-d( if

'ou urn 'ourse-f on his funera- )i-e No( I )ersist

in urnin* m'se-f ecause I am certain of -i%in* in

fe-icit' $ith m' husand G m' rahmin to-d me so"

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Let us attend to -ess fri*htfu- certainties( and

Dictionar'" <

$hich ha%e a -itt-e more a))earance of truth" What

is the a*e of 'our friend Christo)her J T$ent'8ei*ht

'ears" I ha%e seen his marria*e contract( and his

a)tisma- re*isterG I ne$ him in his infanc'G he

is t$ent'8ei*ht I am certain of it"

Scarce-' ha%e I heard the ans$er of this man(

so sure of $hat he said( and of t$ent' others $ho

conrmed the same thin*( $hen I -earn that for

secret reasons( and ' a sin*u-ar circumstance the

a)tisma- re*ister of Christo)her has een antedated"

 Those to $hom I had s)oen as 'et no$ nothin* of

it( 'et the' ha%e sti-- the same certaint' of that $hich

is not"

If 'ou had ased the $ho-e earth efore the time

of Co)ernicus 0 has the sun risen J has it set to8da' J

a-- men $ou-d ha%e ans$ered 0 We are Huite certain

of it" The' $ere certain and the' $ere in error"

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Witchcraft( di%inations( and )ossessions $ere for

a -on* time the most certain thin*s in the $or-d in

the e'es of societ'" What an innumera-e cro$d of

)eo)-e $ho ha%e seen a-- these ne thin*s and $ho

ha%e een certain of them At )resent this certaint'

is a -itt-e shaen"

A 'oun* man $ho is e*innin* to stud' *eometr'

comes to me G he is on-' at the denition of trian*-es"

Are 'ou not certain( said I to him( that the three

an*-es of a trian*-e are eHua- to t$o ri*ht an*-esJ

&e ans$ered that not on-' $as he not certain of it(

ut that he had not the s-i*htest idea of the )ro)osi8

tion" I demonstrated it to him" &e then ecame

< Phi-oso)hica-

%er' certain of it( and $i-- remain so a-- his -ife"

 This is a certaint' %er' diMerent from the othersG

the' $ere on-' )roai-ities and these )roai-ities(

$hen eBamined( ha%e turned out errors( ut mathe8

matica- certaint' is immuta-e and eterna-"

I eBist( I thin( I fee- *rief is a-- that as certain

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as a *eometrica- truthJ 6es( se)tica- as I am( I

a%o$ it" Wh'J It is that these truths are )ro%ed

' the same )rinci)-e that it is im)ossi-e for a thin*

to eBist and not eBist at the same time" I cannot

at the same time fee- and not fee-" A trian*-e can8

not at the same time contain a hundred and ei*ht'

de*rees( $hich are the sum of t$o ri*ht an*-es( and

not contain them" The )h'sica- certaint' of m' eB8

istence( of m' identit'( is of the same %a-ue as mathe8

matica- certaint'( a-thou*h it is of a diMerent ind"

It is not the same $ith the certaint' founded on

a))earances( or on the unanimous testimon' of man8

ind"

!ut ho$( 'ou $i-- sa' to me( are 'ou not certain

that Pein eBists J &a%e 'ou not merchandise from

PeinJ Peo)-e of diMerent countries and diMerent

o)inions ha%e %ehement-' $ritten a*ainst one an8

other $hi-e )reachin* the truth at Pein G then are

'ou not assured of the eBistence of this to$nJ I

ans$er that it is eBtreme-' )roa-e that there ma'

e a cit' of Pein ut I $ou-d not $a*er m' -ife that

such a to$n eBists( and I $ou-d at an' time $a*er

m' -ife that the three an*-es of a trian*-e are eHua-

to t$o ri*ht an*-es"

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Dictionar'" <<

In the#Dictionnaire Enc'c-o)ediHue#a" %er' )-eas8

ant thin* a))ears" It is there maintained that a man

ou*ht to e as certain that 3arsha- SaBe rose from

the dead( if a-- Paris te--s him so( as he is sure that

3arsha- SaBe *ained the att-e of Fonteno'( u)on

the same testimon'" Pra' oser%e the eaut' of this

reasonin* 0 as I e-ie%e a-- Paris $hen it te--s me a

thin* mora--' )ossi-e( I ou*ht to e-ie%e a-- Paris

$hen it te--s me a thin* mora--' and )h'sica--' im8

)ossi-e" A))arent-' the author of this artic-e has

a dis)osition to e risi-e G as to ourse-%es $ho ha%e

on-' undertaen this -itt-e dictionar' to as a fe$

Huestions( $e are %er' far from )ossessin* this %er'

eBtensi%e certaint'"

C&AIN OF CREATED !EINS"

 T&E *radation of ein*s risin* from the -o$est

to the reat Su)reme the sca-e of innit' is an

idea that --s us $ith admiration( ut $hen steadi-'

re*arded this )hantom disa))ears( as a))aritions

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$ere $ont to %anish at the cro$in* of the coc"

 The ima*ination is )-eased $ith the im)erce)ti-e

transition from rute matter to or*ani4ed matter(

from )-ants to 4oo)h'tes( from 4oo)h'tes to anima-s(

from anima-s to men( from men to *enii( from these

*enii( c-ad in a -i*ht aeria- od'( to immateria- su8

stances of a thousand diMerent orders( risin* from

eaut' to )erfection( u) to od &imse-f" This hier8

arch' is %er' )-easin* to 'oun* men $ho -oo u)on

it as u)on the )o)e and cardina-s( fo--o$ed ' the

<@ Phi-oso)hica-

archisho)s and isho)s( after $hom are the %icars(

curates and )riests( the deacons and sudeacons(

then come the mons( and the ca)uchins rin* u) the

rear"

!ut there is( )erha)s( a some$hat *reater distance

et$een od and &is most )erfect creatures than

et$een the ho-' father and the dean of the sacred

co--e*e" The dean ma' ecome )o)e( ut can the

most )erfect *enii created ' the Su)reme !ein* e8

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come od J Is there not innit' et$een them J

Nor does this chain( this )retended *radation( an'

more eBist in %e*eta-es and anima-s G the )roof is

that some s)ecies of )-ants and anima-s ha%e een

entire-' destro'ed" We ha%e no mureB" The 1e$s

$ere foridden to eat *rin and iBion( these t$o

s)ecies( $hate%er !ochart ma' sa'( ha%e )roa-'

disa))eared from the earth" Where( then( is the

chain J

Su))osin* that $e had not -ost some s)ecies( it is

e%ident that the' ma' e destro'ed" Lions and

rhinoceroses are ecomin* %er' scarce( and if the

rest of the nations had imitated the En*-ish( there

$ou-d not no$ ha%e een a $o-f -eft" It is )roa-e

that there ha%e een races of men $ho are no -on*er

to e found" Wh' shou-d the' not ha%e eBisted as

$e-- as the $hites( the -acs( the Kars( to $hom

nature has *i%en an a)ron of their o$n sin( han*8

in* from the e--' to the midd-e of the thi*h G the

Samo'eds( $hose $omen ha%e ni))-es of a eautifu-

 Qet"

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Dictionar'" <

Is there not a manifest %oid et$een the a)e and

man J Is it not eas' to ima*ine a t$o8-e**ed anima-

$ithout feathers ha%in* inte--i*ence $ithout our

sha)e or the use of s)eech one $hich $e cou-d tame(

$hich $ r ou-d ans$er our si*ns( and ser%e us J And

a*ain( et$een this s)ecies and man( cannot $e

ima*ine othersJ

!e'ond man( di%ine P-ato( 'ou )-ace in hea%en

a strin* of ce-estia- sustances( in some of $hich $e

e-ie%e ecause the faith so teaches us" !ut $hat

reason had 'ou to e-ie%e in them J It does not a)8

)ear that 'ou had s)oen $ith the *enius of Soc8

rates( and thou*h &eres( *ood man( rose a*ain on

)ur)ose to te-- 'ou the secrets of the other $or-d( he

to-d 'ou nothin* of these sustances" In the sen8

si-e uni%erse the )retended chain is no -ess inter8

ru)ted"

What *radation( I )ra' 'ou( is there amon* the

)-anetsJ The moon is fort' times sma--er than our

*-oe" Tra%e--in* from the moon throu*h s)ace( 'ou

nd Venus( aout as -ar*e as the earth" From thence

'ou *o to 3ercur'( $hich re%o-%es in an e--i)sis %er'

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diMerent from the circu-ar orit of VenusG it is

t$ent'8se%en times sma--er than the earth( the sun is

a mi--ion times -ar*er( and 3ars is %e times sma--er"

 The -atter *oes his round in t$o 'ears( his nei*hor

 1u)iter in t$e-%e( and Saturn in thirt' G 'et Saturn(

the most distant of a--( is not so -ar*e as 1u)iter"

Where is the )retended *radation J

And then( ho$( in so man' em)t' s)aces( do 'ou

<7 Phi-oso)hica-

eBtend a chain connectin* the $ho-eJ There can

certain-' e no other than that $hich Ne$ton dis8

co%ered that $hich maes a-- the *-oes of the )-an8

etar' $or-d *ra%itate one to$ards another in the im8

mense %oid"

Oh( much admired P-ato I fear that 'ou ha%e

to-d us nothin* ut fa-es( that 'ou ha%e s)oen to

us on-' as a so)hist Oh( P-ato 'ou ha%e done more

mischief than 'ou are a$are of" &o$ soJ 'ou $i--

as" I $i-- not te-- 'ou"

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C&AIN OR ENERATION OF EVENTS"

 T&E )resent( $e sa'( is )re*nant $ith the future G

e%ents are -ined one $ith another ' an in%inci-e

fata-it'" This is the fate $hich( in &omer( is su)e8

rior to 1u)iter himse-f" The master of *ods and men

eB)ress-' dec-ares that he cannot )re%ent his son

Sar)edon from d'in* at the time a))ointed" Sar8

)edon $as orn at the moment $hen it $as neces8

sar' that he shou-d e orn( and cou-d not e orn

at an' other G he cou-d not die e-se$here than efore

 Tro'G he cou-d not e uried e-se$here than in

L'cia G his od' must( in the a))ointed time( )roduce

%e*eta-es( $hich must chan*e into the sustance of

some of the L'cians G his heirs must esta-ish a ne$

order of thin*s in his states G that ne$ order must

inuence nei*horin* in*doms G thence must resu-t

a ne$ arran*ement in $ar and in )eace $ith the

nei*hors of L'cia" So that( from -in to -in( the

destin' of the $ho-e earth de)ended on the e-o)e8

Dictionar'" <>

ment of &e-en( $hich had a necessar' connection

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$ith the marria*e of &ecua( $hich( ascendin* to

hi*her e%ents( $as connected $ith the ori*in of

thin*s"

&ad an' one of these occurrences een ordered

other$ise( the resu-t $ou-d ha%e een a diMerent

uni%erse" No$( it $as not )ossi-e for the actua-

uni%erse not to eBist G therefore it $as not )ossi-e

for 1u)iter( 1o%e as he $as( to sa%e the -ife of his

son" We are to-d that this doctrine of necessit' and

fata-it' has een in%ented in our o$n times ' Lei8

nit4( under the name of sucin* reason" It is( ho$8

e%er( of *reat antiHuit'" It is no recent disco%er'

that there is no eMect $ithout a cause and that often

the sma--est cause )roduces the *reatest eMects"

Lord !o-in*roe acno$-ed*es that he $as in8

deted to the )ett' Huarre-s et$een the duchess of

3ar-orou*h and 3rs" 3asham for an o))ortunit'

of conc-udin* the )ri%ate treat' et$een :ueen Anne

and Louis ;IV" This treat' -ed to the )eace of

2trecht G the )eace of 2trecht secured the throne of

S)ain to Phi-i) V" G Phi-i) too Na)-es and Sici-'

from the house of Austria" Thus the S)anish )rince(

$ho is no$ in* of Na)-es( e%ident-' o$es his in*8

dom to 3rs" 3ashamG he $ou-d not ha%e had it(

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nor e%en ha%e een orn( if the duchess of 3ar-or8

ou*h had een more com)-aisant to$ards the Hueen

of En*-andG his eBistence at Na)-es de)ended on

one fo--' more or -ess at the court of London"

EBamine the situations of e%er' )eo)-e u)on

@? Phi-oso)hica-

earth G the' are in -ie manner founded on a train of

occurrences seemin*-' $ithout connection( ut a--

connected" In this immense machine a-- is $hee-(

)u--e'( cord( or s)rin*" It is the same in )h'sica-

order" A $ind -o$in* from the southern seas and

the remotest )arts of Africa rin*s $ith it a )ortion

of the African atmos)here( $hich( fa--in* in sho$ers

in the %a--e's of the A-)s( ferti-i4es our -ands G on

the other hand our north $ind carries our %a)ors

amon* the ne*roesG $e do *ood to uinea( and

uinea to us" The chain eBtends from one end of the

uni%erse to the other"

!ut the truth of this )rinci)-e seems to me to e

stran*e-' ausedG for it is thence conc-uded that

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there is no atom( ho$e%er sma--( the mo%ement of

$hich has not inuenced the actua- arran*ement of

the $ho-e $or-dG that the most tri%ia- accident(

$hether amon* men or anima-s( is an essentia- -in

in the *reat chain of destin'"

Let us understand one another" E%er' eMect e%i8

dent-' has its cause( ascendin* from cause to cause(

into the a'ss of eternit' G ut e%er' cause has not

its eMect( *oin* do$n to the end of a*es" I *rant

that a-- e%ents are )roduced one ' anotherG if the

)ast $as )re*nant $ith the )resent( the )resent is

)re*nant $ith the futureG e%er'thin* is e*otten(

ut e%er'thin* does not e*et" It is a *enea-o*ica-

tree G e%er' house( $e no$( ascends to Adam( ut

man' of the fami-' ha%e died $ithout issue"

 The e%ents of this $or-d form a *enea-o*ica- tree"

Dictionar'" @=

It is indis)uta-e that the inhaitants of S)ain and

au- are descended from omer( and the Russians

from his 'oun*er rother 3a*o*( for in ho$ man'

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*reat oos is this *enea-o*' to e found It cannot

then e denied that the *rand Tur( $ho is a-so de8

scended from 3a*o*( is o-i*ed to him for the *ood

eatin* *i%en him in =@> ' the Em)ress Catherine

II" This occurrence is e%ident-' -ined $ith other

*reat e%ents G ut $hether 3a*o* s)at to the ri*ht

or to the -eft near 3ount Caucasus made t$o or

three circ-es in a $e-- or $hether he -a' on his ri*ht

side or his -eft( I do not see that it cou-d ha%e much

inuence on )resent aMairs"

It must e rememered( ecause it is )ro%ed '

Ne$ton( that nature is not a )-enum( and that motion

is not communicated ' co--ision unti- it has made

the tour of the uni%erse" Thro$ a od' of a certain

densit' into $ater( 'ou easi-' ca-cu-ate that at the

end of such a time the mo%ement of this od'( and

that $hich it has *i%en to the $ater( $i-- cease G the

motion $i-- e -ost and rest $i-- e restored" So the

motion )roduced ' 3a*o* in s)ittin* into a $e--

cannot ha%e inuenced $hat is no$ )assin* in 3o-8

da%ia and Wa--achia" Present e%ents( then( are not

the oMs)rin* of a-- )ast e%ents( the' ha%e their direct

-ines( ut $ith a thousand sma-- co--atera- nes the'

ha%e nothin* to do" Once more e it oser%ed that

e%er' ein* has a )arent ut e%er' one has not an

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oMs)rin*"

@ Phi-oso)hica-

C&ANES T&AT &AVE OCC2RRED IN T&E

LO!E"

W&EN $e ha%e seen $ith our o$n e'es a moun8

tain ad%ancin* into a )-ain that is( an immense roc

detached from that mountain( and co%erin* the e-ds(

an entire cast-e uried in the earth( or a s$a--o$ed8

u) ri%er urstin* from e-o$( induita-e mars of

an immense mass of $ater ha%in* once inundated a

countr' no$ inhaited( and so man' traces of other

re%o-utions( $e are e%en more dis)osed to e-ie%e in

the *reat chan*es that ha%e a-tered the face of the

$or-d than a Parisian -ad' $ho no$s that the

sHuare in $hich her house stands $as former-' a

cu-ti%ated e-d( ut a -ad' of Na)-es $ho has seen

the ruins of &ercu-aneum under*round is sti-- -ess

enthra--ed ' the )reQudice $hich -eads us to e-ie%e

that e%er'thin* has a-$a's een as it no$ is"

Was there a *reat urnin* of the $or-d in the time

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of Phaethon J Nothin* is more -ie-'( ut this catas8

tro)he $as no more caused ' the amition of Phae8

thon or the an*er of 1u)iter the Thunderer than at

Lison( in =<<( the Di%ine %en*eance $as dra$n

do$n( the suterraneous res ind-ed( and ha-f the

cit' destro'ed ' the res so often -i*hted there '

the inHuisition esides( $e no$ that 3eHuine4(

 Tetuan and considera-e hordes of Aras ha%e een

treated e%en $orse than Lison( thou*h the' had no

inHuisition" The is-and of St" Domin*o( entire-' de8

Dictionar'" @

%astated not -on* a*o( had no more dis)-eased the

reat !ein* than the is-and of CorsicaG a-- is suQect

to eterna- )h'sica- -a$s"

Su-)hur( itumen( nitre( and iron( enc-osed $ithin

the o$e-s of the earth ha%e o%erturned man' a cit'(

o)ened man' a *u-f( and $e are constant-' -ia-e to

these accidents attached to the $a' in $hich this

*-oe is )ut to*ether( Qust as( in man' countries dur8

in* $inter( $e are eB)osed to the attacs of famish8

in* $o-%es and ti*ers" If re( $hich &erac-itus e8

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-ie%ed to e the )rinci)-e of a--( has a-tered the face

of a )art of the earth( Tha-es5s rst )rinci)-e( $ater(

has o)erated as *reat chan*es"

One8ha-f of America is sti-- inundated ' the an8

cient o%ero$in*s of the 3aranon( Rio de -a P-ata(

the St" La$rence( the 3ississi))i( and a-- the ri%ers

)er)etua--' s$e--ed ' the eterna- sno$s of the hi*h8

est mountains in the $or-d( stretchin* from one end

of that continent to the other" These accumu-ated

oods ha%e a-most e%er'$here )roduced %ast

marshes" The nei*horin* -ands ha%e ecome unin8

haita-e( and the earth( $hich the hands of man

shou-d ha%e made fruitfu-( has )roduced on-' )esti8

-ence"

 The same thin* ha))ened in China and in E*')t 0

a mu-titude of a*es $ere necessar' to di* cana-s and

dr' the -ands" Add to these -en*thened disasters the

irru)tions of the sea( the -ands it has in%aded and de8

serted( the is-ands it has detached from the continent

and 'ou $i-- nd that from east to $est( from 1a)an

@ Phi-oso)hica-

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to 3ount At-as( it has de%astated more than ei*ht'

thousand sHuare -ea*ues"

 The s$a--o$in* u) of the is-and At-antis from

the ocean ma'( $ith as much reason( e considered

historica-( as fau-ous" The sha--o$ness of the At8

-antic as far as the Canaries mi*ht e taen as a )roof

of this *reat e%ent and the Canaries themse-%es for

fra*ments of the is-and At-antis"

P-ato te--s us in his #Timaus# that the E*')tian

)riests( amon* $hom he had tra%e--ed( had in their

)ossession ancient re*isters $hich certied that is8

-and5s *oin* under $ater" P-ato sa's that this catas8

tro)he ha))ened nine thousand 'ears efore his time"

No one $i-- e-ie%e this chrono-o*' on P-ato5s $ord

on-'( ut neither can an' one adduce a*ainst it an'

)h'sica- )roof( nor e%en a historica- testimon' from

an' )rofane $riter"

P-in'( in his third oo( sa's that from time im8

memoria- the )eo)-e of the southern coasts of S)ain

e-ie%ed that the sea had forced a )assa*e et$een

Ca-)e and Ai-a 0 #Indi*ence co-umnar &ercu-is %a8

cant( creduntHue )er fossas eBc-usa antea admisisse

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maria( et rerum natures mutasse faciem"#

An attenti%e tra%e--er ma' con%ince himse-f ' his

o$n e'es that the C'c-ades and the S)orades $ere

once )art of the continent of reece( and es)ecia--'

that Sici-' $as once Qoined to A)u-ia" The t$o

%o-canos of Etna and Vesu%ius ha%in* the same asis

in the sea( the -itt-e *u-f of Char'dis( the on-' dee)

Dictionar'" @<

)art of that sea( the )erfect resem-ance of the t$o

soi-s are incontro%erti-e testimonies" The oods of

Deuca-ion and O*'*es are $e-- no$n( and the

fa-es founded u)on this truth are sti-- more the ta-

of a-- the West"

 The ancients ha%e mentioned se%era- de-u*es in

Asia" The one s)oen of ' !erosus ha))ened as

he te--s usU in Cha-dsea( aout four thousand three(

or four hundred 'ears efore the Christian era( and

Asia $as as much inundated $ith fa-es aout this

de-u*e as it $as ' the o%ero$in*s of the Ti*ris

and Eu)hrates( and a-- the ri%ers that fa-- into the

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EuBine"

It is true that such o%ero$in*s cannot co%er the

countr' $ith more than a fe$ feet of $ater( ut the

conseHuent steri-it'( the $ashin* a$a' of houses( and

the destruction of catt-e are -osses $hich it reHuires

near-' a centur' to re)air" We no$ ho$ much

the' ha%e cost &o--and( more than the ha-f of $hich

has een -ost since the 'ear =?<?" She is sti-- o-i*ed

to maintain a dai-' conict $ith the e%er8threatenin*

ocean" She has ne%er em)-o'ed so man' so-diers in

resistin* her enemies as she em)-o's -aorers in con8

tinua--' defendin* her a*ainst the assau-ts of a sea

a-$a's read' to s$a--o$ her"

 The road from E*')t to Phoenicia( a-on* the or8

ders of Lae Sero( $as once Huite )ractica-e( ut

it has -on* ceased to e so G it is no$ nothin* ut a

Huicsand( moistened ' sta*nant $ater" In short( a

Vo-" 8<

@@ Phi-oso)hica-

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*reat )ortion of the earth $ou-d e no other than a

%ast )oisonous marsh inhaited ' monsters( ut for

the assiduous -aor of the human race"

We sha-- not here s)ea of the uni%ersa- de-u*e

of Noah" Let it suce to read the &o-' Scri)tures

$ith sumission" Noah5s ood $as an incom)rehen8

si-e mirac-e su)ernatura--' $ored ' the Qustice

and *oodness of an ineMa-e Pro%idence $hose $i--

it $as to destro' the $ho-e *ui-t' human race and

form a ne$ and innocent race" If the ne$ race $as

more $iced than the former( and ecame more crim8

ina- from a*e to a*e( from reformation to reforma8

tion( this is ut another eMect of the same Pro%i8

dence( of $hich it is im)ossi-e for us to fathom the

de)ths( the inconcei%a-e m'steries transmitted to the

nations of the West for man' a*es( in the Latin

trans-ation of the Se)tua*int" We sha-- ne%er enter

these a$fu- sanctuaries G our Huestions $i-- e -im8

ited to sim)-e nature"

C&ARACTER"

From the ree $ord si*nif'in* Im)ression( En*ra%in*"

It is $hat nature has en*ra%ed in us"

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CAN WE chan*e our character J 6es( if $e chan*e

our od'" A man orn turu-ent( %io-ent( and in8

eBi-e( ma'( throu*h fa--in* in his o-d a*e into an

a)o)-eB'( ecome -ie a si--'( $ea( timid( )u-in*

chi-d" &is od' is no -on*er the same( ut so -on*

as his ner%es( his -ood( and his marro$ remain in

the same state his dis)osition $i-- not chan*e an'

more than the instinct of a $o-f or a )o-ecat" The

Dictionar'" @

En*-ish author of #The Dis)ensar'(# a )oem much

su)erior to the Ita-ian #Ca)ito-i(# and )erha)s e%en

to !oi-eau5s #Lutrin(# has( as it seems to me( $e--

oser%ed"

&o$ matter( ' the %aried sha)e of )ores(

Or idiots frames( or so-emn senators"

 The character is formed of our ideas and our fee-8

in*s" No$ it is Huite c-ear that $e neither *i%e our8

se-%es fee-in*s nor ideas( therefore our character can8

not de)end on ourse-%es" If it did so de)end( e%er'

one $ou-d e )erfect" We cannot *i%e ourse-%es

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tastes( nor ta-ents( $h'( then( shou-d $e *i%e our8

se-%es Hua-itiesJ When $e do not reect $e thin

$e are masters of a-- 0 $hen $e reect $e nd that

$e are masters of nothin*"

If 'ou $ou-d aso-ute-' chan*e a man5s character

)ur*e him $ith di-uents ti-- he is dead" Char-es

;II"( in his i--ness on the $a' to !ender( $as no

-on*er the same man G he $as as tracta-e as a chi-d"

If I ha%e a $r' nose and cat5s e'es I can hide them

ehind a mas( and can I do more $ith the character

that nature has *i%en me J

A man orn %io-ent and )assionate )resents him8

se-f efore Francis L( in* of France( to com)-ain of

a tres)ass" The countenance of the )rince( the re8

s)ectfu- eha%ior of the courtiers( the %er' )-ace he

is in mae a )o$erfu- im)ression u)on this man" &e

mechanica--' casts do$n his e'es( his rude %oice is

softened( he )resents his )etition $ith humi-it'( 'ou

$ou-d thin him as mi-d as at that moment at -eastU

@7 Phi-oso)hica-

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the courtiers a))ear to e( amon* $hom he is often

disconcerted( ut if Francis I" no$s an'thin* of

)h'sio*nom'( he $i-- easi-' disco%er in his e'e(

thou*h do$ncast( *-istenin* $ith a su--en re( in the

eBtended musc-es of his face( in his fast8c-osed -i)s(

that this man is not so mi-d as he is forced to a))ear"

 The same man fo--o$s him to Pa%ia( is taen )ris8

oner a-on* $ith him and thro$n into the same dun8

*eon at 3adrid" The maQest' of Francis I" no

-on*er a$es him as efore( he ecomes fami-iar $ith

the oQect of his re%erence" One da'( )u--in* on the

in*5s oots( and ha))enin* to )u-- them on i--( the

in*( soured ' misfortune( *ro$s an*r'( on $hich

our man of courtes' $ishes his maQest' at the de%i-

and thro$s his oots out the $indo$"

SiBtus V" $as ' nature )etu-ant( ostinate(

hau*ht'( im)etuous( %indicti%e( arro*ant" This char8

acter( ho$e%er( seems to ha%e een softened ' the

tria-s of his no%itiate" !ut see him e*innin* to ac8

Huire some inuence in his orderG he ies into a

)assion a*ainst a *uardian and nocs him do$n"

!eho-d him an inHuisitor at Venice( he eBercises his

oce $ith inso-ence" !eho-d him cardina-G he is

)ossessed de--a raia )a)a-eG this ra*e trium)hs

o%er his natura- )ro)ensitiesG he uries his )erson

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and his character in oscurit' and counterfeits hu8

mi-it' and inrmit'" &e is e-ected )o)e( and the

s)rin* $hich )o-ic' had he-d ac no$ acts $ith a--

the force of its -on*8restrained e-asticit'G he is the

)roudest and most des)otic of so%erei*ns"

Dictionar'" @>

Naturam eB)e--as furea( tamen usHue recurret"

&o$e5er eB)e--ed( nature $i-- sti-- return"

Re-i*ion and mora-it' cur the stren*th of the

dis)osition( ut the' cannot destro' it" The drun8

ard in a c-oister( reduced to a Huarter of a )int of

cider each mea- $i-- ne%er more *et drun( ut he

$i-- a-$a's e fond of $ine"

A*e $eaens the characterG it is as an o-d tree

)roducin* on-' a fe$ de*enerate fruits( ut a-$a's

of the same nature( $hich is co%ered $ith nots and

moss and ecomes $orm8eaten( ut is e%er the same(

$hether oa or )ear tree" If $e cou-d chan*e our

character $e cou-d *i%e ourse-%es one and ecome

the master of nature" Can $e *i%e ourse-%es an'8

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thin*J do not $e recei%e e%er'thin*J To stri%e to

animate the indo-ent man $ith )erse%erin* acti%it'(

to free4e $ith a)ath' the oi-in* -ood of the im)et8

uous( to ins)ire a taste for )oetr' into him $ho has

neither taste nor ear $ere as futi-e as to attem)t to

*i%e si*ht to one orn -ind" We )erfect( $e ame-ior8

ate( $e concea- $hat nature has )-aced in us( ut $e

)-ace nothin* there ourse-%es"

An a*ricu-turist is to-d0 #6ou ha%e too man'

sh in this )ond G the' $i-- not thri%e( here are too

man' catt-e in 'our meado$s G the' $i-- $ant *rass

and *ro$ -ean"# After this eBhortation the )ies

come and eat one8ha-f this man5s car)s( the $o-%es

one8ha-f of his shee)( and the rest fatten" And $i--

'ou a))-aud his econom'J This countr'man is

'ourse-f G one of 'our )assions de%ours the rest and

? Phi-oso)hica-

'ou thin 'ou ha%e *ained a trium)h" Do $e not

a-most a-- resem-e the o-d *enera- of ninet'( $ho(

ha%in* found some 'oun* ocers eha%in* in a

rather disorder-' manner $ith some 'oun* $omen(

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said to them in an*er 0 #ent-emen( is this the eB8

am)-e that I set 'ou J#

C&ARIT6"

C&ARITA!LE AND !ENEFICENT INSTIT2TIONS( AL3S8

&O2SES( &OSPITALS( ETC"

CICERO freHuent-' s)eas of uni%ersa- charit'(

charitas humani *enerisG ut it does not a))ear

that the )o-ic' or the enecence of the Romans e%er

induced them to esta-ish charita-e institutions( in

$hich the indi*ent and the sic mi*ht e re-ie%ed at

the eB)ense of the )u-ic" There $as a rece)tac-e

for stran*ers at the )ort of Ostia( ca--ed ;enodo8

ium( St" 1erome renders this Qustice to the Romans"

A-mshouses seem to ha%e een unno$n in ancient

Rome" A more no-e usa*e )re%ai-ed that of su)8

)-'in* the )eo)-e $ith corn" There $ere in Rome

three hundred and t$ent'8se%en )u-ic *ranaries"

 This constant -iera-it' )rec-uded an' need of a-ms8

houses" The' $ere stran*ers to necessit'"

Neither $as there an' occasion amon* the Ro8

mans for foundin* charities" None eB)osed their

o$n chi-dren" Those of s-a%es $ere taen care of

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' their masters" Chi-dirth $as not deemed dis8

*racefu- to the dau*hters of citi4ens" The )oorest

fami-ies( maintained ' the re)u-ic and after$ards

Dictionar'" =

' the em)erors( sa$ the susistence of their chi-8

dren secured"

 The eB)ression( #charita-e esta-ishment(# maison

de charite( im)-ies a state of indi*ence amon* mod8

ern nations $hich the form of our *o%ernments has

not een a-e to )rec-ude"

 The $ord #hos)ita-(# $hich reca--s that of hos)i8

ta-it'( reminds us of a %irtue in hi*h estimation

amon* the rees( no$ no -on*er eBistin* G ut it a-so

eB)resses a %irtue far su)erior" There is a mi*ht'

diMerence et$een -od*in*( maintainin*( and )ro%id8

in* in sicness for a-- aicted a))-icants $hate%er(

and entertainin* in 'our o$n house t$o or three

tra%e--ers ' $hom 'ou mi*ht c-aim a ri*ht to e

entertained in return" &os)ita-it'( after a--( $as

ut an eBchan*e" &os)ita-s are monuments of

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enecence"

It is true that the rees $ere acHuainted $ith

charita-e institutions under the name of ;enodoia(

for stran*ers( Nosocomeia( for the sic( and Ptoia(

for the indi*ent" In Dio*enes Laertius( concernin*

!ion( $e nd this )assa*e 0 #&e suMered much from

the indi*ence of those $ho $ere char*ed $ith the

care of the sic"#

&os)ita-it' amon* friends $as ca--ed IdioBenia(

and amon* stran*ers ProBenia" &ence( the )erson

$ho recei%ed and entertained stran*ers in his house(

in the name of the $ho-e cit'( $as ca--ed ProBenos"

!ut this institution a))ears to ha%e een eBceedin*-'

rare" At the )resent da' there is scarce-' a cit' in

Phi-oso)hica-

Euro)e $ithout its hos)ita-s" The Tories ha%e them

e%en for easts( $hich seems to e carr'in* charit'

rather too far( it $ou-d e etter to for*et the easts

and thin more aout men"

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 This )rodi*ious mu-titude of charita-e esta-ish8

ments c-ear-' )ro%es a truth deser%in*G of a-- our at8

tention that man is not so de)ra%ed as e is stated

to e( and that( not$ithstandin* a-- his asurd o)in8

ions( not$ithstandin* a-- the horrors of $ar $inch

transform him into a ferocious east( $e ha%e reason

to consider him as a creature natura--' $e-- dis)osed

and ind( and $ho( -ie other anima-s( ecomes

%icious on-' in )ro)ortion as he is stun* ' )ro%oca8

tion"

 The misfortune is that he is )ro%oed too often"

3odern Rome has a-most as man' charita-e in8

stitutions as ancient Rome had trium)ha- arches and

other monuments of conHuest" The most consider8

a-e of them a-- is a an $hich -ends mone' at t$o

)er cent( u)on )-ed*e( and se--s the )ro)ert' if the

orro$er does not redeem it ' an a))ointed time"

 This esta-ishment is ca--ed the Archios)eda-e( or

chief hos)ita-" It is said a-$a's to contain $ithin its

$a--s near-' t$o thousand sic( $hich $ou-d e

aout the ftieth )art of the )o)u-ation of Rome for

this one house a-one( $ithout inc-udin* the chi-dren

rou*ht u)( and the )i-*rims -od*ed there" Where are

the com)utations $hich do not reHuire aatementJ

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&as it not een actua--' )u-ished at Rome that

the hos)ita- of the Trinit' had -od*ed and maintained

Dictionar'"

for three da's four hundred and fort' thousand %e

hundred ma-e and t$ent'8%e thousand fema-e )i-8

*rims at the Qui-ee in =@??J &as not 3isson him8

se-f to-d us that the hos)ita- of the Annunciation at

Na)-es )ossesses a renta- of t$o mi--ions in our

mone'J Aout four hundred thousand do--ars"U

&o$e%er( to return( )erha)s a charita-e esta-ish8

ment for )i-*rims $ho are *enera--' mere %a*aonds(

is rather an encoura*ement to id-eness than an act

of humanit'" It is( ho$e%er( a decisi%e e%idence

of humanit' that Rome contains ft' charita-e es8

ta-ishments inc-udin* a-- descri)tions" These

enecent institutions are Huite as usefu- and re8

s)ecta-e as the riches of some monasteries and

cha)e-s are use-ess and ridicu-ous"

 To dis)ense food( c-othin*( medicine( and aid of

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e%er' ind( to our rethren( is tru-' meritorious( ut

$hat need can a saint ha%e of *o-d and diamondsJ

What enet resu-ts to manind from #our Lad' oi

Loretto# )ossessin* more *or*eous treasures than

the Turish su-tanJ Loretto is a house of %anit'(

and not of charit'" London( reconin* its charit'

schoo-s( has as man' enecent esta-ishments as

Rome"

 The most eautifu- monument of enecence e%er

erected is the &ote- des In%a-ides( founded ' Louis

;IV"

Of a-- hos)ita-s( that in $hich the *reatest num8

er of indi*ent sic are dai-' recei%ed is the &ote-

Dieu of Paris" It freHuent-' contains four or %e

Phi-oso)hica-

thousand inmates at a time" It is at once the rece)ta8

c-e of a-- the dreadfu- i--s to $hich manind are su8

 Qect and the tem)-e of true %irtue( $hich consists in

re-ie%in* them"

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It is im)ossi-e to a%oid freHuent-' dra$in* a

contrast et$een a fete at Versai--es or an o)era at

Paris( in $hich a-- the )-easures and a-- the s)-endors

of -ife are comined $ith the most eBHuisite art( and

a &ote- Dieu( $here a-- that is )ainfu-( a-- that is

-oathsome( and e%en death itse-f are accumu-ated in

one mass of horror" Such is the com)osition of *reat

cities !' an admira-e )o-ic' )-easures and -uBur'

are rendered suser%ient to miser' and )ain" The

theatres of Paris )a' on an a%era*e the 'ear-' sum

of a hundred thousand cro$ns to the hos)ita-" It

often ha))ens in these charita-e institutions that the

incon%eniences countera-ance the ad%anta*es" One

)roof of the auses attached to them is that )atients

dread the %er' idea of ein* remo%ed to them"

 The &ote- Dieu( for eBam)-e( $as former-' $e--

situated( in the midd-e of the cit'( near the isho)5s

)a-ace" The situation no$ is %er' ad( for the cit'

has ecome o%er*ro$n G four or %e )atients are

cro$ded into e%er' ed( the %ictim of scur%' com8

municates it to his nei*hor and in return recei%es

from him sma--)oB( and a )esti-entia- atmos)here

s)reads incura-e disease and death( not on-' throu*h

the ui-din* destined to restore men to hea-thfu- -ife

ut throu*h a *reat )art of the cit' $hich surrounds

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it"

Dictionar'" <

3" de Chamousset( one of the most %a-ua-e and

acti%e of citi4ens( has com)uted( from accurate au8

thorities( that in the &ote- Dieu( a fourth )art of the

)atients die( an ei*hth in the hos)ita- of Charit'( a

ninth in the London hos)ita-s( and a thirtieth in those

of Versai--es" In the *reat and ce-erated hos)ita- of

L'ons( $hich has -on* een one of the est conducted

in Euro)e( the a%era*e morta-it' has een found to

e on-' one8fteenth" It has een often )ro)osed to

di%ide the &ote- Dieu of Paris into sma--er esta-ish8

ments etter situated( more air'( and sa-urious( ut

mone' has een $antin* to carr' the )-an into eBe8

cution"

Curtae nescio Huid sem)er aest ret"

3one' is a-$a's to e found $hen men are to e

sent to the frontiers to e destro'ed( ut $hen the o8

 Qect is to )reser%e them it is no -on*er so" 6et the

&ote- Dieu of Paris has a re%enue amountin* to

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more than a mi--ion fort' thousand )oundsU( and

e%er' da' increasin*( and the Parisians ha%e ri%a--ed

each other in their endo$ments of it"

We cannot he-) remarin* in this )-ace that er8

main !rice( in his #Descri)tion of Paris(# s)eain*

of some -e*acies eHueathed ' the rst )resident(

!e--ie%re( to the ha-- of the &ote- Dieu( named St"

Char-es( sa's 0 #E%er' one ou*ht to read the eauti8

fu- inscri)tion( en*ra%ed in -etters of *o-d on a *rand

mar-e ta-et( and com)osed ' O-i%er Patru( one of

the choicest s)irits of his time( some of $hose )-ead8

in*s are eBtant and in %er' hi*h esteem"

 Q@ Phi-oso)hica-

#Whoe%er thou art that enterest this sacred )-ace

them $i-t a-most e%er'$here eho-d traces of the

charit' of the *reat Pom)onne" The *o-d and si-%er

ta)estr' and the eBHuisite furniture $hich former-'

adorned his a)artments are no$( ' a ha))' meta8

mor)hosis( made to minister to the necessities of the

sic" That di%ine man( $ho $as the ornament aiid

de-i*ht of his a*e( e%en in his conict $ith death( con8

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sidered ho$ he mi*ht re-ie%e the aicted" The

-ood of !e--ie%re $as manifested in e%er' action of

his -ife" The *-or' of his emassies is fu-- $e--

no$n(# etc"

 The usefu- Chamousset did etter than ermain

!rice( or than O-i%er Patru( #one of the choicest

s)irits of his time"# &e oMered to undertae at his

o$n eB)ense( aced ' a res)onsi-e com)an'( the

fo--o$in* contract0

 The administrators of the &ote- Dieu estimated

the cost of e%er' )atient( $hether i--ed or cured( at

ft' -i%res" 3" Chamousset and the com)an' oMered

to undertae the usiness( on recei%in* ft' -i%res

on reco%er' on-'" The deaths $ere to e thro$n out

of the account( of $hich the eB)enses $ere to e

orne ' himse-f"

 The )ro)osa- $as so %er' ad%anta*eous that it

$as not acce)ted" It $as feared that he $ou-d not e

a-e to accom)-ish it" E%er' ause attem)ted to e

reformed is the )atrimon' of those $ho ha%e more

inuence than the reformers"

A circumstance no -ess sin*u-ar is that the &ote-

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Dictionar'"

Dieu a-one has the )ri%i-e*e of se--in* meat in Lent(

for its o$n ad%anta*e and it -oses mone' there'"

3" Chamousset )ro)osed to enter into a contract '

$hich the esta-ishment $ou-d *ain G his oMer $as

reQected and the utcher( $ho $as thou*ht to ha%e

su**ested it to him( $as dismissed"

Ainsi che4 -es umains( )ar un aus fata-(

Le ien -e )-us )arfait est -a source du ma-"

 Thus serious i--( if tainted ' ause(

 The no-est $ors of man $i-- oft )roduce"

C&ARLES I;"

C&ARLES I;"( in* of France( $as( $e are to-d(

a *ood )oet" It is Huite certain that $hi-e he -i%ed

his %erses $ere admired" !rantome does not( in8

deed( te-- us that this in* $as the est )oet in Eu8

ro)e( ut he assures us that #he made %er' *entee-

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Huatrains im)rom)tu( $ithout thinin* for he had

seen se%era- of themU( and $hen it $as $et or

*-oom' $eather( or %er' hot( he $ou-d send for the

)oets into his cainet and )ass his time there $ith

them"#

&ad he a-$a's )assed his time thus( and( ao%e

a--( had he made *ood %erses( $e shou-d not ha%e

had a St" !artho-ome$( he $ou-d not ha%e red $ith

a carine throu*h his $indo$ u)on his o$n su8

 Qects( as if the' had een a co%e' of )artrid*es" Is it

not im)ossi-e for a *ood )oet to e a ararian J I

am )ersuaded it is"

 These -ines( addressed in his name to Ronsard(

ha%e een attriuted to him 0

7 Phi-oso)hica-

La t're( *ui ra%it)ar de si douB accords(

 Te soumets -es es)rits dontQe ifai Hue -es cor)sG

Le maitre e--e fen rend( et tefait introduire

Ou -e )-us er t'ran ne )ent a%oir d 5em)ire"

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 The -'re5s de-i*htfu- soft-' s$e--in* -a'

Sudues the mind( I ut the od% s$a'G

3ae thee its master( th' s$eet art can ind

What hau*ht' t'rants cannot ru-e the mind"

 These -ines are *ood" !ut are the' his J Are the'

not his )rece)tor5sJ &ere are some of his ro'a-

ima*inin*s( $hich are some$hat diMerent 0

I-fautsui%re ton rot Hui faime )ar sur tous

Pour -es %ers Hui de toi cou-ent ra%es et douB G

Et crois( si tu ne %iens me trou%er a Pontoise(

:u5entre nous ad%iendra une tres8*rande noise"

Kno$( thou must fo--o$ c-ose th' in*( $ho oft

&ath heard( and -o%es thee for( th' %erse so softG

2n-ess thou come and meet me at Pontoise(

!e-ie%e me( I sha-- mae no -itt-e noise"

 These are $orth' the author of the massacre of

St" !artho-ome$" Caesar5s -ines on Terence are

$ritten $ith rather more s)irit and tasteG the'

reathe Roman uranit'" In those of Francis I" and

Char-es I;" $e nd the ararism of the Ce-ts"

Wou-d to od that Char-es I;" had $ritten more

%erses( e%en thou*h ad ones For constant a))-i8

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cation to the ne arts softens the manners and dis8

)e-s ferocit'0

Emo--it mores( nee sinit esse feros"

!esides( the French -an*ua*es scarce-' e*an to

tae an' form unti- -on* after Char-es I;" See such

of Francis I"5s -etters as ha%e een )reser%ed 0 #Tout

est )erdu hors I5honneur# #A-- is -ost sa%e honor#

$as $orth' of a che%a-ier" !ut the fo--o$in* is

neither in the st'-e of Cicero nor in that of Caesar 0

 T&E 3AeeAORE OF# @T" !ART&OLO3EW

DEAT& OR OOL"ICI3V

Dictionar'" >

#Tout a eure 'nsi Hue Qe me %o-ois mettre o -it

est arri%e La%a- Hui m5a a)orte -a sertenete du -e%e8

ment du sie*e"#

#A-- $as *oin* so $e-- that( $hen I $as *oin* to

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ed La%a- arri%ed( and rou*ht me the certaint' of

the sie*e ein* raised"#

We ha%e -etters from the hand of Louis ;III"(

$hich are no etter $ritten" It is not reHuired of a

in* to $rite -etters -ie P-in'( or %erses -ie Vir*i- G

ut no one can e eBcused from eB)ressin* himse-f

$ith )ro)riet' in his o$n ton*ue" E%er' )rince that

$rites -ie a -ad'5s maid has een i-- educated"

C&INA"

SECTION I"

WE &AVE freHuent-' oser%ed e-se$here( ho$

rash and inQudicious it is to contro%ert $ith an'

nation( such as the Chinese( its authentic )retensions"

 There is no house in Euro)e( the antiHuit' of $hich

is so $e-- )ro%ed as that of the Em)ire of China" Let

us *ure to ourse-%es a -earned 3aronite of 3ount

Athos Huestionin* the noi-it' of the 3oro4ini( the

 Tie)o-o( and other ancient houses of Venice G of the

)rinces of erman'( of the 3ontmorenc's( the Chat8

i--ons( or the Ta--e'rands( of France( under the )re8

tence that the' are not mentioned in St" Thomas( or

St" !ona%enturc" We must im)each either his sense

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or his sincerit'"

3an' of the -earned of our northern c-imes ha%e

fe-t confounded at the antiHuit' c-aimed ' the Chi8

7? Phi-oso)hica-

nese" The Huestion( ho$e%er( is not one of -earnin*"

Lea%in* a-- the Chinese -iterati( a-- the mandarins(

a-- the em)erors( to acno$-ed*e Fo8hi as one of the

rst $ho *a%e -a$s to China( aout t$o thousand

%e hundred 'ears efore our %u-*ar era G admit that

there must e )eo)-e efore there are in*s" A--o$

that a -on* )eriod of time is necessar' efore a nu8

merous )eo)-e( ha%in* disco%ered the necessar' arts

of -ife( unite in the choice of a common *o%ernor"

!ut if 'ou do not mae these admissions( it is not of

the s-i*htest conseHuence" Whether 'ou a*ree $ith

us or not( $e sha-- a-$a's e-ie%e that t$o and t$o

mae four"

In a $estern )ro%ince( former-' ca--ed Ce-tica(

the -o%e of sin*u-arit' and )aradoB has een carried

so far as to induce some to assert that the Chinese

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$ere on-' an E*')tian( or rather )erha)s a Phoenic8

ian co-on'" It $as attem)ted to )ro%e( in the same

$a' as a thousand other thin*s ha%e een )ro%ed(

that a in* of E*')t( ca--ed 3enes ' the rees(

$as the Chinese Kin* 6u G and that Atoes $as Ki(

' the chan*e of certain -etters" In addition to

$hich( the fo--o$in* is a s)ecimen of the reasonin*

a))-ied to the suQect 0

 The E*')tians sometimes -i*hted torches at ni*ht"

 The Chinese -i*ht -anterns 0 the Chinese are( there8

fore( e%ident-' a co-on' from E*')t" The 1esuit

Parennin $ho had( at the time( resided %e and

t$ent' 'ears in China( and $as master oth of its

-an*ua*e and its sciences( has reQected a-- these fan8

Dictionar'" 7 =

cies $ith a ha))' miBture of e-e*ance and sarcasm"

A-- the missionaries( and a-- the Chinese( on recei%in*

the inte--i*ence that a countr' in the eBtremit' of

the $est $as de%e-o)in* a ne$ formation of the Chi8

nese Em)ire( treated it $ith a contem)tuous ridicu-e"

Father Parennin re)-ied $ith some$hat more seri8

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ousness0 #6our E*')tians(# said he( #$hen *oin*

to )eo)-e China( must e%ident-' ha%e )assed throu*h

India"# Was India at that time )eo)-ed or not J If

it $as( $ou-d it )ermit a forei*n arm' to )ass

throu*h it J If it $as not( $ou-d not the E*')tians

ha%e sto))ed in IndiaJ Wou-d the' ha%e continued

their Qourne' throu*h arren deserts( and o%er a-8

most im)ractica-e mountains( ti-- the' reached

China( in order to form co-onies there( $hen the'

mi*ht so easi-' ha%e esta-ished them on the ferti-e

ans of the Indus or the an*es J

 The com)i-ers of a uni%ersa- histor'( )rinted in

En*-and( ha%e a-so sho$n a dis)osition to di%est the

Chinese of their antiHuit'( ecause the 1esuits $ere

the rst $ho made the $or-d acHuainted $ith China"

 This is unHuestiona-' a %er' satisfactor' reason for

sa'in* to a $ho-e nation #6ou are -iars"#

It a))ears to me a %er' im)ortant reection(

$hich ma' e made on the testimon' *i%en ' Con8

fucius( to the antiHuit' of his nation G and $hich is(

that Confucius had no interest in fa-sehood 0 he did

not )retend to e a )ro)het G he c-aimed no ins)ira8

tion 0 he tau*ht no ne$ re-i*ion G he used no de-u8

sionsG attered not the em)eror under $hom he

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Vo-" @

7 Phi-oso)hica-

-i%ed 0 he did not e%en mention him" In short( he is

the on-' founder of institutions amon* manind $ho

$as not fo--o$ed ' a train of $omen"

I ne$ a )hi-oso)her $ho had no other )ortrait

than that of Confucius in his stud'" At the ottom

of it $ere $ritten the fo--o$in* -ines 0

Without assum)tion he eB)-ored the mind(

2n%ei-ed the -i*ht of reason to manindG

S)oe as a sa*e( and ne%er as a seer(

 6et( stran*e to sa'( his countr' he-d him dear"

I ha%e read his oos $ith attention G I ha%e made

eBtracts from them G I ha%e found in them nothin*

ut the )urest mora-it'( $ithout the s-i*htest tin*e

of char-atanism" &e -i%ed siB hundred 'ears efore

our %u-*ar era" &is $ors $ere commented on '

the most -earned men of the nation" If he had fa-si8

ed( if he had introduced a fa-se chrono-o*'( if he

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had $ritten of em)erors $ho ne%er eBisted( $ou-d

not some one ha%e een found( in a -earned nation(

$ho $ou-d ha%e reformed his chrono-o*'J One

Chinese on-' has chosen to contradict him( and he

met $ith uni%ersa- eBecration"

Were it $orth our $hi-e( $e mi*ht here com)are

the *reat $a-- of China $ith the monuments of other

nations( $hich ha%e ne%er e%en a))roached itG and

remar( that( in com)arison $ith this eBtensi%e $or(

the )'ramids of E*')t are on-' )ueri-e and use-ess

masses" We mi*ht d$e-- on the thirt'8t$o ec-i)ses

ca-cu-ated in the ancient chrono-o*' of China( t$en8

t'8ei*ht of $hich ha%e een %eried ' the mathema8

ticians of Euro)e" We mi*ht sho$( that the res)ect

Dictionar'" 7

entertained ' the Chinese for their ancestors is an

e%idence that such ancestors ha%e eBistedG and re8

)eat the oser%ation( so often made( that this re%er8

entia- res)ect has in so sma-- de*ree im)eded( amon*

this )eo)-e( the )ro*ress of natura- )hi-oso)h'(

*eometr'( and astronom'"

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It is sucient-' no$n( that the' are( at the )res8

ent da'( $hat $e a-- $ere three hundred 'ears a*o(

%er' i*norant reasoners" The most -earned Chinese

is -ie one of the -earned of Euro)e in the fteenth

centur'( in )ossession of his Aristot-e" !ut it is )os8

si-e to e a %er' ad natura- )hi-oso)her( and at the

same time an eBce--ent mora-ist" It is( in fact( in

mora-it'( in )o-itica- econom'( in a*ricu-ture( in the

necessar' arts of -ife( that the Chinese ha%e made

such ad%ances to$ards )erfection" A-- the rest the'

ha%e een tau*ht ' us 0 in these $e mi*ht $e-- su8

mit to ecome their disci)-es"

Of the EB)u-sion of the 3issionaries from China"

&uman-' s)eain*( inde)endent-' of the ser%ice

$hich the 1esuits mi*ht confer on the Christian re-i8

*ion( are the' not to e re*arded as an i--8fated c-ass

of men( in ha%in* tra%e--ed from so remote a distance

to introduce trou-e and discord into one of the most

eBtended and est8*o%erned in*doms of the $or-d J

And does not their conduct in%o-%e a dreadfu- ause

of the -iera-it' and indu-*ence sho$n ' the Ori8

enta-s( more )articu-ar-' after the torrents of -ood

shed( throu*h their means( in the em)ire of 1a)an J

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7 Phi-oso)hica-

A scene of horror( to )re%ent the conseHuence of

$hich the *o%ernment e-ie%ed it aso-ute-' indis8

)ensa-e to shut their )orts a*ainst a-- forei*ners"

 The 1esuits had otained )ermission of the em8

)eror of China( Cam8hi( to teach the Catho-ic re-i8

*ion" The' made use of it( to insti- into the sma--

)ortion of the )eo)-e under their direction( that it

$as incument on them to ser%e no other master than

him $ho $as the %ice*erent of od on earth( and

$ho d$e-t in Ita-' on the ans of a sma-- ri%er

ca--ed the Tier G that e%er' other re-i*ious o)inion(

e%er' other $orshi)( $as an aomination in the si*ht

of od( and $hoe%er did not e-ie%e the 1esuits

$ou-d e )unished ' &im to a-- eternit' G that their

em)eror and enefactor( Cam8hi( $ho cou-d not e%en

)ronounce the name of Christ( as the Chinese -an8

*ua*e )ossesses not the -etter #r(# $ou-d suMer

eterna- damnation G that the Em)eror 6outchin $ou-d

eB)erience( $ithout merc'( the same fateG that a--

the ancestors( oth of Chinese and Tartars( $ou-d

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incur a simi-ar )ena-t' G that their descendants $ou-d

under*o it a-so( as $e-- as the rest of the $or-d G and

that the re%erend fathers( the 1esuits( fe-t a sincere

and )aterna- commiseration for the damnation of so

man' sou-s"

 The'( at -en*th( succeeded in main* con%erts of

three )rinces of the Tartar race" In the meantime(

the Em)eror Cam8hi died( to$ards the c-ose of the

'ear =" &e eHueathed the em)ire to his fourth

son( $ho has een so ce-erated throu*h the $ho-e

Dictionar'" 7<

$or-d for the Qustice and the $isdom of his *o%ern8

ment( for the aMection entertained for him ' his

suQects( and for the eB)u-sion of the 1esuits"

 The' e*an ' a)ti4in* the three )rinces( and

man' )ersons of their househo-d" These neo)h'tes

had the misfortune to dis)-ease the em)eror on some

)oints $hich mere-' res)ected mi-itar' dut'" Aout

this %er' )eriod the indi*nation of the $ho-e em)ire

a*ainst the missionaries roe out into a ame" A--

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the *o%ernors of )ro%inces( a-- the Co-aos( )resented

memoria-s a*ainst them" The accusations a*ainst

them $ere ur*ed so far that the three )rinces( $ho

had ecome disci)-es of the 1esuits( $ere )ut into

irons"

It is c-ear that the' $ere not treated $ith this

se%erit' sim)-' for ha%in* een a)ti4ed( since the

 1esuits themse-%es acno$-ed*e in their -etters( that

the' eB)erienced no %io-ence( and that the' $ere e%en

admitted to an audience of the em)eror( $ho honored

them $ith some )resents" It is e%ident( therefore(

that the Em)eror 6outchin $as no )ersecutor G and(

if the )rinces $ere conned in a )rison on the orders

of Tartar'( $hi-e those $ho had con%erted them

$ere treated so -iera--'( it is a decided )roof that

the' $ere state )risoners( and not mart'rs"

 The em)eror( soon after this( 'ie-ded to the su)8

)-ications of a-- his )eo)-e" The' )etitioned that the

 1esuits mi*ht e sent a$a'( as their ao-ition has

een since )ra'ed for in France and other countries"

A-- the triuna-s of China ur*ed their ein* imme8

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7@ Phi-oso)hica-

diate-' sent to 3acao( $hich is considered as a )-ace

$ithout the -imits of the em)ire( and the )ossession

of $hich has a-$a's een -eft to the Portu*uese( $ith

a Chinese *arrison"

 6outchin had the humanit' to consu-t the triu8

na-s and *o%ernors( $hether an' dan*er cou-d resu-t

from con%e'in* a-- the 1esuits to the )ro%ince of Can8

ton" Whi-e a$aitin* the re)-'( he ordered three of

them to e introduced to his )resence( and addressed

them in the fo--o$in* $ords( $hich Father Parennin(

$ith *reat in*enuousness( records0 #6our Euro8

)eans( in the )ro%ince of Fo8Kien( intended to ao-8

ish our -a$s( and distured our )eo)-e" The triu8

na-s ha%e denounced them efore me" It is m' )osi8

ti%e dut' to )ro%ide a*ainst such disorders 0 the *ood

of the em)ire reHuires it What $ou-d 'ou

sa' $ere I to send o%er to 'our8 countr' a com)an'

of on4es and -amas to )reach their -a$J &o$

$ou-d 'ou recei%e themJ """" If 'ou decei%ed

m' father( ho)e not a-so to decei%e me 6ou

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$ish to mae the Chinese Christians0 'our -a$( I

$e-- no$( reHuires this of 'ou" !ut in case 'ou

shou-d succeed( $hat shou-d $e ecomeJ the su8

 Qects of 'our in*s" Christians e-ie%e none ut 'ou 0

in a time of confusion the' $ou-d -isten to no %oice

ut 'ours" I no$ that( at )resent( there is nothin*

to fear G ut on the arri%a- of a thousand( or )erha)s

ten thousand %esse-s( *reat disturances mi*ht ensue"

#China( on the north( Qoins the in*dom of Russia(

$hich is ' no means contem)ti-e G to the south it

Dictionar'" 7

has the Euro)eans( and their in*doms( $hich are

sti-- more considera-e G and to the $est( the )rinces

of Tartar'( $ith $hom $e ha%e een at $ar ei*ht

'ears Laurence Lan*e( com)anion of

Prince Ismai-oM( amassador from the c4ar( re8

Huested that the Russians mi*ht ha%e )ermission to

esta-ish factories in each of the )ro%inces" The )er8

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mission $as conned to Pein( and $ithin the -imits

of Ca-cas" In -ie manner I )ermit 'ou to remain

here and at Canton as -on* as 'ou a%oid *i%in* an'

cause of com)-aint" Shou-d 'ou *i%e an'( I $i-- not

suMer 'ou to remain either here or at Canton"#

In the other )ro%inces their houses and churches

$ere -e%e--ed to the *round" At -en*th the c-amor

a*ainst them redou-ed" The char*es most strenu8

ous-' insisted u)on a*ainst them $ere( that the'

$eaened the res)ect of chi-dren for their )arents(

' not )a'in* the honors due to ancestors G that the'

indecent-' rou*ht to*ether 'oun* men and $omen

in retired )-aces( $hich the' ca--ed churchesG that

the' made *ir-s nee- efore them( and enc-osed

them $ith their -e*s( and con%ersed $ith them( $hi-e

in this )osture( in undertones" To Chinese de-icac'(

nothin* a))eared more re%o-tin* than this" Their

em)eror( 6outchin( e%en condescended to inform the

 1esuits of this factG after $hich he sent a$a' the

*reater )art of the missionaries to 3acao( ut $ith

a-- that )o-ite attention $hich )erha)s the Chinese

a-one are ca)a-e of dis)-a'in*"

Some 1esuits( )ossessed of mathematica- science(

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77 Phi-oso)hica-

$ere retained at Pein G and amon* others( that same

Parennin $hom $e ha%e mentioned G and $ho( ein*

a )erfect master oth of the Chinese and of the Tar8

tar -an*ua*e( had een freHuent-' em)-o'ed as an in8

ter)reter" 3an' of the 1esuits concea-ed themse-%es

in the distant )ro%incesG others e%en in Canton it8

se-f G and the aMair $as conni%ed at"

At -en*th( after the death of the Em)eror 6out8

chin( his son and successor( Kien8Lun*( com)-eted

the satisfaction of the nation ' com)e--in* a-- the

missionaries $ho $ere in concea-ment throu*hout

his em)ire to remo%e to 3acao 0 a so-emn edict )re8

%ented them from e%er returnin*" If an' a))ear(

the' are ci%i--' reHuested to carr' their ta-ents some8

$here e-se" There is nothin* of se%erit'( nothin* of

)ersecution" I ha%e een to-d that( in =@?( a 1esuit

ha%in* *one from Rome to Canton( and een in8

formed a*ainst ' a Dutch factor( the Co-ao *o%8

ernor of Canton had him sent a$a'( )resentin* him

at the same time $ith a )iece of si-( some )ro%isions(

and mone'"

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Of the )retended Atheism of China"

 The char*e of Atheism( a--e*ed ' our theo-o*ians

of the $est( a*ainst the Chinese *o%ernment at the

other end of the $or-d( has een freHuent-' eBam8

ined( and is( it must e admitted( the meanest eBcess

of our fo--ies and )edantic inconsistencies" It $as

sometimes )retended( in one of our -earned facu-ties(

that the Chinese triuna-s or )ar-iaments $ere ido-8

Dictionar'" 7>

atrous G sometimes that the' acno$-ed*ed no di%in8

it' $hate%er 0 and these reasoners occasiona--'

)ushed their -o*ic so far as to maintain that the

Chinese $ere( at the same time( atheists and ido-8

aters"

In the month of Octoer( =??( the Soronne de8

c-ared e%er' )ro)osition $hich maintained that the

em)eror and the Co-aos e-ie%ed in od to e hereti8

ca-" !u-' %o-umes $ere com)osed in order to dem8

onstrate( conforma-' to the s'stem of theo-o*ica-

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demonstration( that the Chinese adored nothin* ut

the materia- hea%en"

Ni- )raeter nues ct coe-i numen adorant"

 The' $orshi) c-ouds and rmament a-one"

!ut if the' did adore the materia- hea%en( that

$as their od" The' resem-ed the Persians( $ho

are said to ha%e adored the sun 0 the' resem-ed the

ancient Araians( $ho adored the stars 0 the' $ere

neither $orshi))ers of ido-s nor atheists" !ut a

-earned doctor( $hen it is an oQect to denounce from

his tri)od an' )ro)osition as heretica- or onoBious(

does not distin*uish $ith much c-earness"

 Those contem)ti-e creatures $ho( in =??( cre8

ated such a disturance aout the materia- hea%en of

the Chinese( did not no$ that( in =@7>( the Chinese(

ha%in* made )eace $ith the Russians at Nic)tchou(

$hich di%ides the t$o em)ires( erected( in Se)tem8

er of the same 'ear( a mar-e monument( on $hich

the fo--o$in* memora-e $ords $ere en*ra%ed in

the Chinese and Latin -an*ua*es 0

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>? Phi-oso)hica-

#Shou-d an' e%er determine to reind-e the ames

of $ar( $e )ra' the so%erei*n rei*n of a-- thin*s(

$ho no$s the heart( to )unish their )erd'(# etc"

A %er' sma-- )ortion of modern histor' is su8

cient to )ut an end to these ridicu-ous dis)utes 0 ut

those $ho e-ie%e that the dut' of man consists in

$ritin* commentaries on St" Thomas( or Scotus( can8

not condescend to inform themse-%es of $hat is *oin*

on amon* the *reat em)ires of the $or-d"

SECTION n"

We tra%e- to China to otain c-a' for )orce-ain(

as if $e had none ourse-%es G stuMs( as if $e $ere

destitute of stuMs G and a sma-- her to e infused in

$ater( as if $e had no sim)-es in our o$n countries"

In return for these enets( $e are desirous of con8

%ertin* the Chinese" It is a %er' commenda-e 4ea- G

ut $e must a%oid contro%ertin* their antiHuit'( and

a-so ca--in* them ido-aters" Shou-d $e thin it $e--

of a ca)uchin( if( after ha%in* een hos)ita-' enter8

tained at the chateau of the 3ontmorenc's( he en8

dea%ored to )ersuade them that the' $ere ne$ no8

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i-it'( -ie the in*5s secretariesG or accused them

of ido-atr'( ecause he found t$o or three statues of

consta-es( for $hom the' cherished the most )ro8

found res)ectJ

 The ce-erated Wo-f( )rofessor of mathematics

in the uni%ersit' of &a--e( once de-i%ered an eBce--ent

discourse in )raise of the Chinese )hi-oso)h'" &e

)raised that ancient s)ecies of the human race( diMer8

Dictionar'" >=

in*( as it does( in res)ect to the eard( the e'es( the

nose( the ears( and e%en the reasonin* )o$ers them8

se-%es G he )raised the Chinese( I sa'( for their adora8

tion of a su)reme od( and their -o%e of %irtue" &e

did that Qustice to the em)erors of China( to the tri8

una-s( and to the -iterati" The Qustice done to the

on4es $as of a diMerent ind"

It is necessar' to oser%e( that this Professor

Wo-f had attracted around him a thousand )u)i-s of

a-- nations" In the same uni%ersit' there $as a-so a

)rofessor of theo-o*'( $ho attracted no one" This

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man( maddened at the thou*ht of free4in* to death

in his o$n deserted ha--( formed the desi*n( $hich

undouted-' $as on-' ri*ht and reasona-e( of de8

stro'in* the mathematica- )rofessor" &e scru)-ed

not( accordin* to the )ractice of )ersons -ie himse-f(

to accuse him of not e-ie%in* in od"

Some Euro)ean $riters( $ho had ne%er een in

China( had )retended that the *o%ernment of Pein

$as atheistica-" Wo-f had )raised the )hi-oso)hers

of PeinG therefore Wo-f $as an atheist" En%'

and hatred se-dom construct the est s'--o*isms"

 This ar*ument of Lan*e( su))orted ' a )art' and

' a )rotector( $as considered conc-usi%e ' the so%8

erei*n of the countr'( $ho des)atched a forma- di8

-emma to the mathematician" This di-emma *a%e

him the o)tion of Huittin* &a--e in t$ent'8four

hours( or of ein* han*ed G and as Wo-f $as a %er'

accurate reasoner( he did not fai- to Huit" &is $ith8

dra$in* de)ri%ed the in* of t$o or three hundred

> Phi-oso)hica-

thousand cro$ns a 'ear( $hich $ere rou*ht into

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the in*dom in conseHuence of the $ea-th of this

)hi-oso)her5s disci)-es"

 This case shou-d con%ince so%erei*ns that the'

shou-d not e o%er read' to -isten to ca-umn'( and

sacrice a *reat man to the madness of a foo-" !ut

-et us return to China"

Wh' shou-d $e concern ourse-%es( $e $ho -i%e at

the eBtremit' of the $est $h' shou-d $e dis)ute

$ith ause and fur'( $hether there $ere fourteen

)rinces or not efore Fo8hi( em)eror of China( and

$hether the said Fo8hi -i%ed three thousand( or t$o

thousand nine hundred 'ears efore our %u-*ar eraJ

I shou-d -ie to see t$o Irishmen Huarre--in* at Du8

-in( aout $ho $as the o$ner( in the t$e-fth centur'(

of the estate I am no$ in )ossession of" Is it not

c-ear( that the' shou-d refer to me( $ho )ossess the

documents and tit-es re-atin* to it J To m' mind( the

case is the same $ith res)ect to the rst em)erors of

China( and the triuna-s of that countr' are the

)ro)er resort u)on the suQect"

Dis)ute as -on* as 'ou )-ease aout the fourteen

)rinces $ho rei*ned efore Fo8hi( 'our %er' interest8

in* dis)ute cannot )ossi-' fai- to )ro%e that China

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increase in numer( ut that freHuent-' instead of

increasin* the' actua--' diminish"

Let us then( $ho are mere-' of 'esterda'( de8

scendants of the Ce-ts( $ho ha%e on-' Qust nished

c-earin* the forests of our sa%a*e territories( suMer

the Chinese and Indians to enQo' in )eace their ne

c-imate and their antiHuit'" Let us( es)ecia--'( cease

ca--in* the em)eror of China( and the soua of the

Deccan( ido-aters" There is no necessit' for ein*

a 4ea-ot in estimatin* Chinese merit" The constitu8

tion of their em)ire is the on-' one entire-' esta8

-ished u)on )aterna- authorit'G the on-' one in

$hich the *o%ernor of a )ro%ince is )unished( if( on

Huittin* his station( he does not recei%e the acc-ama8

tions of the )eo)-e G the on-' one $hich has instituted

re$ards for %irtue( $hi-e( e%er'$here e-se( the so-e

> Phi-oso)hica-

oQect of the -a$s is the )unishment of crime G the

on-' one $hich has caused its -a$s to e ado)ted '

its conHuerors( $hi-e $e are sti-- suQect to the cus8

toms of the !ur*undians( the Frans( and the oths(

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' $hom $e $ere conHuered" 6et( $e must confess(

that the common )eo)-e( *uided ' the on4es( are

eHua--' na%ish $ith our o$nG that e%er'thin* is

so-d enormous-' dear to forei*ners( as amon* our8

se-%es G that( $ith res)ect to the sciences( the Chinese

are Qust $here $e $ere t$o hundred 'ears a*o G that(

-ie us( the' -aor under a thousand ridicu-ous )reQu8

dicesG and that the' e-ie%e in ta-ismans and Qudi8

cia- astro-o*'( as $e -on* did ourse-%es"

We must admit a-so( that the' $ere astonished at

our thermometer( at our method of free4in* uids '

means of sa-t)etre( and at a-- the eB)eriments of

 Torrice--i and Otto %on uerice G as $e $ere a-so(

on seein* for the rst time those curious )rocesses"

We add( that their )h'sicians do not cure morta- dis8

eases an' more than our o$n G and that minor dis8

eases( oth here and in China( are cured ' nature

a-one" A-- this( ho$e%er( does not interfere $ith the

fact( that the Chinese( for four thousand 'ears( $hen

$e $ere una-e e%en to read( ne$ e%er'thin* essen8

tia--' usefu- of $hich $e oast at the )resent da'"

I must a*ain re)eat( the re-i*ion of their -earned

is admira-e( and free from su)erstitions( from a8

surd -e*ends( from do*mas insu-tin* oth to reason

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and nature( to $hich the on4es *i%e a thousand dif8

ferent meanin*s( ecause the' rea--' often ha%e none"

Dictionar'" >

 The most sim)-e $orshi) has a))eared to them the

est( for a series of fort' centuries" The' are( $hat

$e concei%e Seth( Enoch( and Noah to ha%e eenG

the' are contented to adore one od in communion

$ith the sa*es of the $or-d( $hi-e Euro)e is di%ided

et$een Thomas and !ona%enture( et$een Ca-%in

and Luther( et$een 1ansenius and 3o-ina"

C&RISTIANIT6"

Esta-ishment of Christianit'( in its Ci%i- and

Po-itica- State" Section "

OD FOR!ID that $e shou-d dare to miB the sacred

$ith the )rofane We see not to fathom the de)ths

of the $a's of Pro%idence" We are men( and $e ad8

dress men on-'"

When Anton'( and after him Au*ustus( had *i%en

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 1udaea to the Araian( &erod their creature and

their triutar' that )rince( a stran*er amon* the

 1e$s( ecame the most )o$erfu- of a-- in*s" &e

had )orts on the 3editerranean Pto-emais and

Asca-onG he ui-t to$nsG he erected a tem)-e to

A)o--o at Rhodes( and one to Au*ustus in Csesarea G

he reui-t that of 1erusa-em from the foundation(

and con%erted it into a stron* citade-" 2nder his

ru-e( Pa-estine enQo'ed )rofound )eace" In short(

ararous as he $as to his fami-'( and t'rannica-

to$ards his )eo)-e( $hose sustance he consumed in

the eBecution of his )roQects( he $as -ooed u)on as

a 3essiah" &e $orshi))ed on-' Caesar( and he $as

a-so $orshi))ed ' the &erodians"

>@ Phi-oso)hica-

 The sect of the 1e$s had -on* een s)read in

Euro)e and AsiaG ut its tenets $ere entire-' un8

no$n" No one ne$ an'thin* of the 1e$ish oos(

a-thou*h $e are to-d that some of them had a-read'

een trans-ated into ree( in A-eBandria" The 1e$s

$ere no$n on-' as the Armenians are no$ no$n

to the Turs and Persians( as roers and traders"

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Further( a Tur ne%er taes the trou-e to inHuire(

$hether an Armenian is a Eut'chian( a 1acoite( one

of St" 1ohn5s Christians( or an Arian" The theism of

China( and the much to e res)ected oos of Con8

fucius( $ere sti-- -ess no$n to the nations of the

$est( than the 1e$ish rites"

 The Araians( $ho furnished the Romans $ith

the )recious commodities of India( had no more idea

of the theo-o*' of the !rahmins than our sai-ors

$ho *o to Pondicherr' or 3adras" The Indian

$omen had from time immemoria- enQo'ed the )ri%8

i-e*e of urnin* themse-%es on the odies of their

husands G 'et these astonishin* sacrices( $hich are

sti-- )ractised( $ere as unno$n to the 1e$s as the

customs of America" Their oos( $hich s)ea of

o* and 3a*o*( ne%er mention India"

 The ancient re-i*ion of 9oroaster $as ce-erated G

ut not therefore the more understood in the Roman

Em)ire" It $as on-' no$n( in *enera-( that the

ma*i admitted a resurrection( a he--( and a )aradise G

$hich doctrine must at that time ha%e made its $a'

to the 1e$s orderin* on Cha-daea G since( in &erod5s

time( Pa-estine $as di%ided et$een the Pharisees(

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Dictionar'" ?(

$ho e*an to e-ie%e the do*ma of the resurrection(

and the Sadducees( $ho re*arded it on-' $ith con8

tem)t"

A-eBandria( the most commercia- cit' in the $ho-e

$or-d( $as )eo)-ed $ith E*')tians( $ho $orshi))ed

Sera)is( and consecrated catsG $ith rees( $ho

)hi-oso)hi4ed G $ith Romans( $ho ru-ed G and $ith

 1e$s( $ho amassed $ea-th" A-- these )eo)-e $ere

ea*er-' en*a*ed in mone'8*ettin*( immersed in

)-easure( infuriate $ith fanaticism( main* and un8

main* re-i*ious sects( es)ecia--' durin* the eBterna-

tranHui--it' $hich the' enQo'ed $hen Au*ustus had

shut the tem)-e of 1anus"

 The 1e$s $ere di%ided into three )rinci)a- fac8

tions" Of these( the Samaritans ca--ed themse-%es

the most ancient( ecause Samaria then SeasteU

had susisted( $hi-e 1erusa-em( $ith its tem)-e( $as

destro'ed under the !a'-onian in*s" !ut these

Samaritans $ere a miBture of the )eo)-e of Persia

$ith those of Pa-estine"

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 The second( and most )o$erfu- faction( $as that

of the &ieroso-'mites" These 1e$s( )ro)er-' so

ca--ed( detested the Samaritans( and $ere detested

' them" Their interests $ere a-- o))osite" The'

$ished that no sacrices shou-d e oMered ut in the

tem)-e of 1erusa-em" Such a restriction $ou-d ha%e

rou*ht a dea- of mone' into their cit' G and( for this

%er' reason( the Samaritans $ou-d sacrice no$here

ut at home" A sma-- )eo)-e( in a sma-- to$n( ma'

ha%e ut one tem)-eG ut $hen a )eo)-e ha%e eB8

Vo-"

>7 Phi-oso)hica-

tended themse-%es o%er a countr' se%ent' -ea*ues

-on*( ' t$ent'8three $ide( as the 1e$s had done

$hen their territor' is a-most as -ar*e and )o)u-ous

as Lan*uedoc or Normand'( it $ou-d e asurd to

ha%e ut one church" What $ou-d the *ood )eo)-e

of 3ont)e--ier sa'( if the' cou-d attend mass no8

$here ut at Tou-ouse J

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 The third faction $ere the &e--enic 1e$s( consist8

in* chie' of such as $ere en*a*ed in trade or handi8

craft in E*')t and reece" These had the same in8

terests $ith the Samaritans" Onias( the son of a hi*h

)riest( $ishin* to e a hi*h )riest -ie his father( o8

tained )ermission from Pto-em' Phi-ometor( in* of

E*')t( and in )articu-ar from the in*5s $ife( C-eo8

)atra( to ui-d a 1e$ish tem)-e near !uastis" &e

assured :ueen C-eo)atra that Isaiah had foreto-d

that the Lord shou-d one da' ha%e a tem)-e on that

s)ot G and C-eo)atra( to $hom he made a handsome

)resent( sent him $ord that( since Isaiah had said it(

it must e" This tem)-e $as ca--ed the Onion G and

if Onias $as not a *reat sacricer( he commanded a

troo) of mi-itia" It $as ui-t one hundred and siBt'

'ears efore the Christian era" The 1e$s of 1erusa8

-em a-$a's he-d this Onion in ahorrence( as the' did

the trans-ation ca--ed the Se)tua*int" The' e%en

instituted an eB)iator' feast for these t$o )retended

sacri-e*es" The rais of the Onion( min*-in* $ith

the rees( ecame more -earned in their $a'U

than the rais of 1erusa-em and Samaria G and the

three factions e*an to dis)ute on contro%ersia-

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Dictionar'" >>

Huestions( $hich necessari-' mae men sut-e( fa-se(

and unsocia-"

 The E*')tian 1e$s( in order to eHua- the austerit'

of the Essenes( and the 1udates of Pa-estine( esta8

-ished( some time efore the irth of Christianit'( the

sect of the Thera)eutae( $ho( -ie them( de%oted

themse-%es to a sort of monastic -ife( and to morti8

cations" These diMerent societies $ere imitations of

the o-d E*')tian( Persian( Thracian( and ree m's8

teries( $hich had --ed the earth( from the Eu)hrates

and the Ni-e to the Tier" At rst( such as $ere

initiated into these fraternities $ere fe$ in numer(

and $ere -ooed u)on as )ri%i-e*ed men G ut in the

time of Au*ustus( their numer $as %er' consider8

a-e G so that nothin* ut re-i*ion $as ta-ed of( from

S'ria to 3ount At-as and the erman Ocean"

Amidst a-- these sects and $orshi)s( the schoo- of

P-ato had esta-ished itse-f( not in reece a-one( ut

a-so in Rome( and es)ecia--' in E*')t" P-ato had

een considered as ha%in* dra$n his doctrine from

the E*')tians( $ho thou*ht that( in turnin* P-ato5s

ideas to account( his $ord( and the sort of trinit'

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disco%era-e in some of his $ors( the' $ere ut

c-aimin* their o$n"

 This )hi-oso)hic s)irit( s)read at that time o%er

a-- the no$n countries of the $est( seems to ha%e

emitted( in the nei*horhood of Pa-estine( at -east a

fe$ s)ars of the s)irit of reasonin*" It is certain

that( in &erod5s time( there $ere dis)utes on the

attriutes of the di%init'( on the immorta-it' of the

ioo Phi-oso)hica-

sou-( and the resurrection of the od'" The 1e$s re8

-ate( that :ueen C-eo)atra ased them $hether $e

$ere to rise a*ain dressed or naed J

 The 1e$s( then( $ere reasoners in their $a'" The

eBa**eratin* 1ose)hus $as( for a so-dier( %er'

-earned" Such ein* the case $ith a mi-itar' man(

there must ha%e een man' a -earned man in ci%i- -ife"

&is contem)orar'( Phi-o( $ou-d ha%e had re)uta8

tion( e%en amon* the rees" St" Pau-5s master(

ama-ie-( $as a *reat contro%ersia-ist" The authors

of the #3ishna# $ere )o-'mathists"

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 The 1e$ish )o)u-ace discoursed on re-i*ion" As(

at the )resent da'( in S$it4er-and( at ene%a( in er8

man'( in En*-and( and es)ecia--' in the Ce%ennes( $e

nd e%en the meanest of the inhaitants dea-in* in

contro%ers'" Na'( more G men from the dre*s of the

)eo)-e ha%e founded sects0 as FoB( in En*-andG

3iin4er( in erman'G and the rst reformers in

France" Indeed( 3ahomet himse-f( settin* a)art his

*reat coura*e( $as nothin* more than a came-8

dri%er"

Add to these )re-iminaries that( in &erod5s time(

it $as ima*ined( as is e-se$here remared( that the

$or-d $as soon to e at an end" In those da's( )re8

)ared ' di%ine )ro%idence( it )-eased the eterna-

Father to send &is Son u)on earth an adora-e and

incom)rehensi-e m'ster'( $hich $e )resume not to

a))roach"

We on-' sa'( that if 1esus )reached a )ure mor8

a-it' G if Pie announced the in*dom of hea%en as the

Dictionar'" =?=

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re$ard of the QustG if &e had disci)-es attached to

&is )erson and &is %irtuesG if those %er' %irtues

dre$ u)on &im the )ersecutions of the )riests G if(

throu*h ca-umn'( &e $as )ut to a shamefu- death G

&is doctrine( constant-' )reached ' &is disci)-es(

$ou-d necessari-' ha%e a *reat eMect in the $or-d"

Once more -et me re)eat it I s)ea on-' after the

manner of this $or-d( settin* the mu-titude of

mirac-es and )ro)hecies entire-' aside" I maintain

it( that Christianit' $as more -ie-' to )roceed '

&is death( than if &e had not een )ersecuted" 6ou

are astonished that &is disci)-es made other dis8

ci)-es" I shou-d ha%e een much more astonished( if

the' had not rou*ht o%er a *reat man' to their

)art'" Se%ent' indi%idua-s( con%inced of the inno8

cence of their -eader( the )urit' of &is rnanners( and

the ararit' of &is Qud*es( must inuence man' a

fee-in* heart"

St" Pau-( a-one( ecame for $hate%er reasonU the

enem' of his master ama-ie-( must ha%e had it in

his )o$er to rin* 1esus a thousand adherents( e%en

su))osin* 1esus to ha%e een on-' a $orth' and o)8

)ressed man" Pau- $as -earned( e-oHuent( %ehem8

ent( indefati*a-e( si--ed in the ree ton*ue( and

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seconded ' 4ea-ots much more interested than him8

se-f in defendin* their 3aster5s re)utation" St"

Lue $as an A-eBandrian ree( and a man of -et8

ters( for he $as a )h'sician"

 The rst cha)ter of 1ohn dis)-a's a P-atonic su8

-imit'( $hich must ha%e een *ratif'in* to the P-a8

= ? Phi-oso)hica-

tonists of A-eBandria" And indeed there $as e%en

formed in that cit' a schoo- founded ' Lue( or '

3ar either the e%an*e-ist or some otherU( and

)er)etuated ' Athena*oras( Pantaenus( Ori*en( and

C-ement a-- -earned and e-oHuent" This schoo- once

esta-ished( it $as im)ossi-e for Christianit' not to

mae ra)id )ro*ress"

reece( S'ria( and E*')t( $ere the scenes of those

ce-erated ancient m'steries( $hich enchanted the

minds of the )eo)-e" The Christians( too( had their

m'steries( in $hich men $ou-d ea*er-' see to e

initiated G and if at rst on-' throu*h curiosit'( this

curiosit' soon ecame )ersuasion" The idea of the

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a))roachin* end of a-- thin*s $as es)ecia--' ca-8

cu-ated to induce the ne$ disci)-es to des)ise the

transitor' *oods of this -ife( $hich $ere so soon to

)erish $ith them" The eBam)-e of the Thera)eutse

$as an incitement to a so-itar' and mortied -ife"

A-- these thin*s( then( )o$erfu--' concurred in the

esta-ishment of the Christian re-i*ion"

 The diMerent ocs of this *reat risin* societ'

cou-d not( it is true( a*ree amon* themse-%es" Fift'8

four societies had ft'8four diMerent *os)e-sG a--

secret( -ie their m'steries G a-- unno$n to the en8

ti-es( $ho ne%er sa$ our four canonica- *os)e-s unti-

the end of t$o hundred and ft' 'ears" These %ari8

ous ocs( thou*h di%ided( acno$-ed*ed the same

)astor" Eionites( o))osed to St" Pau- G Na4arenes(

disci)-es of &'meneos( A-eBandros( and &ermo8

*enesG Car)ocratians( !asi-idians( Va-entinians(

Dictionar'" =?

3arcionites( Sae--ians( nostics( 3ontanists a

hundred sects( risin* one a*ainst another( and cast8

in* mutua- re)roaches( $ere ne%erthe-ess a-- united

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in 1esus G a-- ca--ed u)on 1esus G a-- made 1esus the

*reat oQect of their thou*hts( and re$ard of their

tra%ai-s"

 The Roman Em)ire( in $hich a-- these societies

$ere formed( at rst )aid no attention to them"

 The' $ere no$n at Rome on-' ' the *enera- name

of 1e$s( aout $hom the *o%ernment *a%e itse-f no

concern" The 1e$s had( ' their mone'( acHuired

the ri*ht of tradin*" In the rei*n of Tierius four

thousand of them $ere dri%en out of Rome G in that

of Nero the )eo)-e char*ed them and the ne$ demi8

Christian 1e$s $ith the urnin* of Rome"

 The' $ere a*ain eB)e--ed in the rei*n of

C-audius( ut their mone' a-$a's )rocured them re8

admissionG the' $ere Huiet and des)ised" The

Christians of Rome $ere not so numerous as those

of reece( A-eBandria and S'ria" The Romans in

the ear-ier a*es had neither fathers of the church nor

heresiarchs" The farther the' $ere from the irth8

)-ace of Christianit'( the fe$er doctors and $riters

$ere to e found amon* them" The church $as

ree G so much so( that e%er' m'ster'( e%er' rite(

e%er' tenet( $as eB)ressed in the ree ton*ue"

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A-- Christians( $hether ree( S'rian( Roman( or

E*')tian( $ere considered as ha-f 1e$ish" This

$as another reason for concea-in* their oos from

the enti-es( that the' mi*ht remain united and im8

IO Phi-oso)hica-

)enetra-e" Their secret $as more in%io-a-' e)t

than that of the m'steries of Isis or of Ceres G the'

$ere a re)u-ic a)art a state $ithin the state" The'

had no tem)-es( no a-tars( no sacrice( no )u-ic

ceremon'" The' e-ected their secret su)eriors ' a

maQorit' of %oices" These su)eriors( under the tit-e

of ancients( )riests( isho)s( or deacons( mana*ed

the common )urse( too care of the sic and )acied

Huarre-s" Amon* them it $as a shame and a crime

to )-ead efore the triuna-s or to en-ist in the armed

forceG and for a hundred 'ears there $as not a

sin*-e Christian in the armies of the em)ire"

 Thus( retired in the midst of the $or-d and un8

no$n e%en $hen the' a))eared( the' esca)ed the

t'rann' of the )roconsu-s and )raetors and $ere free

amid the )u-ic s-a%er'" It is not no$n $ho $rote

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the famous oo entit-ed ,8,T$% #A8 oar @ -a% Ai7aXai#

the A)osto-ica- ConstitutionsU( as it is unno$n

$ho $ere the authors of the ft' reQected *os)e-s( of

the Acts of St" Peter( of the Testament of the T$e-%e

Patriarchs( and of so man' other $ritin*s of the

rst Christians G ut it is -ie-' that the #Constitu8

tions# are of the second centur'" Thou*h fa-se-' at8

triuted to the a)ost-es( the' are %er' %a-ua-e" The'

sho$ us $hat $ere the duties of a isho) chosen '

the Christians( ho$ the' $ere to re%erence him( and

$hat triute the' $ere to )a' him" The isho)

cou-d ha%e ut one $ife( $ho $as to tae *ood care

of his househo-d 0 # QftaJ a%S)a 6S%@QL%o%

Bd-d% TOO Idtou oJBou

Dictionar'" =?<

Rich Christians $ere eBhorted to ado)t the chi-8

dren of )oor ones" Co--ections $ere made for the

$ido$s and or)hansG ut the mone' of sinners

$as reQected G and( nomina--'( an innee)er $as not

)ermitted to *i%e his mite" It is said that the' $ere

re*arded as cheats G for $hich reason %er' fe$ ta%8

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ern8ee)ers $ere Christians" This a-so )re%ented

the Christians from freHuentin* the ta%ernsG thus

com)-etin* their se)aration from the societ' of the

enti-es"

 The di*nit' of deaconess ein* attaina-e ' the

$omen( the' $ere the more attached to the Christian

fraternit'" The' $ere consecratedG the isho)

anointin* them on the forehead( as of o-d the 1e$ish

in*s $ere anointed" !' ho$ man' indisso-u-e

ties $ere the Christians ound to*ether

 The )ersecutions( $hich $ere ne%er more than

transitor'( did ut ser%e to redou-e their 4ea- and

iname their fer%or G so that( under Dioc-etian( one8

third of the em)ire $as Christian" Such $ere a fe$

of the human causes that contriuted to the )ro*ress

of Christianit'" If to these $e add the di%ine causes(

$hich are to the former as innit' to unit'( there is

on-' one thin* $hich can sur)rise us G that a re-i*ion

so true did not at once eBtend itse-f o%er the t$o

hemis)heres( not eBce)tin* the most sa%a*e is-et"

od &imse-f came do$n from hea%en and died to

redeem manind and eBtir)ate sin fore%er from the

face of the earthG and 'et he -eft the *reater )art

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of manind a )re' to error( to crime( and to the de%i-"

io@ Phi-oso)hica-

 This( to our $ea inte--ects( a))ears a fata- contra8

diction" !ut it is not for us to Huestion Pro%idence G

our dut' is to hum-e ourse-%es in the dust efore it"

SECTION II"

Se%era- -earned men ha%e testied their sur)rise

at not ndin* in the historian( F-a%ius 1ose)hus(

an' mention of 1esus ChristG for a-- men of true

-earnin* are no$ a*reed that the short )assa*e re-a8

ti%e to him in that histor' has een inter)o-ated"

 The father of F-a%ius 1ose)hus must( ho$e%er( ha%e

een $itness to a-- the mirac-es of 1esus" 1ose)hus

$as of the sacerdota- race and ain to &erod5s $ife(

3ariamne" &e *i%es us -on* detai-s of a-- that

)rince5s actions( 'et sa's not a $ord of the -ife or

death of 1esusG nor does this historian( $ho dis8

*uises none of &erod5s crue-ties( sa' one $ord of

the *enera- massacre of the infants ordered ' him

on hearin* that there $as orn a in* of the 1e$s"

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 The ree ca-endar estimates the numer of chi-dren

murdered on this occasion at fourteen thousand"

 This is( of a-- actions of a-- t'rants( the most horri8

-e" There is no eBam)-e of it in the histor' of the

$ho-e $or-d"

 6et the est $riter the 1e$s ha%e e%er had( the

on-' one esteemed ' the rees and Romans( maes

no mention of an e%ent so sin*u-ar and so fri*htfu-"

&e sa's nothin* of the a))earance of a ne$ star in

the east after the irth of our Sa%iour a ri--iant

)henomenon( $hich cou-d not esca)e the no$-ed*e

Dictionar'" " =?

of a historian so en-i*htened as 1ose)hus" &e is

a-so si-ent res)ectin* the darness $hich( on our

Sa%iour5s death( co%ered the $ho-e earth for three

hours at midda' the *reat numer of *ra%es that

o)ened at that moment( and the mu-titude of the

 Qust that rose a*ain"

 The -earned are constant-' e%incin* their sur8

)rise that no Roman historian s)eas of these )rodi8

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*ies( ha))enin* in the em)ire of Tierius( under the

e'es of a Roman *o%ernor and a Roman *arrison(

$ho must ha%e sent to the em)eror and the senate a

detai-ed account of the most miracu-ous e%ent that

manind had e%er heard of" Rome itse-f must ha%e

een )-un*ed for three hours in im)enetra-e dar8

ness G such a )rodi*' $ou-d ha%e had a )-ace in the

anna-s of Rome( and in those of e%er' nation" !ut

it $as not od5s $i-- that these di%ine thin*s shou-d

e $ritten do$n ' their )rofane hands"

 The same )ersons a-so nd some dicu-ties in the

*os)e- histor'" The' remar that( in 3atthe$(

 1esus Christ te--s the scries and )harisees that a--

the innocent -ood that has een shed u)on earth(

from that of Ae- the 1ust do$n to that of 9achar'(

son of !arac( $hom the' s-e$ et$een the tem)-e

and the a-tar( sha-- e u)on their heads"

 There is not sa' the'U in the &ere$ histor'

an' 9achar' s-ain in the tem)-e efore the comin*

of the 3essiah( nor in &is time( ut in the histor'

of the sie*e of 1erusa-em( ' 1ose)hus( there is a

9achar'( son of !arac( s-ain ' the faction of the

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io7 Phi-oso)hica-

9e-otes" This is in the nineteenth cha)ter of the

fourth oo" &ence the' sus)ect that the *os)e-

accordin* to St" 3atthe$ $as $ritten after the

tain* of 1erusa-em ' Titus" !ut e%er' dout(

e%er' oQection of this ind( %anishes $hen it is con8

sidered ho$ *reat a diMerence there must e et$een

oos di%ine-' ins)ired and the oos of men" It

$as od5s )-easure to en%e-o) a-ie in a$fu- o8

scurit' &is irth( &is -ife( and &is death" &is $a's

are in a-- thin*s diMerent from ours"

 The -earned ha%e a-so een much tormented '

the diMerence et$een the t$o *enea-o*ies of 1esus

Christ" St" 3atthe$ maes 1ose)h the son of 1aco(

 1aco of 3atthan( 3atthan of E-ea4ar" St" Lue( on

the contrar'( sa's that 1ose)h $as the son of &e-i(

&e-i of 3atthat( 3atthat of Le%i( Le%i of 3e-chi(

etc" The' $i-- not reconci-e the ft'8siB )ro*enitors

u) to Araham( *i%en to 1esus ' Lue( $ith the

fort'8t$o other forefathers u) to the same Araham(

*i%en him ' 3atthe$ G and the' are Huite sta**ered

' 3atthe$5s *i%in* on-' fort'8one *enerations(

$hi-e he s)eas of fort'8t$o" The' start other dif8

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cu-ties aout 1esus ein* the son( not of 1ose)h(

ut of 3ar'" The' moreo%er raise some douts re8

s)ectin* our Sa%iour5s mirac-es( Huotin* St" Au8

*ustine( St" &i-ar'( and others( $ho ha%e *i%en to

the accounts of these mirac-es a m'stic or a--e*orica-

senseG as( for eBam)-e( to the * tree cursed and

-asted for not ha%in* orne *s $hen it $as not the

Dictionar'" =?>

* season G the de%i-s sent into the odies of s$ine

in a countr' $here no s$ine $ere e)t G the $ater

chan*ed into $ine at the end of a feast( $hen the

*uests $ere a-read' too much heated" !ut a-- these

-earned critics are confounded ' the faith( $hich

is ut the )urer for their ca%i-s" The so-e desi*n of

this artic-e is to fo--o$ the historica- thread and

*i%e a )recise idea of the facts aout $hich there is

no dis)ute"

First( then( 1esus $as orn under the 3osaic

-a$ G &e $as circumcised accordin* to that -a$ G &e

fu---ed a-- its )rece)ts G &e e)t a-- its feasts G &e

did not re%ea- the m'ster' of &is incarnationG &e

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ne%er to-d the 1e$s &e $as orn of a %ir*in G &e

recei%ed 1ohn5s -essin* in the $aters of the 1ordan(

a ceremon' to $hich %arious of the 1e$s sumitted G

ut &e ne%er a)ti4ed an' one G &e ne%er s)oe of

the se%en sacraments G &e instituted no ecc-esiastica-

hierarch' durin* &is -ife" &e concea-ed from &is

contem)oraries that &e $as the Son of od( e8

*otten from a-- eternit'( consustantia- $ith &is

Father G and that the &o-' host )roceeded from the

Father and the Son" &e did not sa' that &is )erson

$as com)osed of t$o natures and t$o $i--s" &e -eft

these m'steries to e announced to men in the course

of time ' those $ho $ere to e en-i*htened ' the

&o-' host" So -on* as &e -i%ed( &e de)arted in

nothin* from the -a$ of &is fathers" In the e'es of

men &e $as no more than a Qust man( )-easin* to

no Phi-oso)hica-

od( )ersecuted ' the en%ious and condemned to

death ' )reQudiced ma*istrates" &e -eft &is ho-'

church( esta-ished ' &im( to do a-- the rest"

Let us consider the state of re-i*ion in the Roman

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Em)ire at that )eriod" 3'steries and eB)iations

$ere in credit a-most throu*hout the earth" The em8

)erors( the *reat( and the )hi-oso)hers( had( it is

true( no faith in these m'steries G ut the )eo)-e( $ho(

in re-i*ious matters( *i%e the -a$ to the *reat( im8

)osed on them the necessit' of conformin* in a)8

)earance to their $orshi)" To succeed in chainin*

the mu-titude 'ou must seem to $ear the same fet8

ters" Cicero himse-f $as initiated in the E-eusinian

m'steries" The no$-ed*e of on-' one od $as the

)rinci)a- tenet incu-cated in these m'steries and

ma*nicent festi%a-s" It is undenia-e that the

)ra'ers and h'mns handed do$n to us as e-on*in*

to these m'steries are the most )ious and most ad8

mira-e of the re-ics of )a*anism" The Christians(

$ho -ie$ise adored on-' one od( had there'

*reater faci-it' in con%ertin* some of the enti-es"

Some of the )hi-oso)hers of P-ato5s sect ecame

Christians G hence in the three rst centuries the

fathers of the church $ere a-- P-atonists"

 The inconsiderate 4ea- of some of them in no

$a' detracts from the fundamenta- truths" St"

 1ustin( one of the )rimiti%e fathers( has een re8

)roached $ith ha%in* said( in his commentar' on

Isaiah( that the saints shou-d enQo'( durin* a rei*n

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of a thousand 'ears on earth( e%er' sensua- )-easure"

Dictionar'" = = =

&e has een char*ed $ith crimina-it' in sa'in*( in his

#A)o-o*' for Christianit'(# that od( ha%in* made

the earth( -eft it in the care of the an*e-s( $ho( ha%in*

fa--en in -o%e $ith the $omen( e*ot chi-dren( $hich

are the de%i-s"

Lactantius( $ith other fathers( has een con8

demned for ha%in* su))osed orac-es of the si'-s"

&e asserted that the si'- Er'threa made four ree

-ines( $hich rendered -itera--' are 0

With %e -oa%es and t$o shes

&e sha-- feed %e thousand men in the desertG

And( *atherin* u) the fra*ments that remain(

With them he sha-- -- t$e-%e asets"

 The )rimiti%e Christians ha%e een re)roached

$ith in%entin* some acrostic %erses on the name

 1esus Christ and attriutin* them to an ancient si'-"

 The' ha%e a-so een re)roached $ith for*in* -etters

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from 1esus Christ to the in* of Edessa( dated at a

time $hen there $as no in* in Edessa G $ith ha%in*

for*ed -etters of 3ar'( -etters of Seneca to Pau-(

fa-se *os)e-s( fa-se mirac-es( and a thousand other

im)ostures"

We ha%e( moreo%er( the histor' or *os)e- of the

nati%it' and marria*e of the Vir*in 3ar' G $herein

$e are to-d that she $as rou*ht to the tem)-e at

three 'ears o-d and $a-ed u) the stairs ' herse-f"

It is re-ated that a do%e came do$n from hea%en to

*i%e notice that it $as 1ose)h $ho $as to es)ouse

3ar'" We ha%e the )roto*os)e- of 1ames( rother

of 1esus ' 1ose)h5s rst $ife" It is there said that

== Phi-oso)hica-

$hen 1ose)h com)-ained of 3ar'5s ha%in* ecome

)re*nant in his asence( the )riests made each of

them drin the $ater of Qea-ous'( and oth $ere de8

c-ared innocent"

We ha%e the *os)e- of the Infanc'( attriuted to

St" Thomas" Accordin* to this *os)e-( 1esus( at

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%e 'ears of a*e( amused himse-f( -ie other chi-dren

of the same a*e( $ith mou-din* c-a'( and main* it(

amon* other thin*s( into the form of -itt-e irds"

&e $as re)ro%ed for this( on $hich he *a%e -ife to the

irds( and the' e$ a$a'" Another time( a -itt-e o'

ha%in* eaten him( $as struc dead on the s)ot" We

ha%e a-so another *os)e- of the Infanc' in Araic(

$hich is much more serious"

We ha%e a *os)e- of Nicodemus" This one seems

more $orth' of attention( for $e nd in it the names

of those $ho accused 1esus efore Pi-ate" The'

$ere the )rinci)a- men of the s'na*o*ue Ananias(

Caia)has( Sommas( Damat( ama-ie-( 1udah( Ne)h8

tha-im" In this histor' there are some thin*s that are

eas' to reconci-e $ith the recei%ed *os)e-s( and

others $hich are not e-se$here to e found" We

here nd that the $oman cured of a uB $as ca--ed

Veronica" We a-so nd a-- that 1esus did in he--

$hen &e descended thither" Then $e ha%e the

t$o -etters su))osed to ha%e een $ritten ' Pi-ate

to Tierius concernin* the eBecution of 1esus G ut

their ad Latin )-ain-' sho$s that the' are s)urious"

 To such a -en*th $as this fa-se 4ea- carried that %ari8

ous -etters $ere circu-ated attriuted to 1esus Christ"

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Dictionar'" ==

 The -etter is sti-- )reser%ed $hich he is said to ha%e

$ritten to A*arus( in* of Edessa G ut( as a-read'

remared( there had at that time ceased to e a in*

of Edessa"

Fift' *os)e-s $ere faricated and $ere after$ards

dec-ared a)ocr')ha-" St" Lue himse-f te--s us that

man' )ersons had com)osed *os)e-s" It has een e8

-ie%ed that there $as one ca--ed the Eterna- os)e-(

concernin* $hich it is said in the A)oca-')se( cha)(

Bi%"( #And I sa$ another an*e- ' in the midst of

hea%en( ha%in* the e%er-astin* *os)e-"# """" In

the thirteenth centur' the Corde-iers( ausin* these

$ords( com)osed an #eterna- *os)e-(# ' $hich the

rei*n of the &o-' host $as to e sustituted for

that of 1esus Christ" !ut ne%er in the ear-' a*es of

the church did an' oo a))ear $ith this tit-e" Let8

ters of the Vir*in $ere -ie$ise in%ented( $ritten to

I*natius the mart'r( to the )eo)-e of 3essina( and

others"

Adias( $ho immediate-' succeeded the a)ost-es(

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$rote their histor'( $ith $hich he miBed u) such

asurd fa-es that in time these histories ecame

$ho--' discredited( a-thou*h the' had at rst a *reat

re)utation" To Adias $e are indeted for the ac8

count of the contest et$een St" Peter and Simon

the ma*ician" There $as at Rome( in rea-it'( a %er'

si-fu- mechanic named Simon( $ho not on-' made

thin*s ' across the sta*e( as $e sti-- see done( ut

moreo%er re%i%ed in his o$n )erson the )rodi*' at8

triuted to Daeda-us" &e made himse-f $in*sG he

Vo-" 7

& Phi-oso)hica-

e$G and( -ie Icarus( he fe--" So sa' P-in' and

Suetonius"

Adias( $ho $as in Asia and $rote in &ere$(

te--s us that Peter and Simon met at Rome in the

rei*n of Nero" A 'oun* man( near-' re-ated to the

em)eror( died( and the $ho-e court e**ed that

Simon $ou-d raise him to -ife" St" Peter )resented

himse-f to )erform the same o)eration" Simon em8

)-o'ed a-- the )o$ers of his art( and he seemed to

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ha%e succeeded( for the dead man mo%ed his head"

#This is not enou*h(# cries PeterG #the dead man

must s)eaG -et Simon -ea%e the edside and $e

sha-- see $hether the 'oun* man is a-i%e"# Simon

$ent aside and the deceased no -on*er stirred( ut

Peter rou*ht him to -ife $ith a sin*-e $ord"

Simon $ent and com)-ained to the em)eror that

a misera-e a-i-ean had taen u)on himse-f to $or

*reater $onders than he" Simon $as confronted

$ith Peter and the' made a tria- of si--" #Te-- me(#

said Simon to Peter( #$hat I am thinin* ofJ# #If(#

returned Peter( #the em)eror $i-- *i%e me a ar-e'

-oaf( thou sha-t nd $hether or not I no$ $hat thou

hast in th' heart"# A -oaf $as *i%en him G Simon

immediate-' caused t$o -ar*e do*s to a))ear and

the' $anted to de%our it" Peter thre$ them the -oaf(

and $hi-e the' $ere eatin* it he said 0 #We--( did I

not no$ th' thou*hts J thou $ou-dst ha%e had th'

do*s de%our me"#

After this rst sittin* it $as )ro)osed that Simon

and Peter shou-d mae a 'in*8match( and tr' $hich

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Dictionar'" ==<

cou-d raise himse-f hi*hest in the air" Simon tried

rstG Peter made the si*n of the cross and do$n

came Simon and roe his -e*s" This stor' $as

imitated from that $hich $e nd in the #Sc)her

to-dos 1cschut(# $here it is said that 1esus &imse-f

e$( and that 1udas( $ho $ou-d ha%e done the same(

fe-- head-on*" Nero( %eBed that Peter had roen

his fa%orite( Simon5s( -e*s( had him crucied $ith his

head do$n$ards" &ence the notion of St" Peter5s res8

idence at Rome( the manner of his eBecution and his

se)u-chre"

 The same Adias esta-ished the e-ief that St"

 Thomas $ent and )reached Christianit' in India to

Kin* ondafer( and that he $ent thither as an arch8

itect" The numer of oos of this sort( $ritten in

the ear-' a*es of Christianit'( is )rodi*ious"

St" 1erome( and e%en St" Au*ustine( te-- us that

the -etters of Seneca and St" Pau- are Huite authentic"

In the rst of these -etters Seneca ho)es his rother

Pau- is $e-- 0 #!ene te %a-ere( f rater( cu)io"# Pau-

does not $rite Huite so *ood Latin as Seneca0 #I

recei%ed 'our -etters 'esterda'(# sa's he( #$ith Qo'"#

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#Litteras tuas hi-aris acce)t"# #And I $ou-d

ha%e ans$ered them immediate-' had I had the )res8

ence of the 'oun* man $hom I $ou-d ha%e sent $ith

them"# #Si )rcesentiam Qu%en-s hauissem"# 2n8

fortunate-' these -etters( in $hich one $ou-d -oo for

instruction( are nothin* more than com)-iments"

A-- these fa-sehoods( for*ed ' i--8informed and

mistaen-'84ea-ous Christians( $ere in no de*ree

n@ Phi-oso)hica-

)reQudicia- to the truth of Christianit'G the' o8

structed not its )ro*ress G on the contrar'( the' sho$

us that the Christian societ' $as dai-' increasin*

and that each memer $as desirous of hastenin* its

*ro$th"

 The Acts of the A)ost-es do not te-- us that the

a)ost-es a*reed on a s'mo-" Indeed( if the' had

)ut to*ether the s'mo- the creed( as $e no$ ca--

itU( St" Lue cou-d not in his histor' ha%e omitted

this essentia- asis of the Christian re-i*ion" The

sustance of the creed is scattered throu*h the *os8

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)e-sG ut the artic-es $ere not co--ected unti- -on*

after"

In short( our creed is( indis)uta-'( the e-ief of

the a)ost-es G ut it $as not $ritten ' them" Ru8

nus( a )riest of AHui-eia( is the rst $ho mentions

itG and a homi-' attriuted to St" Au*ustine is the

rst record of the su))osed $a' in $hich this creed

$as made (8 Peter sa'in*( $hen the' $ere assem-ed(

#I e-ie%e in od the Father A-mi*ht'# Andre$(

#and in 1esus Christ# 1ames( #$ho $as concei%ed

' the &o-' host# G and so of the rest"

 This formu-a $as ca--ed in ree s'mo-osG and

in Latin co--atio" On-' it must e oser%ed that the

ree %ersion has it 0 #I e-ie%e in od the Father(

maer of hea%en and earth"# In the Latin( maer(

former( is rendered ' #creatorem"# !ut after$ards(

in trans-atin* the s'mo- of the First Counci- of

Nice( it $as rendered ' #factorem"#

Constantine assem-ed at Nice( o))osite Constan8

Dictionar'" ==

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tino)-e( the rst ecumenica- counci-( o%er $hich O4ius

)resided" The *reat Huestion touchin* the di%init'

of 1esus Christ( $hich so much a*itated the church(

$as there decided" One )art' he-d the o)inion of

Ori*en( $ho sa's in his siBth cha)ter a*ainst Ce-sus(

#We oMer our )ra'ers to od throu*h Christ( $ho

ho-ds the midd-e )-ace et$een natures created and

uncreated G $ho -eads us to the *race of &is Father

and )resents our )ra'ers to the *reat od in Hua-it'

of our hi*h )riest"# These dis)utants a-so rest u)on

man' )assa*es of St" Pau-( some of $hich the'

Huote" The' de)end )articu-ar-' u)on these $ords

of 1esus Christ 0 #3' Father is *reater than I# G

and the' re*ard 1esus as the rst8orn of the crea8

tion G as a )ure emanation of the Su)reme !ein*(

ut not )recise-' as od"

 The other side( $ho $ere orthodoB( )roduced

)assa*es more conforma-e to the eterna- di%init' of

 1esus G as( for eBam)-e( the fo--o$in* 0 #3' Father

and I are one# G $ords $hich their o))onents inter8

)ret as si*nif'in* 0 #3' Father and I ha%e the same

oQect( the same intention G I ha%e no other $i-- than

that of 3' Father"# A-eBander( isho) of A-eBan8

dria( and after him Athanasius( $ere at the head of

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the orthodoBG and Euseius( isho) of Nicomedia(

$ith se%enteen other isho)s( the )riest Arius( and

man' more )riests( -ed the )art' o))osed to them"

 The Huarre- $as at rst eBceedin*-' itter( as St"

A-eBander treated his o))onents as so man' anti8

christs"

= = 7 Phi-oso)hica-

At -ast( after much dis)utation( the &o-' host

decided in the counci-( ' the mouths of t$o hundred

and ninet'8nine isho)s( a*ainst ei*hteen( as fo--o$s 0

#1esus is the on-' Son of odG e*otten of the

Father G -i*ht of -i*ht G %er' od of %er' od G of

one sustance $ith the Father" We e-ie%e a-so in

the &o-' host(# etc" Such $as the decision of the

counci- G and $e )ercei%e ' this fact ho$ the isho)s

carried it o%er the sim)-e )riests" T$o thousand

)ersons of the -atter c-ass $ere of the o)inion of

Arius( accordin* to the account of t$o )atriarchs of

A-eBandria( $ho ha%e $ritten the anna-s of A-eBan8

dria in Araic" Arius $as eBi-ed ' Constantine( as

$as Athanasius soon after( $hen Arius $as reca--ed

to Constantino)-e" 2)on this e%ent St" 3acarius

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)ra'ed so %ehement-' to od to terminate the -ife of

Arius efore he cou-d enter the cathedra-( that od

heard his )ra'er Arius d'in* on his $a' to church

in ?" The Em)eror Constantine ended his -ife in

" &e )-aced his $i-- in the hands of an Arian

)riest and died in the arms of the Arian -eader( Euse8

ius( isho) of Nicomedia( not recei%in* a)tism

unti- on his deathed( and -ea%in* a trium)hant( ut

di%ided church" The )artisans of Athanasius and

of Euseius carried on a crue- $arG and $hat is

ca--ed Arianism $as for a -on* time esta-ished in a--

the )ro%inces of the em)ire"

 1u-ian the )hi-oso)her( surnamed the a)ostate(

$ished to stie their di%isions( ut cou-d not suc8

ceed" The second *enera- counci- $as he-d at Con8

Dictionar'" ==>

stantino)-e in =7=" It $as there -aid do$n that the

Counci- of Nice had not decided Huite correct-' in

re*ard to the &o-' host G and it added to the Nicene

creed that #the &o-' host $as the *i%er of -ife and

)roceeded from the Father( and $ith the Father and

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Son is to e $orshi))ed and *-oried"# It $as not

unti- to$ards the ninth centur' that the Latin church

decreed that the &o-' host )roceeded from the

Father and the Son"

In the 'ear =( the third counci-8*enera-( he-d at

E)hesus( decided that 1esus had #t$o natures and

one )erson"# Nestorius( isho) of Constantino)-e(

$ho maintained that the Vir*in 3ar' shou-d e

entit-ed 3other of Christ( $as ca--ed 1udas ' the

counci- G and the #t$o natures# $ere a*ain conrmed

' the counci- of Cha-cedon"

I )ass -i*ht-' o%er the fo--o$in* centuries( $hich

are sucient-' no$n" 2nha))i-'( a-- these dis)utes

-ed to $ars( and the church $as uniform-' o-i*ed

to comat" od( in order to eBercise the )atience of

the faithfu-( a-so a--o$ed the ree and Latin

churches to se)arate in the ninth centur'" &e -ie8

$ise )ermitted in the east no -ess than t$ent'8nine

horri-e schisms $ith the see of Rome"

If there e aout siB hundred mi--ions of men

u)on earth( as certain -earned )ersons )retend( the

ho-' Roman Catho-ic church )ossesses scarce-' siB8

teen mi--ions of them aout a t$ent'8siBth )art

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of the inhaitants of the no$n $or-d"

= ? Phi-oso)hica-

C&RIST3AS"

EVER6 one no$s that this is the feast of the

nati%it' of 1esus" The most ancient feast e)t in the

church( after those of Easter and Pentecost( $as

that of the a)tism of 1esus" There $ere on-' these

three feasts( unti- St" Chr'sostom de-i%ered his

homi-' on Pentecost" We here mae no account of

the feasts of the mart'rs( $hich $ere of a %er' in8

ferior order" That of the a)tism of 1esus $as

named the E)i)han'( an imitation of the rees( $ho

*a%e that name to the feasts $hich the' he-d to com8

memorate the a))earance or manifestation of the

*ods u)on earth since it $as not unti- after his a)8

tism that 1esus e*an to )reach the *os)e-"

We no$ not $hether( aout the end of the fourth

centur'( this feast $as so-emni4ed in the Is-e of

C')rus on the @th of No%emer G ut St" E)i)hanius

maintained that 1esus $as orn on that da'" St"

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C-ement of A-eBandria te--s us that the !asi-idians

he-d this feast on the I<th of the month t'i( $hi-e

others he-d it on the I ith of the same month G that is(

it $as e)t ' some on the -oth of 1anuar'( and '

others on the @th G the -atter o)inion is the one no$

ado)ted" As for the nati%it'( as neither the da' nor

the month nor the 'ear of it $as no$n( it $as not

ce-erated"

Accordin* to the remars $hich $e nd a))ended

to the $ors of the same father( the' $ho ha%e een

the most curious in their researches concernin* the

Dictionar'" ="=

da' on $hich 1esus $as orn( some said that it $as

on the <th of the E*')tian month )achon( ans$er8

in* to the Oth of 3a' G others that it $as the th

or <th of )harmuthi( corres)ondin* to the i:th and

Oth of A)ri-" The -earned 3" de !eausore sa's

that these -atter $ere the da's of St" Va-entine" !e

this as it ma'( E*')t and the East e)t the feast of

the irth of 1esus on the @th of 1anuar'( the same

da' as that of &is a)tism G $ithout it ein* no$n

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at -east $ith certaint'U $hen( or for $hat reason(

this custom commenced"

 The o)inion and )ractice of the $estern nations

$ere Huite diMerent from those of the east" The

centuriators of 3a*deur* re)eat a )assa*e in

 Theo)hi-us of Caesarea( $hich maes the churches of

au- sa' 0 #Since the irth of Christ is ce-erated on

the <th of Decemer( on $hate%er da' of the $ee

it ma' fa--( so a-so shou-d the resurrection of 1esus

e ce-erated on the <th of 3arch( $hate%er da' of

the $ee it ma' e( the Lord ha%in* risen a*ain on

that da'"#

If this e true( it must e acno$-ed*ed that the

isho)s of au- $ere %er' )rudent and %er' reason8

a-e" !ein* )ersuaded( as a-- the ancients $ere( that

 1esus had een crucied on the d of 3arch( and

had risen a*ain on the <th( the' commemorated &is

death on the d and &is resurrection on the <th(

$ithout )a'in* an' re*ard to the oser%ance of the

fu-- moon( $hich $as ori*ina--' a 1e$ish ceremon'(

and $ithout connin* themse-%es to the Sunda'"

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= Phi-oso)hica-

&ad the church imitated them( she $ou-d ha%e

a%oided the -on* and scanda-ous dis)utes $hich

near-' se)arated the East from the West( and $ere

not terminated unti- the First Counci- of Nice"

Some of the -earned conQecture that the Romans

chose the $inter so-stice for ho-din* the irth of

 1esus( ecause the sun then e*ins a*ain "to a))roach

our hemis)here" In 1u-ius Caesar5s time the ci%i- and

)o-itica- so-stice $as Bed for the <th of Decemer"

 This at Rome $as a festi%a- in ce-eration of the re8

turnin* sun" P-in' te--s us that it $as ca--ed rnmaG

and( -ie Ser%ius( )-aces it on the 7th of the ca-ends

of 1anuar'" This association mi*ht ha%e some con8

nection $ith the choice of the da'( ut it $as not the

ori*in of it" A )assa*e in 1ose)hus e%ident-'

for*edU( three or four errors of the ancients( and a

%er' m'stica- eB)-anation of a sa'in* of St" 1ohn

the !a)tist( determined this choice( as 1ose)h Sca-8

i*er is aout to inform us"

It )-eased the ancients sa's that -earned criticU

to su))ose rst( that 9acharias $as so%erei*n sac8

ricer $hen 1esus $as orn" !ut nothin* is more

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untrue G it is no -on*er e-ie%ed ' an' one( at -east

amon* those of an' information"

Second-' the ancients su))osed that 9acharias

$as in the ho-' of ho-ies( oMerin* incense( $hen the

an*e- a))eared to him and announced the irth of

a son"

 Third-' as the so%erei*n sacricer entered the

tem)-e ut once a 'ear( on the da' of eB)iation( $hich

Dictionar'" =

$as the -oth of the 1e$ish month rifri( )art-' ans$er8

in* to the month of Se)temer( the ancients su))osed

that it $as the th G and that after$ards( on the d

or th( 9acharias ha%in* returned home after the

feast( E-i4aeth( his $ife( concei%ed 1ohn the !a)tist G

$hen the feast of the conce)tion of that saint $as

Bed for those da's" As $omen ordinari-' *o $ith

chi-d for t$o hundred and se%ent' or t$o hundred

and se%ent'8four da's( it fo--o$ed that the nati%it'

of 1ohn $as Bed for the th of 1une" Such $as

the ori*in of St" 1ohn5s da'( and of Christmas da'(

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$hich $as re*u-ated ' it"

Fourth-' it $as su))osed that there $ere siB

entire months et$een the conce)tion of 1ohn the

!a)tist and that of 1esus G a-thou*h the an*e- sim8

)-' te--s 3ar' that E-i4aeth $as then in the siBth

month of her )re*nanc' G conseHuent-' the conce)8

tion of 1esus $as Bed for the <th of 3arch G and

from these %arious su))ositions it $as conc-uded

that 1esus must ha%e een orn on the <th of De8

cemer( )recise-' nine months after his conce)tion"

 There are man' $onderfu- thin*s in these ar8

ran*ements" It is not one of the -east $orth' of ad8

miration( that the four cardina- )oints of the 'ear

the eHuinoBes and the so-stices( as the' $ere then

Bed $ere mared ' the conce)tions and irths of

 1ohn the !a)tist and 1esus" !ut it is 'et more mar8

%e--ous and $orth' of remar( that the so-stice $hen

 1esus $as orn is that at $hich the da's e*in to

increase G $hi-e that on $hich 1ohn the !a)tist came

= Phi-oso)hica-

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into the $or-d $as the )eriod at $hich the' e*in to

shorten" The ho-' forerunner had intimated this

in a %er' m'stica- manner( $hen s)eain* of 1esus(

in these $ords 0 #&e must *ro$( and I must ecome

-ess"#

Prudentius a--udes to this in a h'mn on the nati%8

it' of our Lord" 6et St" Leo sa's that in his time

there $ere )ersons in Rome $ho said the feast $as

%enera-e( not so much on account of the irth of

 1esus as of the return( and( as the' eB)ressed

it( the ne$ irth of the sun" St" E)i)hanius assures

us it $as fu--' esta-ished that 1esus $as orn on

the @th of 1anuar' G ut St" C-ement of A-eBandria(

much more ancient and more -earned than he( Bes the

irth on the i7th of No%emer( of the t$ent'8ei*hth

'ear of Au*ustus" This is deduced( accordin* to the

 1esuit Petau5s remar on St" E)i)hanius( from these

$ords of St" C-ement0 #The $ho-e time from the

irth of 1esus Christ to the death of Commodus $as

a hundred and ninet'8four 'ears( one month and

thirteen da's"# No$ Commodus died( accordin* to

Petau( on the -ast of Decemer( in the 'ear => of

our era G therefore( accordin* to St" C-ement( 1esus

$as orn one month and thirteen da's efore

the -ast of DecemerG conseHuent-'( on the i7th

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of No%emer( in the t$ent'8ei*hth 'ear of the

rei*n of Au*ustus" Concernin* $hich it must e

oser%ed that St" C-ement dates the rei*n of Au8

*ustus on-' from the death of Anton' and the ca)8

ture of A-eBandria( ecause it $as not unti- then that

Dictionar'" =<

Au*ustus $as -eft the so-e master of the em)ire"

 Thus $e are no more assured of the 'ear of this

irth than $e are of the month or the da'" Thou*h

St" Lue dec-ares( #that &e had )erfect understand8

in* of a-- thin*s from the %er' rst(# he c-ear-'

sho$s that he did not no$ the eBact a*e of 1esus

$hen &e sa's that( $hen a)ti4ed( &e #e*an to e

aout thirt' 'ears o-d"# Indeed( this e%an*e-ist

maes 1esus orn in the 'ear of the numerin*

$ r hich( accordin* to him( $as made ' C'renus or

C'renius( *o%ernor of S'riaG $hi-e( accordin* to

 Tertu--ian( it $as made ' Sentius Saturninus" !ut

Saturninus had Huitted the )ro%ince in the -ast 'ear

of &erod( and( as Tacitus informs us( $as succeeded

' :uinti-ius Varus G and Pu-ius Su-)icius :uirinus

or :uirinius( of $hom it $ou-d seem St" Lue means

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to s)ea( did not succeed :uinti-ius Varus unti- aout

ten 'ears after &erod5s death( $hen Arche-aus( in*

of 1udaea( $as anished ' Au*ustus( as 1ose)hus

te--s us in his #1e$ish AntiHuities"#

It is (true that Tertu--ian( and St" 1ustin efore

him( referred the )a*ans and the heretics of their time

to the )u-ic archi%es containin* the re*isters of this

)retended numerin*G ut Tertu--ian -ie$ise re8

ferred to the )u-ic archi%es for the account of the

darness at noonda' at the time of the )assion of

 1esus( as $i-- e seen in the artic-e on #Ec-i)se#G

$here $e ha%e remared the $ant of eBactness in

these t$o fathers( and in simi-ar authorities( in our

oser%ations on a statue $hich St" 1ustin $ho as8

=@ Phi-oso)hica-

sures us that he sa$ it at Rome sa's $as dedicated

to Simon the ma*ician( ut $hich $as in rea-it' dedi8

cated to a *od of the ancient Saines"

 These uncertainties( ho$e%er( $i-- eBcite no as8

tonishment $hen it is reco--ected that 1esus $as un8

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no$n to &is disci)-es unti- &e had recei%ed a)8

tism from 1ohn" It is eB)ress-'( #e*innin* $ith

the a)tism of 1esus(# that Peter $i-- ha%e the suc8

cessor of 1udas testif' concernin* 1esusG and( ac8

cordin* to the same Acts( Peter there' understands

the $ho-e time that 1esus had -i%ed $ith them"

C&RONOLO6"

 T&E WORLD has -on* dis)uted aout ancient chro8

no-o*'G ut has there e%er een an'J E%er' con8

sidera-e )eo)-e must necessari-' )ossess and )re8

ser%e authentic( $e--8attested re*isters" !ut ho$

fe$ )eo)-e $ere acHuainted $ith the art of $ritin*J

and( amon* the sma-- numer of men $ho cu-ti%ated

this %er' rare art( are an' to e found $ho too the

trou-e to mar t$o dates $ith eBactness J

We ha%e( indeed( in %er' recent times the astro8

nomica- oser%ations of the Chinese and the Cha-8

daeans" The' on-' *o ac aout t$o thousand

'ears( more or -ess( e'ond our era" !ut $hen the

ear-' anna-s of a nation conne themse-%es sim)-' to

communicatin* the information that there $as an

ec-i)se in the rei*n of a certain )rince( $e -earn( cer8

tain-'( that such a )rince eBisted( ut not $hat he

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)erformed"

Dictionar'" =

3oreo%er( the Chinese recon the 'ear in $hich

an em)eror dies as sti-- constitutin* a )art of his

rei*n( unti- the end of it G e%en thou*h he shou-d

die the rst da' of the 'ear( his successor dates the

'ear fo--o$in* his death $ith the name of his )re8

decessor" It is not )ossi-e to sho$ more res)ect

for ancestors G nor is it )ossi-e to com)ute time

in a manner more inQudicious in com)arison $ith

modern nations"

We ma' add that the Chinese do not commence

their seBa*enar' c'c-e( into $hich the' ha%e intro8

duced arran*ement( ti-- the rei*n of the Em)eror

-ao( t$o thousand three hundred and ft'8se%en

'ears efore our %u-*ar era" Profound oscurit'

han*s o%er the $ho-e )eriod of time $hich )re8

cedes that e)och"

3en are *enera--' contented $ith an a))roBi8

mation $ith the #)rett' near-'# in e%er' case"

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For eBam)-e( efore the in%ention of $atches(

)eo)-e cou-d -earn the time of da' or ni*ht on-'

a))roBimate-'" In ui-din*( the stones $ere )rett'

near-' he$n to a certain sha)e( the timer )rett'

near-' sHuared( and the -ims of the statue )rett'

near-' chi))ed to a )ro)er nish G a man $as on-'

)rett' near-' acHuainted $ith his nearest nei*hors G

and( not$ithstandin* the )erfection $e ha%e our8

se-%es attained( such is the state of thin*s at )resent

throu*hout the *reater )art of the $or-d"

Let us not then e astonished that there is no8

$here to e found a correct ancient chrono-o*'"

=7 Phi-oso)hica-

 That $hich $e ha%e of the Chinese is of considera8

-e %a-ue( $hen com)ared $ith the chrono-o*ica-

-aors of other nations" We ha%e none of the In8

dians( nor of the Persians( and scarce-' an' of the

ancient E*')tians" A-- our s'stems formed on the

histor' of these )eo)-e are as contradictor' as our

s'stems of meta)h'sics"

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 The ree O-'m)iads do not commence ti--

se%en hundred and t$ent'8ei*ht 'ears efore our

era of reconin*" 2nti- $e arri%e at them( $e )er8

cei%e on-' a fe$ torches to -i*hten the darness(

such as the era of Naonassar( the $ar et$een

Lacedsemon and 3essene G e%en those e)ochs them8

se-%es are suQects of dis)ute"

Li%' too care not to state in $hat 'ear Romu8

-us e*an his )retended rei*n" The Romans( $ho

$e-- ne$ the uncertaint' of that e)och( $ou-d ha%e

ridicu-ed him had he undertaen to decide it" It

is )ro%ed that the duration of t$o hundred and

fort' 'ears ascried to the se%en rst in*s of

Rome is a %er' fa-se ca-cu-ation" The rst four

centuries of Rome are aso-ute-' destitute of chron8

o-o*'"

If four centuries of the most memora-e em)ire

the $or-d e%er sa$ com)rise on-' an undi*ested

mass of e%ents( miBed u) $ith fa-es( and a-most

$ithout a date( $hat must e the case $ith sma--

nations( shut u) in an oscure corner of the earth(

that ha%e ne%er made an' *ure in the $or-d( not8

$ithstandin* a-- their attem)ts to com)ensate( '

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Dictionar'" =>

)rodi*' and im)osture( for their decienc' in rea-

)o$er and cu-ti%ationJ

Of the Vanit' of S'stems( Particu-ar-' in

Chrono-o*'"

 The Ae Condi--ac )erformed a most im)ortant

ser%ice to the human mind $hen he dis)-a'ed the

fa-se )oints of a-- s'stems" If $e ma' e%er ho)e

that $e sha-- one da' nd the road to truth( it can

on-' e after $e ha%e detected a-- those $hich -ead

to error" It is at -east a conso-ation to e at rest(

to e no -on*er seein*( $hen $e )ercei%e that so

man' )hi-oso)hers ha%e sou*ht in %ain"

Chrono-o*' is a co--ection of -adders of $ind"

A-- $ho thou*ht to )ass o%er it as so-id *round

ha%e een immersed" We ha%e( at the )resent time(

t$ent'8four s'stems( not one of $hich is true"

 The !a'-onians said( #We recon four hundred

and se%ent'8three thousand 'ears of astronomica-

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oser%ations"# A Parisian( addressin* him( sa's(

#6our account is correct G 'our 'ears consisted each

of a so-ar da' G the' amount to t$e-%e hundred and

ninet'8se%en of ours( from the time of At-as( the

*reat astronomer( in* of Africa( ti-- the arri%a- of

A-eBander at !a'-on"#

!ut( $hate%er our Parisian ma' sa'( no )eo)-e

in the $or-d ha%e e%er confounded a da' $ith a

'earG and the )eo)-e of !a'-on sti-- -ess than

an' other" This Parisian stran*er shou-d ha%e con8

tented himse-f $ith mere-' oser%in* to the Cha-dae8

Vo-" >

=? Phi-oso)hica-

ans0 #6ou are eBa**erators( and our ancestors

$ere i*norant" Nations are eB)osed to too man'

re%o-utions to )ermit their ee)in* a series of four

thousand se%en hundred and thirt'8siB centuries of

astronomica- ca-cu-ations" And( $ith res)ect to

At-as( in* of the 3oors( no one no$s at $hat

time he -i%ed" P'tha*oras mi*ht )retend to ha%e

een a coc( Qust as reasona-' as 'ou ma' oast of

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such a series of oser%ations"#

 The *reat )oint of ridicu-e in a-- fantastic chron8

o-o*ies is the arran*ement of a-- the *reat e%ents

of a man5s -ife in )recise order of time( $ithout

ascertainin* that the man himse-f e%er eBisted"

Len*-et re)eats after others( in his chrono-o*ica-

com)i-ation of uni%ersa- histor'( that )recise-' in

the time of Araham( and siB 'ears after the death

of Sarah( $ho $as -itt-e no$n to the rees(

"1u)iter( at the a*e of siBt'8t$o( e*an to rei*n in

 Thessa-'G that his rei*n -asted siBt' 'earsG that

he married his sister 1unoG that he $as o-i*ed to

cede the maritime coasts to his rother Ne)tuneG

and that the Titans made $ar a*ainst him" !ut $as

there e%er a 1u)iter J It ne%er occurred to him that

$ith this Huestion he shou-d ha%e e*un"

C&2RC&"

Summar' of the &istor' of the 5Christian Church"

WE S&ALL not eBtend our %ie$s into the de)ths

of theo-o*'" od )reser%e us from such )resum)8

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Dictionar'" ==

tion" &um-e faith a-one is enou*h for us" We

ne%er assume an' other )art than that of mere his8

torians"

In the 'ears that immediate-' fo--o$ed 1esus

Christ( $ho $as at once od and man( there eB8

isted amon* the &ere$s nine re-i*ious schoo-s or

societies Pharisees( Sadducees( Essenians( 1udah8

ites( Thera)eutae( Rechaites( &erodians( the dis8

ci)-es of 1ohn( and the disci)-es of 1esus( named the

#rethren(# the #a-i-eans(# the #e-ie%ers(# $ho

did not assume the name of Christians ti-- aout

the siBteenth 'ear of our era( at AntiochG ein*

directed to its ado)tion ' od himse-f( in $a's un8

no$n to men" The Pharisees e-ie%ed in the

metem)s'chosis" The Sadducees denied the im8

morta-it' of the sou-( and the eBistence of s)irits(

'et e-ie%ed in the Pentateuch"

P-in'( the natura-ist re-'in*( e%ident-'( on the

authorit' of F-a%ius 1ose)hus ca--s the Essenians

#*ens Eterna in Hua nemo nascitur# #a )er)etua-

fami-'( in $hich no one is e%er orn# ecause the

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Essenians %er' rare-' married" The descri)tion

has een since a))-ied to our mons"

It is dicu-t to decide $hether the Essenians or

the 1udahites are s)oen of ' 1ose)hus in the fo-8

-o$in* )assa*e 0 #The' des)ise the e%i-s of the

$or-d G their constanc' ena-es them to trium)h

o%er torments G in an honora-e cause( the' )refer

death to -ife" The' ha%e under*one re and s$ord(

and sumitted to ha%in* their %er' ones crushed(

= Phi-oso)hica-

rather than utter a s'--a-e a*ainst their -e*is-ator(

or eat foridden food"#

It $ou-d seem( from the $ords of 1ose)hus( that

the fore*oin* )ortrait a))-ies to the 1udahites( and

not to the Essenians" #1udas $as the author of a

ne$ sect( com)-ete-' diMerent from the other three G#

that is( the Sadducees( the Pharisees( and the

Essenians" #The' are(# he *oes on( #1e$s '

nation G the' -i%e in harmon' $ith one another( and

consider )-easure to e a %ice"# The natura- mean8

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in* of this -an*ua*e $ou-d induce us to thin that

he is s)eain* of the 1udahites"

&o$e%er that ma' e( these 1udahites $ere no$n

efore the disci)-es of Christ e*an to )ossess con8

sideration and conseHuence in the $or-d" Some

$ea )eo)-e ha%e su))osed them to e heretics( $ho

adored 1udas Iscariot"

 The Thera)eutae $ere a societ' diMerent from the

Essenians and the 1udahites" The' resem-ed the

'mnoso)hists and !rahmins of India" #The' )os8

sess(# sa's Phi-o( #a )rinci)-e of di%ine -o%e $hich

eBcites in them an enthusiasm -ie that of the !ac8

chantes and the Cor'antes( and $hich forms them

to that state of contem)-ation to $hich the' as)ire"

 This sect ori*inated in A-eBandria( $hich $as en8

tire-' --ed $ith 1e$s( and )re%ai-ed *reat-'

throu*hout E*')t"# The Rechaites sti-- continued

as a sect" The' %o$ed ne%er to drin $ine G and

it is( )ossi-'( from their eBam)-e that 3ahomet

forade that -iHuor to his fo--o$ers"

Dictionar'" =

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 The &erodians re*arded &erod( the rst of that

name( as a 3essiah( a messen*er from od( $ho

had reui-t the tem)-e" It is c-ear that the 1e$s at

Rome ce-erated a festi%a- in honor of him( in the

rei*n of Nero( as a))ears from the -ines of Persius 0

#&erodis %enere dies(# etc" Sat" %" =7?"U

# Kin* &erod5s feast( $hen each 1udsean %i-e(

 Trims u) his -am) $ith ta--o$ or $ith oi-"#

 The disci)-es of 1ohn the !a)tist had s)read

themse-%es a -itt-e in E*')t( ut )rinci)a--' in S'ria(

Araia( and to$ards the Persian *u-f" The' are

reco*ni4ed( at the )resent da'( under the name of

the Christians of St" 1ohn" There $ere some a-so

in Asia 3inor" It is mentioned in the Acts of the

A)ost-es cha)( BiB"U that Pau- met $ith man' of

them at E)hesus" #&a%e 'ou recei%ed(# he ased

them( #the ho-' s)irit J# The' ans$ered him" #We

ha%e not heard e%en that there is a ho-' s)irit"#

#What a)tism( then(# sa's he( #ha%e 'ou re8

cei%edJ# The' ans$ered him( #The a)tism of

 1ohn"#

In the meantime the true Christians( as is $e--

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no$n( $ere -a'in* the foundation of the on-' true

re-i*ion" &e $ho contriuted most to stren*then

this risin* societ'( $as Pau-( $ho had himse-f )erse8

cuted it $ith the *reatest %io-ence" &e $as orn

at Tarsus in Ci-icia( and $as educated under one of

the most ce-erated )rofessors amon* the Phari8

sees ama-ie-( a disci)-e of &i--e-" The 1e$s )re8

tend that he Huarre--ed $ith ama-ie-( $ho refused

= Phi-oso)hica-

to -et him ha%e his dau*hter in marria*e" Some

traces of this anecdote are to e found in the seHue-

to the #Acts of St" The-a"# These acts re-ate that

he had a -ar*e forehead( a a-d head( united e'e8

ro$s( an aHui-ine nose( a short and c-ums' *ure(

and crooed -e*s" Lucian( in his dia-o*ue #Phi-o8

)atres# seems to *i%e a %er' simi-ar )ortrait of

him" It has een douted $hether he $as a Roman

citi4en( for at that time the tit-e $as not *i%en to

an' 1e$ G the' had een eB)e--ed from Rome '

 Tierius G and Tarsus did not ecome a Roman

co-on' ti-- near-' a hundred 'ears after$ards( under

Caraca--a G as Ce--arius remars in his #eo*ra)h'#

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oo iii"U( and rotius in his #Commentar' on the

Acts5(# to $hom a-one $e need refer"

od( $ho came do$n u)on earth to e an eB8

am)-e in it of humanit' and )o%ert'( *a%e to his

church the most fee-e infanc'( and conducted it in

a state of humi-iation simi-ar to that in $hich he

had himse-f chosen to e orn" A-- the rst e8

-ie%ers $ere oscure )ersons" The' -aored $ith

their hands" The a)ost-e St" Pau- himse-f ac8

no$-ed*es that he *ained his -i%e-ihood ' main*

tents" St" Peter raised from the dead Dorcas( a

sem)stress( $ho made c-othes for the #rethren"#

 The assem-' of e-ie%ers met at 1o))a( at the house

of a tanner ca--ed Simon( as a))ears from the ninth

cha)ter of the #Acts of the A)ost-es"#

 The e-ie%ers s)read themse-%es secret-' in

reeceG and some of them $ent from reece to

Dictionar'" =<

Rome( amon* the 1e$s( $ho $ere )ermitted ' the

Romans to ha%e a s'na*o*ue" The' did not( at

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rst( se)arate themse-%es from the 1e$s" The'

)ractised circumcision G and( as $e ha%e e-se$here

remared( the rst fteen oscure isho)s of 1eru8

sa-em $ere a-- circumcised( or at -east $ere a-- of

the 1e$ish nation"

When the a)ost-e Pau- too $ith him Timoth'(

$ho $as the son of a heathen father( he circumcised

him himse-f( in the sma-- cit' of L'stra" !ut Titus(

his other disci)-e( cou-d not e induced to sumit to

circumcision" The rethren( or the disci)-es of

 1esus( continued united $ith the 1e$s unti- the time

$hen St" Pau- eB)erienced a )ersecution at 1eru8

sa-em( on account of his ha%in* introduced stran*ers

into the tem)-e" &e $as accused ' the 1e$s of

endea%orin* to destro' the -a$ of 3oses ' that of

 1esus Christ" It $as $ith a %ie$ to his c-earin*

himse-f from this accusation that the a)ost-e St"

 1ames )ro)osed to the a)ost-e Pau- that he shou-d

sha%e his head( and *o and )urif' himse-f in the

tem)-e( $ith four 1e$s( $ho had made a %o$ of

ein* sha%ed" #Tae them $ith 'ou(# sa's 1ames

to him Acts of the A)ost-es BBi"U( #)urif' 'our8

se-f $ith them( and -et the $ho-e $or-d no$ that

$hat has een re)orted concernin* 'ou is fa-se( and

that 'ou continue to oe' the -a$ of 3oses"# Thus(

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then( Pau-( $ho had een at rst the most summar'

)ersecutor of the ho-' societ' esta-ished ' 1esus

Pau-( $ho after$ards endea%ored to *o%ern that

=@ Phi-oso)hica-

risin* societ' Pau- the Christian( 1udai4es( #that

the $or-d ma' no$ that he is ca-umniated $hen

he is char*ed $ith no -on*er fo--o$in* the -a$ of

3oses"#

St" Pau- $as eHua--' char*ed $ith im)iet' and

heres'( and the )ersecution a*ainst him -asted a

-on* time G ut it is )erfect-' c-ear( from the nature

of the char*es( that he had tra%e--ed to 1erusa-em

in order to fu-- the rites of 1udaism"

&e addressed to Faustus these $ords0 #I ha%e

ne%er oMended a*ainst the 1e$ish -a$( nor a*ainst

the tem)-e"# Acts BB%"U The a)ost-es announced

 1esus Christ as a Qust man $iced-' )ersecuted( a

)ro)het of od( a son of od( sent to the 1e$s

for the reformation of manners"

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#Circumcision(# sa's the a)ost-e Pau-( # is *ood(

if 'ou oser%e the -a$ G ut if 'ou %io-ate the -a$(

'our circumcision ecomes uncircumcision" If an'

uncircumcised )erson ee) the -a$( he $i-- e as

if circumcised" The true 1e$ is one that is so in8

$ard-'"#

When this a)ost-e s)eas of 1esus Christ in his

e)ist-es( he does not re%ea- the ineMa-e m'ster' of

his consustantia-it' $ith od" #We are de-i%ered

' him(# sa's he( #from the $rath of od" The

*ift of od hath een shed u)on us ' the *race

esto$ed on one man( $ho is 1esus Christ" " " "

Death rei*ned throu*h the sin of one man G the Qust

sha-- rei*n in -ife ' one man( $ho is 1esus Christ"#

Romans %"U

Dictionar'" =

And( in the ei*hth cha)ter0 #We are heirs of

od( and Qoint8heirs of ChristG# and in the siBteenth

cha)ter 0 #To od( $ho is the on-' $ise( e honor

and *-or' throu*h 1esus Christ 6ou are

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 1esus Christ5s( and 1esus Christ is od5s"# I Cor"

cha)( iii"U

And( in I Cor" B%" 0 #E%er'thin* is made su8

 Qect to him( undouted-'( eBce)tin* od( $ho made

a-- thin*s suQect to him"#

Some dicu-t' has een found in eB)-ainin* the

fo--o$in* )art of the E)ist-e of the Phi-i))ians0

#Do nothin* throu*h %ain *-or'" Let each hum-'

thin others etter than himse-f" !e of the same

mind $ith 1esus Christ( $ho( ein* in the -ieness

of od( assumed not to eHua- himse-f to od"# This

)assa*e a))ears eBceedin*-' $e-- in%esti*ated and

e-ucidated in a -etter( sti-- eBtant( of the churches of

Vienna and L'ons( $ritten in the 'ear ==( and

$hich is a %a-ua-e monument of antiHuit'" In this

-etter the modest' of some e-ie%ers is )raised"

#The' did not $ish(# sa's the -etter( #to assume the

-oft' tit-e of mart'rs( in conseHuence of certain

triu-ationsG after the eBam)-e of 1esus Christ(

$ho( ein* in the -ieness of od( did not assume

the Hua-it' of ein* eHua- to od"# Ori*en( a-so(

in his commentar' on 1ohn( sa's0 #The *reatness

of 1esus shines out more s)-endid-' in conseHuence

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of his se-f8humi-iation than if he had assumed

eHua-it' $ith od"# In fact( the o))osite inter)re8

tation $ou-d e a so-ecism" What sense $ou-d

=7 Phi-oso)hica-

there e in this eBhortation 0 #Thin others su)erior

to 'ourse-%esG imitate 1esus( $ho did not thin it

an assum)tion to e eHua- to odJ# It $ou-d e

an o%ious contradictionG it $ou-d e )uttin* an

eBam)-e of fu-- )retension for an eBam)-e of

modest' G it $ou-d e an oMence a*ainst -o*ic"

 Thus did the $isdom of the a)ost-es esta-ish

the risin* church" That $isdom did not chan*e its

character in conseHuence of the dis)ute $hich too

)-ace et$een the a)ost-es Peter( 1ames( and 1ohn(

on one side( and Pau- on the other" This contest

occurred at Antioch" The a)ost-e Peter former-'

Ce)has( or Simon !ar 1ona ate $ith the con%erted

enti-es( and amon* them did not oser%e the cere8

monies of the -a$ and the distinction of meats" &e

and !arnaas( and the other disci)-es( ate indiMer8

ent-' of )or( of anima-s $hich had een stran*-ed(

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Huarre- et$een Pau- and Ce)has $as a )retended

one" &e sa's( in his rst homi-' %o-" iii"U that the'

acted -ie t$o ad%ocates( $ho had $ored them8

se-%es u) to an a))earance of *reat 4ea- and eBas)er8

ation a*ainst each other( to *ain credit $ith their

res)ecti%e c-ients" &e sa's that Peter Ce)has

ein* a))ointed to )reach to the 1e$s( and Pau- to

the enti-es( the' assumed the a))earance of Huar8

re--in* Pau- to *ain the enti-es( and Peter to

*ain the 1e$s" !ut St" Au*ustine is ' no means

of the same o)inion" #I *rie%e(# sa's he( in his

e)ist-e to 1erome( #that so *reat a man shou-d e

the )atron of a -ie"# )atronum mendaciiU"

 This dis)ute et$een St" 1erome and St" Au8

*ustine ou*ht not to diminish our %eneration for

them( and sti-- -ess for St" Pau- and St" Peter" As

to $hat remains( if Peter $as destined for the 1e$s(

$ho $ere( after their con%ersion( -ie-' to 1udai4e(

and Pau- for stran*ers( it a))ears )roa-e that

Peter ne%er $ent to Rome" The Acts of the

A)ost-es maes no mention of Peter5s Qourne' to

Ita-'"

&o$e%er that ma' e( it $as aout the siBtieth

'ear of our era that Christians e*an to se)arate

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=? Phi-oso)hica-

from the 1e$ish communion G and it $as this $hich

dre$ u)on them so man' Huarre-s and )ersecutions

from the %arious s'na*o*ues of Rome( reece(

E*')t( and Asia" The' $ere accused of im)iet'

and atheism ' their 1e$ish rethren( $ho eBcom8

municated them in their s'na*o*ues three times

e%er' Saath8da'" !ut in the midst of their )er8

secutions od a-$a's su))orted them"

!' de*rees man' churches $ere formed( and the

se)aration et$een 1e$s and Christians $as com8

)-ete efore the c-ose of the rst centur'" This

se)aration $as unno$n to the Roman *o%ernment"

Neither the senate nor the em)erors of Rome in8

terested themse-%es in those Huarre-s of a sma--

oc of manind( $hich od had hitherto *uided

in oscurit'( and $hich he eBa-ted ' insensi-e

*radations"

Christianit' ecame esta-ished in reece and at

A-eBandria" The Christians had there to contend

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$ith a ne$ set of 1e$s( $ho( in conseHuence of in8

tercourse $ith the rees( had ecome )hi-oso)hers"

 This $as the sect of *nosis( or *nostics" Amon*

them $ere some of the ne$ con%erts to Chris8

tianit'" A-- these sects( at that time( enQo'ed com8

)-ete -iert' to do*mati4e( discourse( and $rite(

$hene%er the 1e$ish courtiers( sett-ed at Rome and

A-eBandria( did not rin* an' char*e a*ainst them

efore the ma*istrates" !ut( under Domitian(

Christianit' e*an to *i%e some umra*e to the

*o%ernment"

Dictionar'" ==

 The 4ea- of some Christians( $hich $as not ac8

cordin* to no$-ed*e( did not )re%ent the Church

from main* that )ro*ress $hich od destined

from the e*innin*" The Christians( at rst( ce-e8

rated their m'steries in seHuestered houses( and

in ca%es( and durin* the ni*ht" &ence( accordin*

to 3inucius Fe-iB( the tit-e *i%en them of -uci8

fu*aces" Phi-o ca--s them esseens" The names

most freHuent-' a))-ied to them ' the heathens(

durin* the rst four centuries( $ere #a-i-eans# and

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#Na4arenes# G ut that of #Christians# has )re%ai-ed

ao%e a-- others" Neither the hierarch'( nor the

ser%ices of the church( $ere esta-ished a-- at once G

the a)osto-ic times $ere diMerent from those $hich

fo--o$ed"

 The mass no$ ce-erated at matins $as the su)8

)er )erformed in the e%enin* G these usa*es chan*ed

in )ro)ortion as the church stren*thened" A more

numerous societ' reHuired more re*u-ations( and

the )rudence of the )astors accommodated itse-f to

times and )-aces" St" 1erome and Euseius re-ate

that $hen the churches recei%ed a re*u-ar form( %e

diMerent orders mi*ht e soon )ercei%ed to eBist

in them su)erintendents( e)isco)a-( $hence ori*8

inate the isho)s G e-ders of the societ'( )res'tero-(

)riests( diaconoi( ser%ants or deacons G )isto-(

e-ie%ers( the initiated that is( the a)ti4ed( $ho

)artici)ated in the su))ers of the a*a)e( or -o%e8

feastsG the catechumens( $ho $ere a$aitin* a)8

tism G and the ener*umens( $ho a$aited their ein*

= Phi-oso)hica-

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eBorcised of demons" In these %e orders( no one

had *arments diMerent from the others( no one $as

ound to ce-iac'G $itness Tertu--ian5s oo( dedi8

cated to his $ife G and $itness a-so the eBam)-e of

the a)ost-es" No )aintin*s or scu-)tures $ere to e

found in their assem-ies durin* the rst t$o cen8

turiesG no a-tarsG and( most certain-'( no ta)ers(

incense( and -ustra- $ater" The Christians carefu--'

concea-ed their oos from the enti-esG the' in8

trusted them on-' to the initiated" E%en the cate8

chumens $ere not )ermitted to recite the Lord5s

)ra'er"

Of the Po$er of EB)e--in* De%i-s( i%en to the

Church"

 That $hich most distin*uished the Christians(

and $hich" has continued near-' to our o$n times(

$as the )o$er of eB)e--in* de%i-s $ith the si*n of

the cross" Ori*en( in his treaties a*ainst Ce-sus(

dec-ares at No" = that Antinous( $ho had een

deed ' the em)eror Adrian( )erformed mirac-es

in E*')t ' the )o$er of charms and ma*icG ut

he sa's that the de%i-s came out of the odies of the

)ossessed on the mere utterance of the name of

 1esus"

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 Tertu--ian *oes fartherG and from the recesses

of Africa( $here he resided( he sa's( in his

#A)o-o*'# cha)( BBiii" #If 'our *ods do not

confess themse-%es to e de%i-s in the )resence of a

true Christian( $e *i%e 'ou fu-- -iert' to shed that

Dictionar'" =

Christian5s -ood"# Can an' demonstration e )os8

si-' c-earerJ

In fact( 1esus Christ sent out his a)ost-es to eB)e-

demons" The 1e$s( -ie$ise( in his time( had the

)o$er of eB)e--in* them G for( $hen 1esus had de8

-i%ered some )ossessed )ersons( and sent the de%i-s

into the odies of a %er' numerous herd of s$ine(

and had )erformed man' other simi-ar cures( the

Pharisees said0 #&e eB)e-s de%i-s throu*h the

)o$er of !ee-4eu"# 1esus re)-ied 0 #!' $hom do

'our sons eB)e- them J# It is incontesta-e that the

 1e$s oasted of this )o$er" The' had eBorcists

and eBorcisms" The' in%oed the name of od(

of 1aco( and of Araham" The' )ut consecrated

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than there are demoniacs" !ut od has the so%8

erei*n )o$er of admonishin* manind ' )rodi*ies

at some )articu-ar seasons( and of discontinuin*

those )rodi*ies at others"

Of the 3art'rs of the Church"

When Christians ecame some$hat numerous(

and man' arra'ed themse-%es a*ainst the $orshi)

esta-ished in the Roman Em)ire( the ma*istrates

e*an to eBercise se%erit' a*ainst them( and the )eo8

)-e more )articu-ar-' )ersecuted them" The 1e$s(

$ho )ossessed )articu-ar )ri%i-e*es( and $ho con8

ned themse-%es to their s'na*o*ues( $ere not )er8

secuted" The' $ere )ermitted the free eBercise of

their re-i*ion( as is the case at Rome at the )resent

da'" A-- the diMerent inds of $orshi) scattered

o%er the em)ire $ere to-erated( a-thou*h the senate

did not ado)t them" !ut the Christians( dec-arin*

themse-%es enemies to e%er' other $orshi) than their

o$n( and more es)ecia--' so to that of the em)ire(

$ere often eB)osed to these crue- tria-s"

One of the rst and most distin*uished mart'rs

$as I*natius( isho) of Antioch( $ho $as con8

demned ' the Em)eror TraQan himse-f( at that

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time in Asia( and sent to Rome ' his orders( to e

eB)osed to $i-d easts( at a time $hen other Chris8

Dictionar'" =<

tians $ere not )ersecuted at Rome" It is not no$n

)recise-' $hat char*es $ere a--e*ed a*ainst him e8

fore that em)eror( other$ise so reno$ned for his

c-emenc'" St" I*natius must( necessari-'( ha%e had

%io-ent enemies" Whate%er $ere the )articu-ars of

the case( the histor' of his mart'rdom re-ates that

the name of 1esus Christ $as found en*ra%ed on his

heart in -etters of *o-d G and from this circumstance

it $as that Christians( in some )-aces( assumed the

name of Theo)horus( $hich I*natius had *i%en him8

se-f"

A -etter of his has een )reser%ed in $hich he

entreats the isho)s and Christians to mae no o)8

)osition to his mart'rdom( $hether at the time the'

mi*ht e stron* enou*h to eMect his de-i%erance( or

$hether an' amon* them mi*ht ha%e inuence

enou*h to otain his )ardon" Another remara-e

circumstance is that $hen he $as rou*ht to Rome

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the Christians of that ca)ita- $ent to %isit himG

$hich $ou-d )ro%e c-ear-' that the indi%idua- $as

)unished and not the sect"

 The )ersecutions $ere not continued" Ori*en( in

his third oo a*ainst Ce-sus( sa's 0 #The Christians

$ho ha%e suMered death on account of their re8

-i*ion ma' easi-' e numered( for there $ere on-'

a fe$ of them( and mere-' at inter%a-s"#

od $as so mindfu- of his Church that( not$ith8

standin* its enemies( he so ordered circumstances

that it he-d %e counci-s in the rst centur'( siBteen

in the second( and thirt' in the thirdG that is( in8

Vo-" =?

=@ Phi-oso)hica-

e-udin* oth secret and to-erated ones" Those as8

sem-ies $ere sometimes foridden( $hen the $ea

)rudence of the ma*istrates feared that the' mi*t

ecome tumu-tuous" !ut fe$ *enuine documents of

the )roceedin*s efore the )roconsu-s and )raetors

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$ho condemned the Christians to death ha%e een

de-i%ered do$n to us" Such $ou-d e the on-' au8

thorities $hich $ou-d ena-e us to ascertain the

char*es rou*ht a*ainst them( and the )unishments

the' suMered"

We ha%e a fra*ment of Dion'sius of A-eBandria(

in $hich he *i%es the fo--o$in* eBtract of a re*ister(

or of records( of a )roconsu- of E*')t( under the

Em)eror Va-erian 0 #Dion'sius( Faustus 3aBimus(

3arce--us( and Chaeremon( ha%in* een admitted to

the audience( the )refect Emi-ianus thus addressed

them 0 56ou are sucient-' informed throu*h the

conferences $hich I ha%e had $ith 'ou( and a-- that

I ha%e $ritten to 'ou( of the *ood8$i-- $hich our

)rinces ha%e entertained to$ards 'ou" I $ish thus

to re)eat it to 'ou once a*ain" The' mae the

continuance of 'our safet' to de)end u)on 'our8

se-%es( and )-ace 'our destin' in 'our o$n hands"

 The' reHuire of 'ou on-' one thin*( $hich reason

demands of e%er' reasona-e )erson name-'( that

'ou adore the *ods $ho )rotect their em)ire( and

aandon that diMerent $orshi)( so contrar' to sense

and nature"5 #

Dion'sius re)-ied( #A-- ha%e not the same *ods G

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and a-- adore those $hom the' thin to e the true

Dictionar'" =

ones"# The )refect 1Emi-ianus re)-ied 0 #I see c-ear-'

that 'ou un*ratefu--' ause the *oodness $hich

the em)erors ha%e sho$n 'ou" This ein* the case(

'ou sha-- no -on*er remain in this cit' G and I no$

order 'ou to e con%e'ed to Ce)hro( in the heart

of Li'a" A*reea-' to the command I ha%e re8

cei%ed from 'our em)eror( that sha-- e the )-ace of

'our anishment" As to $hat remains( thin not to

ho-d 'our assem-ies there( nor to oMer u) 'our

)ra'ers in $hat 'ou ca-- cemeteries" This is )osi8

ti%e-' foridden" I $i-- )ermit it to none"#

Nothin* ears a stron*er im)ress of truth than

this document" We see from it that there $ere

times $hen assem-ies $ere )rohiited" Thus the

Ca-%inists $ere foridden to assem-e in France"

Sometimes ministers or )reachers( $ho he-d assem8

-ies in %io-ation of the -a$s( ha%e suMered e%en '

the a-tar and the racG and since =< siB ha%e

een eBecuted on the *a--o$s" Thus( in En*-and

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and Ire-and( Roman Catho-ics are foridden to ho-d

assem-ies G and( on certain occasions( the de-in8

Huents ha%e suMered death"

Not$ithstandin* these )rohiitions dec-ared '

the Roman -a$s( od ins)ired man' of the em)er8

ors $ith indu-*ence to$ards the Christians" E%en

Dioc-etian( $hom the i*norant consider as a )erse8

cutor Dioc-etian( the rst 'ear of $hose rei*n is

sti-- re*arded as constitutin* the commencement of

the era of mart'rdom( $as( for more than ei*hteen

'ears( the dec-ared )rotector of Christianit'( and

=7 Phi-oso)hica-

man' Christians he-d oces of hi*h conseHuence

aout his )erson" &e e%en married a ChristianG

and( in Nicomedia( the )-ace of his residence( he

)ermitted a s)-endid church to e erected o))osite

his )a-ace"

 The Caesar a-erius ha%in* unfortunate-' taen

u) a )reQudice a*ainst the Christians( of $hom he

thou*ht he had reason to com)-ain( inuenced Dio8

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c-etian to destro' the cathedra- of ;icomedia" One

of the Christians( $ith more 4ea- than )rudence(

tore the edict of the em)eror to )ieces G and hence

arose that famous )ersecution( in the course of

$hich more than t$o hundred )ersons $ere eBe8

cuted in the Roman Em)ire( $ithout reconin*

those $hom the ra*e of the common )eo)-e( a-$a's

fanatica- and a-$a's crue-( destro'ed $ithout e%en

the form of -a$"

So *reat has een the numer of actua- mart'rs

that $e shou-d e carefu- ho$ $e shae the truth of

the histor' of those *enuine confessors of our ho-'

re-i*ion ' a dan*erous miBture of fa-es and of

fa-se mart'rs"

 The !enedictine Prior DomU Ruinart( for eB8

am)-e( a man other$ise as $e-- informed as he $as

res)ecta-e and de%out( shou-d ha%e se-ected his

*enuine records( his #actes sinceres(# $ith more dis8

cretion" It is not sucient that a manuscri)t(

$hether taen from the ae' of St" !enoit on the

Loire( or from a con%ent of Ce-estines at Paris( cor8

res)onds $ith a manuscri)t of the Feui--ans( to

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Dictionar'" =>

sho$ that the record is authentic G the record shou-d

)ossess a suita-e antiHuit'G shou-d ha%e een e%i8

dent-' $ritten ' contem)oraries G and( moreo%er(

shou-d ear a-- the characters of truth"

&e mi*ht ha%e dis)ensed $ith re-atin* the ad8

%enture of 'oun* Romanus( $hich occurred in ?"

 This 'oun* Romanus had otained the )ardon of

Dioc-etian( at Antioch" &o$e%er( Ruinart states

that the Qud*e Asc-e)iades condemned him to e

urnt" The 1e$s $ho $ere )resent at the s)ec8

tac-e( derided the 'oun* saint and re)roached the

Christians( that their od( $ho had de-i%ered Shad8

rach( 3eshach( and Aedne*o out of the furnace(

-eft them to e urned G that immediate-'( a-thou*h

the $eather had een as ca-m as )ossi-e( a tremen8

dous storm arose and eBtin*uished the ames G that

the Qud*e then ordered 'oun* Romanus5s ton*ue to

e cut out G that the )rinci)a- sur*eon of the em8

)eror( ein* )resent( ea*er-' acted the )art of eBe8

cutioner( and cut oM the ton*ue at the rootG that

instant-' the 'oun* man( $ho( efore had an im8

)ediment in his s)eech( s)oe $ith )erfect freedom G

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that the em)eror $as astonished that an' one cou-d

s)ea so $e-- $ithout a ton*ue G and that the sur8

*eon( to re)eat the eB)eriment( direct-' cut out the

ton*ue of some 'stander( $ho died on the s)ot"

Euseius( from $hom the !enedictine Ruinart

dre$ his narrati%e( shou-d ha%e so far res)ected the

rea- mirac-es )erformed in the O-d and Ne$ Testa8

ment $hich no one can e%er dout as not to ha%e

= <? Phi-oso)hica-

associated $ith them re-ations so sus)icious( and so

ca-cu-ated to *i%e oMence to $ea minds" This -ast

)ersecution did not eBtend throu*h the em)ire"

 There $as at that time some Christianit' in En*8

-and( $hich soon ec-i)sed( to rea))ear after$ards

under the SaBon in*s" The southern districts of

au- and S)ain aounded $ith Christians" The

Caesar Constantius Ch-orus aMorded them *reat )ro8

tection in a-- his )ro%inces" &e had a concuine

$ho $as a Christian( and $ho $as the mother of

Constantine( no$n under the name of St" &e-ena G

for no marria*e $as e%er )ro%ed to ha%e taen )-ace

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et$een themG he e%en di%orced her in the 'eai

>( $hen he married the dau*hter of 3aBimi-ian

&ercu-es G ut she had )reser%ed *reat ascendenc'

o%er his mind( and had ins)ired him $ith a *reat

attachment to our ho-' re-i*ion"

Of the Esta-ishment of the Church 2nder Con8

stantine"

 Thus did di%ine Pro%idence )re)are the trium)h

of its church ' $a's a))arent-' conforma-e to

human causes and e%ents" Constantius Ch-orus died

in ?@( at 6or( in En*-and( at a time $hen the

chi-dren he had ' the dau*hter of a Caesar $ere

of tender a*e( and inca)a-e of main* )retensions

to the em)ire" Constantine o-d-' *ot himse-f

e-ected at 6or( ' %e or siB thousand so-diers(

the *reater )art of $hom $ere French and En*-ish"

 There $as no )roai-it' that this e-ection( eMected

Dictionar'" =<=

$ithout the consent of Rome( of the senate and the

armies( cou-d stand G ut od *a%e him the %ictor'

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o%er 3aBentius( $ho had een e-ected at Rome(

and de-i%ered him at -ast from a-- his co--ea*ues"

It is not to e dissem-ed that he at rst rendered

himse-f un$orth' of the fa%ors of hea%en( ' mur8

derin* a-- his re-ations( and at -en*th e%en his o$n

$ife and son"

We ma' e )ermitted to dout $hat 9osimus

re-ates on this suQect" &e states that Constantine(

under the tortures of remorse from the )er)etration

of so man' crimes( inHuired of the )ontiMs of the

em)ire( $hether it $ere )ossi-e for him to otain

an' eB)iation( and that the' informed him that the'

ne$ of none" It is )erfect-' true that none $as

found for Nero( and that he did not %enture to as8

sist at the sacred m'steries in reece" &o$e%er(

the Tauroo-ia $ere sti-- oser%ed( and it is di8

cu-t to e-ie%e that an em)eror( su)reme-' )o$erfu-(

cou-d not otain a )riest $ho $ou-d $i--in*-' in8

du-*e him in eB)iator' sacrices" Perha)s( indeed(

it is -ess eas' to e-ie%e that Constantine( occu)ied

as he $as $ith $ar( )o-itic enter)rises( and ami8

tion( and surrounded ' atterers( had time for re8

morse at a--" 9osimus adds that an E*')tian )riest(

$ho had access to his *ate( )romised him the eB)ia8

tion of a-- his crimes in the Christian re-i*ion" It

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has een sus)ected that this )riest $as O4ius( isho)

of Cordo%a"

&o$e%er this mi*ht e( od reser%ed Constan8

Phi-oso)hica-

tine for the )ur)ose of en-i*htenin* his mind( and

to mae him the )rotector of the Church" This

)rince ui-t the cit' of Constantino)-e( $hich e8

came the centre of the em)ire and of the Christian

re-i*ion" The Church then assumed a form of

s)-endor" And $e ma' ho)e that( ein* )uried '

his a)tism( and )enitent at his death( he ma' ha%e

found merc'( a-thou*h he died an Arian" It $ou-d

e not a -itt-e se%ere( $ere a-- the )artisans of oth

the isho)s of the name of Euseius to iricur damna8

tion"

In the 'ear =( efore Constantine resided in his

ne$ cit'( those $ho had )ersecuted the Christians

$ere )unished ' them for their crue-ties" The

Christians thre$ 3aBentius5s $ife into the Orontes G

the' cut the throats of a-- his re-ations( and the'

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massacred( in E*')t and Pa-estine( those ma*is8

trates $ho had most strenuous-' dec-ared a*ainst

Christianit'" The $ido$ and dau*hter of Dioc-e8

tian( ha%in* concea-ed themse-%es at Thessa-onica(

$ere reco*ni4ed( and their odies thro$n into the

sea" It $ou-d certain-' ha%e een desira-e that

the Christians shou-d ha%e fo--o$ed -ess ea*er-' the

cr' of %en*eance G ut it $as the $i-- of od( $ho

)unishes accordin* to Qustice( that( as soon as the

Christians $ere a-e to act $ithout restraint( their

hands shou-d e d'ed in the -ood of their )erse8

cutors"

Constantine summoned to meet at Nice( o))osite

Constantino)-e( the rst ecumenica- counci-( of

Dictionar'" = <

$hich O4ius $as )resident" &ere $as decided the

*rand Huestion that a*itated the Church( re-atin* to

the di%init' of 1esus Christ" It is $e-- no$n ho$

the Church( ha%in* contended for three hundred

'ears a*ainst the ri*hts of the Roman Em)ire( at

-en*th contended a*ainst itse-f( and $as a-$a's mi-i8

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tant and trium)hant"

In the course of time a-most the $ho-e of the

ree church and the $ho-e African church e8

came s-a%es under the Aras( and after$ards under

the Turs( $ho erected the 3ahometan re-i*ion on

the ruins of the Christian" The Roman church su8

sisted( ut a-$a's reein* $ith -ood( throu*h more

than siB centuries of discord et$een the $estern

em)ire and the )riesthood" E%en these Huarre-s

rendered her %er' )o$erfu-" "The isho)s and a8

ots in erman' a-- ecame )rinces G and the )o)es

*radua--' acHuired aso-ute dominion in Rome( and

throu*hout a considera-e territor'" Thus has od

)ro%ed his church( ' humi-iations( ' aictions(

' crimes( and ' s)-endor"

 This Latin church( in the siBteenth centur'( -ost

ha-f of erman'( Denmar( S$eden( En*-and(

Scot-and( Ire-and( and the *reater )art of S$it4er8

-and and &o--and" She *ained more territor' in

America ' the conHuests of the S)aniards than

she -ost in Euro)e G ut( $ith more territor'( she has

fe$er suQects"

Di%ine Pro%idence seemed to ca-- u)on 1a)an(

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Siam( India( and China to )-ace themse-%es under

= < Phi-oso)hica-

oedience to the )o)e( in order to recom)ense him

for Asia 3inor( S'ria( reece( E*')t( Africa( Rus8

sia( and the other -ost states $hich $e mentioned"

St" Francis ;a%ier( $ho carried the ho-' *os)e- to

the East Indies and 1a)an( $hen the Portu*uese

$ent thither u)on mercanti-e ad%enture( )erformed

a *reat numer of mirac-es( a-- attested ' the R"

R" P" P" 1esuits" Some state that he resuscitated

nine dead )ersons" !ut R" P" Riadeneira( in his

#F-o$er of the Saints(# -imits himse-f to assertin*

that he resuscitated on-' four" That is sucient"

Pro%idence $as desirous that( in -ess than a hundred

'ears( there shou-d ha%e een thousands of Catho8

-ics in the is-ands of 1a)an" !ut the de%i- so$ed his

tares amon* the *ood *rain" The 1esuits( accord8

in* to $hat is *enera--' e-ie%ed( entered into a

cons)irac'( fo--o$ed ' a ci%i- $ar( in $hich a-- the

Christians $ere eBterminated in =@7" The nation

then c-osed its )orts a*ainst a-- forei*ners eBce)t the

Dutch( $ho $ere considered merchants and not

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Christians( and $ere rst com)e--ed to tram)-e on

the cross in order to *ain -ea%e to se-- their $ares

in the )rison in $hich the' are shut u)( $hen the'

-and at Na*asai"

 The Catho-ic( A)osto-ic( and Roman re-i*ion has

ecome )roscried in China in our o$n time( ut

$ith circumstances of -ess crue-t'" The R" R" P" P"

 1esuits had not( indeed( resuscitated the dead at the

court of Pein G the' $ere contented $ith teachin*

astronom'( castin* cannon( and ein* mandarins"

Dictionar'" =<<

 Their unfortunate dis)utes $ith the Dominicans and

others *a%e such oMence to the *reat Em)eror

 6onchin that that )rince( $ho $as Qustice and

*oodness )ersonied( $as -ind enou*h to refuse

)ermission an' -on*er to teach our ho-' re-i*ion(

in res)ect to $hich our missionaries so -itt-e a*reed"

&e eB)e--ed them( ut $ith a indness tru-' )a8

terna-( su))-'in* them $ith means of susistence(

and con%e'ance to the connes of his em)ire"

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A-- Asia( a-- Africa( the ha-f of Euro)e( a-- that

e-on*s to the En*-ish and Dutch in America( a--

the unconHuered American tries( a-- the southern

c-imes( $hich constitute a fth )ortion of the *-oe(

remain the )re' of the demon( in order to fu--

those sacred $ords( #man' are ca--ed( ut fe$ are

chosen"# 3att( BB"( =@"

Of the Si*nication of the Word #Church"# Pic8

ture of the Primiti%e Church" Its De*enerac'"

EBamination into those Societies $hich ha%e At8

tem)ted to Re8esta-ish the Primiti%e Church(

and Particu-ar-' into that of the Primiti%es ca--ed

:uaers"

 The term #church# amon* the rees si*nied

the assem-' of the )eo)-e" When the &ere$

oos $ere trans-ated into ree( #s'na*o*ue# $as

rendered ' #church#( and the same term $as em8

)-o'ed to eB)ress the #1e$ish societ'(# the #)o-itica-

con*re*ation(# the #1e$ish assem-'(# the #1e$ish

)eo)-e"# Thus it is said in the !oo of Numers(

= <@ Phi-oso)hica-

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#Wh' hast thou conducted the church into the $i-8

dernessG# and in Deuteronom'( #The eunuch( the

3oaite( and the Ammonite( sha-- not enter the

churchG the Idumseans and the E*')tians sha-- not

enter the church( e%en to the third *eneration"#

 1esus Christ sa's( in St" 3atthe$( #If th'

rother ha%e sinned a*ainst thee ha%e oMended

thee reue him( et$een 'ourse-%es" Tae $ith

'ou one or t$o $itnesses( that( from the mouth of

t$o or three $itnesses( e%er'thin* ma' e made

c-ear G and( if he hear not them( com)-ain to the as8

sem-' of the )eo)-e( to the church G and( if he hear

not the church( -et him e to thee as a heathen or

a )u-ican" Veri-'( I sa' unto 'ou( so sha-- it come

to )ass( $hatsoe%er 'e sha-- ind on earth sha-- e

ound in hea%en( and $hatsoe%er 'e sha-- -oose on

earth sha-- e -oosed in hea%en# an i--usion to the

e's of doors $hich c-ose and unc-ose the -atch"

 The case is here( that of t$o men( one of $hom

has oMended the other( and )ersists" &e cou-d not

e made to a))ear in the assem-'( in the Christian

church( as there $as none G the )erson a*ainst $hom

his com)anion com)-ained cou-d not e Qud*ed %

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a isho) and )riests $ho $ere not in eBistence G e8

sides $hich( it is to e oser%ed( that neither 1e$ish

)riests nor Christian )riests e%er ecame Qud*es in

Huarre-s et$een )ri%ate )ersons" It $as a matter

of )o-ice" !isho)s did not ecome Qud*es ti-- aout

the time of Va-entinian III"

 The commentators ha%e therefore conc-uded that

Dictionar'" =<

the sacred $riter of this *os)e- maes our Lord

s)ea in this )assa*e ' antici)ation that it is an

a--e*or'( a )rediction of $hat $ou-d tae )-ace

$hen the Christian church shou-d e formed and

esta-ished"

Se-den maes an im)ortant remar on this )as8

sa*e( that( amon* the 1e$s( )u-icans or co--ectors

of the ro'a- mone's $ere not eBcommunicated"

 The )o)u-ace mi*ht detest them( ut as the' $ere

indis)ensa-e ocers( a))ointed ' the )rince( the

idea had ne%er occurred to an' one of se)aratin*

them from the assem-'" The 1e$s $ere at that

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time under the administration of the )roconsu- of

S'ria( $hose Qurisdiction eBtended to the connes

of a-i-ee( and to the is-and of C')rus( $here he

had de)uties" It $ou-d ha%e een hi*h-' im)ru8

dent in an' to sho$ )u-ic-' their aomination of

the -e*a- ocers of the )roconsu-" InQustice( e%en(

$ou-d ha%e een added to im)rudence( for the

Roman ni*hts eHuestrians $ho farmed the )u8

-ic domain and co--ected Caesar5s mone'( $ere au8

thori4ed ' the -a$s"

St" Au*ustine( in his ei*ht'8rst sermon( ma'

)erha)s su**est reections for com)rehendin* this

)assa*e" &e is s)eain* of those $ho retain their

hatred( $ho are s-o$ to )ardon"

#Ce)isti haere fratrem tuum tanHnam )u-ic8

anum" Li*as i-ium in terraG sed ut Quste a--i*es

%ideG nam in fust a %incu-a dirsum)it Qustitia" Cum

autem correBeris et concorda%eris cum fratre tuo

=<7 Phi-oso)hica-

so-45isti eum in terra"# 6ou e*an to re*ard 'our

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rother as a )u-icanG that is( to ind him on the

earth" !ut e cautious that 'ou ind him Qust-'( for

 Qustice reas unQust onds" !ut $hen 'ou ha%e

corrected( and after$ards a*reed $ith 'our rother(

'ou ha%e -oosed him on earth"

From St" Au*ustine5s inter)retation( it seems

that the )erson oMended shut u) the oMender in

)risonG and that it is to e understood that( if the

oMender is )ut in onds on earth( he is a-so in

hea%en-' ondsG ut that if the oMended )erson is

ineBora-e( he ecomes ound himse-f" In St" Au8

*ustine5s eB)-anation there is nothin* $hate%er re8

-atin* to the Church" The $ho-e matter re-ates to

)ardonin* or not )ardonin* an inQur'" St" Au*us8

tine is not s)eain* here of the sacerdota- )o$er of

remittin* sins in the name of od" That is a ri*ht

reco*ni4ed in other )-aces G a ri*ht deri%ed from the

sacrament of confession" St" Au*ustine( )rofound

as he is in t')es and a--e*ories( does not consider

this famous )assa*e as a--udin* to the aso-ution

*i%en or refused ' the ministers of the Roman

Catho-ic Church( in the sacrament of )enance"

Of the #Church# in Christian Societies"

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In the *reater )art of Christian states $e )er8

cei%e no more than four churches the ree( the

Roman( the Lutheran( and the reformed or Ca-%in8

istic" It is thus in erman'" The Primiti%es or

:uaers( the Anaa)tists( the Socinians( the 3em8

Dictionar'" =<>

nonists( the Pietists( the 3ora%ians( the 1e$s( and

others( do not form a church" The 1e$ish re-i*ion

has )reser%ed the desi*nation of s'na*o*ue" The

Christian sects $hich are to-erated ha%e on-' )ri%ate

assem-ies( #con%entic-es"# It is the same in Lon8

don" We do not nd the Catho-ic Church in

S$eden( nor in Denmar( nor in the north of er8

man'( nor in &o--and( nor in three Huarters of

S$it4er-and( nor in the three in*doms of reat

!ritain"

Of the Primiti%e Church( and of Those Who &a%e

Endea%ored to Re8esta-ish It"

 The 1e$s( as $e-- as a-- the diMerent )eo)-e of

S'ria( $ere di%ided into man' diMerent con*re*a8

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tions( as $e ha%e a-read' seen" A-- $ere aimed at

a m'stica- )erfection" A ra' of )urer -i*ht shone

u)on the disci)-es of St" 1ohn( $ho sti-- susist near

3osu-" At -ast( the Son of od( announced ' St"

 1ohn( a))eared on earth( $hose disci)-es $ere a-8

$a's on a )erfect eHua-it'" 1esus had eB)ress-'

enQoined them( #There sha-- not e an' of 'ou either

rst or -ast I came to ser%e( not to e ser%ed"

"""" &e $ho stri%es to e master o%er others sha--

e their ser%ant"#

One )roof of eHua-it' is that the Christians at

rst too no other desi*nation than that of #reth8

ren"# The' assem-ed in eB)ectation of the s)irit"

 The' )ro)hesied $hen the' $ere ins)ired" St"

Pau-( in his rst -etter to the Corinthians( sa's to

=@? Phi-oso)hica-

them( #If( in 'our assem-'( an' one of 'ou ha%e the

*ift of a )sa-m( a doctrine( a re%e-ation( a -an*ua*e(

an inter)retation( -et a-- e done for edication" If

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an' s)ea -an*ua*es( as t$o or three ma' do in suc8

cession( -et there e an inter)reter"

#Let t$o or three )ro)hets s)ea( and the others

 Qud*e G and if an'thin* e re%ea-ed to another $hi-e

one is s)eain*( -et the -atter e si-ent G for 'ou ma'

a-- )ro)hes' one ' one( that a-- ma' -earn and a--

eBhortG the s)irit of )ro)hec' is suQect to the

)ro)hetsG for the Lord is a od of )eace

 Thus( then( m' rethren( e a-- of 'ou desirous of

)ro)hes'in*( and hinder not the s)eain* of -an8

*ua*es"#

I ha%e trans-ated -itera--'( oth out of re%erence

for the teBt( and to a%oid an' dis)utes aout $ords"

St" Pau-( in the same e)ist-e( admits that $omen

ma' )ro)hes'G a-thou*h( in the fourteenth cha)ter(

he forids their s)eain* in the assem-ies" #E%er'

$oman(# sa's he( #)ra'in* or )ro)hes'in* $ithout

ha%in* a %ei- o%er her head( dishonoreth her head(

for it is the same as if she $ere sha%en"#

It is c-ear( from a-- these )assa*es and from man'

others( that the rst Christians $ere a-- eHua-( not

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mere-' as rethren in 1esus Christ( ut as ha%in*

eHua- *ifts" The s)irit $as communicated to them

eHua--'" The' eHua--' s)oe diMerent -an*ua*es G

the' had eHua--' the *ift of )ro)hes'in*( $ithout

distinction of ran( a*e( or seB"

 The a)ost-es $ho instructed the neo)h'tes )os8

Dictionar'" =@=

sessed o%er them( unHuestiona-'( that natura- )re8

eminence $hich the )rece)tor has o%er the )u)i-G

ut of Qurisdiction( of tem)ora- authorit'( of $hat

the $or-d ca--s #honors(# of distinction in dress( of

em-ems of su)eriorit'( assured-' neither the'( nor

those $ho succeeded them( had an'" The' )os8

sessed another( and a %er' diMerent su)eriorit'( that

of )ersuasion"

 The rethren )ut their mone' into one common

stoc" Se%en )ersons $ere chosen ' themse-%es

out of their o$n od'( to tae char*e of the ta-es(

and to )ro%ide for the common $ants" The' chose(

in 1erusa-em itse-f( those $hom $e ca-- Ste)hen(

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Phi-i)( Procorus( Nicanor( Timon( Parmenas( and

Nicho-as" It is remara-e that( amon* se%en )er8

sons chosen ' a 1e$ish communit'( siB $ere

rees"

After the time of the a)ost-es $e nd no eB8

am)-e of an' Christian $ho )ossessed an' other

)o$er o%er other Christians than that of instruct8

in*( eBhortin*( eB)e--in* demons from the odies of

#ener*umens(# and )erformin* mirac-es" A-- is

s)iritua- G nothin* sa%ors of $or-d-' )om)" It $as

on-' in the third centur' that the s)irit of )ride(

%anit'( and interest( e*an to e manifested amon*

the e-ie%ers on e%er' side"

 The a*a)se had no$ ecome s)-endid festi%a-s(

and attracted re)roach for the -uBur' and )rofusion

$hich attended them" Tertu--ian acno$-ed*es it"

#6es(# sa's he( #$e mae s)-endid and )-entifu-

Vo-" ii

= @ Phi-oso)hica-

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entertainments( ut $as not the same done at the

m'steries of Athens and of E*')tJ Whate%er

-earnin* $e dis)-a'( it is usefu- and )ious( as the

)oor enet ' it"# :uantiscumHue sum)tius con8

stet( -ucrum est )ietatis( si Huidem ino)es refri*erio

isto Qu%amus"

Aout this %er' )eriod( certain societies of Chris8

tians( $ho )ronounced themse-%es more )erfect than

the rest( the 3ontanists( for eBam)-e( $ho oasted

of so man' )ro)hecies and so austere a mora-it' G

$ho re*arded second nu)tia-s as aso-ute adu-teries(

and i*ht from )ersecution as a)ostas'G $ho had

eBhiited in )u-ic ho-' con%u-sions and ecstasies(

and )retended to s)ea $ith od face to face( $ere

con%icted( it $as said( of miBin* the -ood of an in8

fant( a 'ear o-d( $ith the read of the eucharist"

 The' rou*ht u)on the true Christians this dreadfu-

re)roach( $hich eB)osed them to )ersecutions"

 Their method of )roceedin*( accordin* to St"

Au*ustine( $as this0 the' )riced the $ho-e od'

of the infant $ith )ins and( neadin* u) our $ith

the -ood( made read of it" If an' one died '

eatin* it( the' honored him as a mart'r"

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3anners $ere so corru)ted that the ho-' fathers

$ere incessant-' com)-ainin* of it" &ear $hat St"

C')rian sa's( in his oo concernin* toms 0 #E%er'

)riest(# sa's he( #sees for $ea-th and honor $ith

insatia-e a%idit'" !isho)s are $ithout re-i*ion G

$omen $ithout modest' G na%er' is *enera- G )ro8

fane s$earin* and )erQur' aound G animosities di8

Dictionar'" =@

%ide Christians asunderG isho)s aandon their

)u)i-s to attend the eBchan*e( and otain o)u-ence

' merchandise G in short( $e )-ease ourse-%es a-one(

and eBcite the dis*ust of a-- the rest of the $or-d"#

!efore the occurrence of these scanda-s( the

)riest 5No%atian had een the cause of a %er' dread8

fu- one to the )eo)-e of Rome" &e $as the rst anti8

)o)e" The isho)ric of Rome( a-thou*h secret( and

-ia-e to )ersecution( $as an oQect of amition and

a%arice( on account of the -iera- contriutions of

the Christians( and the authorit' attached to that

hi*h situation"

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We $i-- not here descrie a*ain $hat is contained

in so man' authentic documents( and $hat $e e%er'

da' hear from the mouths of )ersons correct-' in8

formed the )rodi*ious numer of schisms and

$ars G the siB hundred 'ears of erce hosti-it' e8

t$een the em)ire and the )riesthoodG the $ea-th

of nations( o$in* throu*h a thousand channe-s(

sometimes into Rome( sometimes into A%i*non(

$hen the )o)es( for t$o and se%ent' 'ears to*ether(

Bed their residence in that )-ace G the -ood rush8

in* in streams throu*hout Euro)e( either for the in8

terest of a tiara utter-' unno$n to 1esus Christ( or

on account of uninte--i*i-e Huestions $hich &e

ne%er mentioned" Our re-i*ion is not -ess sacred or

-ess di%ine for ha%in* een so de-ed ' *ui-t and

stee)ed in carna*e"

When the fren4' of domination( that dreadfu-

)assion of the human heart( had reached its *reatest

=@ Phi-oso)hica-

eBcess G $hen the mon &i-derand( e-ected isho)

of Rome a*ainst the -a$s( $rested that ca)ita- from

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the em)erors( and forade a-- the isho)s of the $est

from earin* the name of )o)e( in order to a))ro8

)riate it to himse-f a-one G $hen the isho)s of er8

man'( fo--o$in* his eBam)-e( made themse-%es so%8

erei*ns( $hich a-- those of France and En*-and a-so

attem)ted G from those dreadfu- times do$n e%en to

our o$n( certain Christian societies ha%e arisen

$hich( under a hundred diMerent names( ha%e en8

dea%ored to re8esta-ish the )rimiti%e eHua-it' in

Christendom"

!ut $hat had een )ractica-e in a sma-- societ'(

concea-ed from the $or-d( $as no -on*er so in eB8

tensi%e in*doms" The church mi-itant and tri8

um)hant cou-d no -on*er e the church hum-e

and unno$n" The isho)s and the -ar*e( rich( and

)o$erfu- monastic communities( unitin* under the

standards of the ne$ )onticate of Rome( fou*ht at

that time )ro aris et focis( for their hearths and

a-tars" Crusades( armies( sie*es( att-es( ra)ine( tor8

tures( assassinations ' the hand of the eBecutioner(

assassinations ' the hands of )riests of oth the

contendin* )arties( )oisonin*s( de%astations ' re

and s$ord a-- $ere em)-o'ed to su))ort and to

)u-- do$n the ne$ ecc-esiastica- administration G and

the crad-e of the )rimiti%e church $as so hidden as

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to e scarce-' disco%era-e under the -ood and

ones of the s-ain"

Dictionar'" =@<

Of the Primiti%es ca--ed :uaers"

 The re-i*ious and ci%i- $ars of reat !ritain

ha%in* deso-ated En*-and( Scot-and( and Ire-and(

in the unfortunate rei*n of Char-es I"( Wi--iam

Penn( son of a %ice8admira-( reso-%ed to *o and es8

ta-ish $hat he ca--ed the )rimiti%e Church on the

shores of North America( in a c-imate $hich a)8

)eared to him to e mi-d and con*enia- to his o$n

manners" &is sect $ent under the denomination of

#:uaers(# a -udicrous desi*nation( ut $hich the'

merited( ' the trem-in* of the od' $hich the'

aMected $hen )reachin*( and ' a nasa- )ronuncia8

tion( such as )ecu-iar-' distin*uished one s)ecies of

mons in the Roman Church( the Ca)uchins" !ut

men ma' oth snue and shae( and 'et e mee(

fru*a-( modest( Qust( and charita-e" No one denies

that this societ' of Primiti%es dis)-a'ed an eBam)-e

of a-- those %irtues"

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Penn sa$ that the En*-ish isho)s and the Pres8

'terians had een the cause of a dreadfu- $ar on

account of a sur)-ice( -a$n s-ee%es( and a -itur*'"

&e $ou-d ha%e neither -itur*'( -a$n( nor sur)-ice"

 The a)ost-es had none of them" 1esus Christ had

a)ti4ed none" The associates of Penn dec-ined

a)tism"

 The rst e-ie%ers $ere eHua- G these ne$ comers

aimed at ein* so( as far as )ossi-e" The rst dis8

ci)-es recei%ed the s)irit( and s)oe in the assem-' G

the' had no a-tars( no tem)-es( no ornaments( no

ta)ers( incense( or ceremonies" Penn and his fo-8

= @@ Phi-oso)hica-

-o$ers attered themse-%es that the' recei%ed the

s)irit( and the' renounced a-- )om) and ceremon'"

Charit' $as in hi*h esteem $ith the disci)-es of the

Sa%iour G those of Penn formed a common )urse for

assistin* the )oor" Thus these imitators of the

Essenians and rst Christians( a-thou*h in error

$ith res)ect to doctrines and ceremonies( $ere an

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astonishin* mode- of order and mora-s to e%er'

other societ' of Christians"

At -en*th this sin*u-ar man $ent( $ith %e hun8

dred of his fo--o$ers( to form an esta-ishment in

$hat $as at that time the most sa%a*e district of

America" :ueen Christina of S$eden had een de8

sirous of foundin* a co-on' there( $hich( ho$e%er(

had not )ros)ered" The Primiti%es of Penn $ere

more successfu-"

It $as on the ans of the De-a$are( near the

fortieth de*ree of -atitude" This countr' e-on*ed

to the in* of En*-and on-' ecause there $ere no

others $ho c-aimed it( and ecause the )eo)-e $hom

$e ca-- sa%a*es( and $ho mi*ht ha%e cu-ti%ated it(

had a-$a's remained far distant in the recesses of

the forests" If En*-and had )ossessed this countr'

mere-' ' ri*ht of conHuest( Penn and his Prim5

iti%es $ou-d ha%e he-d such an as'-um in horror"

 The' -ooed u)on the )retended ri*ht of conHuest

on-' as a %io-ation of the ri*ht of nature( and as

aso-ute roer'"

Kin* Char-es II" made Penn so%erei*n of a--

this $i-d countr' ' a charter *ranted 3arch (

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Dictionar'" =@

=@7=" In the fo--o$in* 'ear Penn )romu-*ated his

code of -a$s" The rst $as com)-ete ci%i- -iert'(

in conseHuence of $hich e%er' co-onist )ossessin*

%e acres of -and ecame a memer of the -e*is-a8

ture" The neBt $as an aso-ute )rohiition a*ainst

ad%ocates and attorne's e%er tain* fees" The third

$as the admission of a-- re-i*ions( and e%en the

)ermission to e%er' inhaitant to $orshi) od in

his o$n house( $ithout e%er tain* )art in )u-ic

$orshi)"

 This is the -a$ -ast mentioned( in the terms of

its enactment 0 #Liert' of conscience ein* a

ri*ht $hich a-- men ha%e recei%ed from nature $ith

their %er' ein*( and $hich a-- )eacea-e )ersons

ou*ht to maintain( it is )ositi%e-' esta-ished that

no )erson sha-- e com)e--ed to Qoin in an' )u-ic

eBercise of re-i*ion"

#!ut e%er' one is eB)ress-' a--o$ed fu-- )o$er

to en*a*e free-' in the )u-ic or )ri%ate eBercise of

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his re-i*ion( $ithout incurrin* there' an' trou-e

or im)ediment( under an' )reteBt G )ro%ided that he

acno$-ed*e his e-ief in one on-' eterna- od A-8

mi*ht'( the creator( )reser%er( and *o%ernor of the

uni%erse( and that he fu-- a-- the duties of ci%i-

societ' $hich he is ound to )erform to his fe--o$

citi4ens"#

 This -a$ is e%en more indu-*ent( more humane(

than that $hich $as *i%en to the )eo)-e of Caro-ina

' Loce( the P-ato of En*-and( so su)erior to the

P-ato of reece" Loce )ermitted no )u-ic re8

= @7 Phi-oso)hica-

-i*ions eBce)t such as shou-d e a))ro%ed ' se%en

fathers of fami-ies" This is a diMerent sort of $is8

dom from Penn5s"

!ut that $hich reects immorta- honor on oth

-e*is-ators( and $hich shou-d o)erate as an eterna-

eBam)-e to manind( is( that this -iert' of con8

science has not occasioned the -east disturance" It

mi*ht( on the contrar'( e said that od had

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sho$ered do$n the most distin*uished -essin*s on

the co-on' of Penns'-%ania" It consisted( in =@7(

of %e hundred )ersons( and in -ess than a centur'

its )o)u-ation had increased to near-' three hundred

thousand" One ha-f of the co-onists are of the

)rimiti%e re-i*ionG t$ent' diMerent re-i*ions com8

)rise the other ha-f" There are t$e-%e ne cha)e-s

in Phi-ade-)hia( and in other )-aces e%er' house is

a cha)e-" This cit' has deser%ed its name 0 #!roth8

er-' Lo%e"# Se%en other cities( and innumera-e

sma-- to$ns( ourish under this -a$ of concord"

 Three hundred %esse-s -ea%e the )ort in the course

of e%er' 'ear"

 This state( $hich seems to deser%e )er)etua-

duration( $as %er' near-' destro'ed in the fata- $ar

of =<<( $hen the French( $ith their sa%a*e a--ies

on one side( and the En*-ish( $ith theirs( on the

other( e*an $ith dis)utin* aout some fro4en dis8

tricts of No%a Scotia" The Primiti%es( faithfu- to

their )acic s'stem of Christianit'( dec-ined to tae

u) arms" The sa%a*es i--ed some of their co-onists

on the frontierG the Primiti%es made no re)risa-s"

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Dictionar'" =@>

 The' e%en refused( for a -on* time( to )a' the

troo)s" The' addressed the En*-ish *enera- in these

$ords0 #3en are -ie )ieces of c-a'( $hich are

roen to )ieces one a*ainst another" Wh' shou-d

$e aid in reain* one another to )ieces J#

At -ast( in the *enera- assem-' of the -e*is-ature

of Penns'-%ania( the other( re-i*ions )re%ai-edG

troo)s $ere raisedG the Primiti%es contriuted

mone'( ut dec-ined ein* armed" The' otained

their oQect( $hich $as )eace $ith their nei*hors"

 These )retended sa%a*es said to them( #Send us a

descendant of the *reat Penn( $ho ne%er decei%ed

usG $ith him $e $i-- treat"# A *randson of that

*reat man $as de)uted( and )eace $as conc-uded"

3an' of the Primiti%es had ne*ro s-a%es to cu-ti8

%ate their estates" !ut the' -ushed at ha%in*( in

this instance( imitated other Christians" The' *a%e

-iert' to their s-a%es in =@>"

At )resent a-- the other co-onists imitate them in

-iert' of conscience( and a-thou*h there are amon*

them Pres'terians and )ersons of the hi*h church

)art'( no one is mo-ested aout his creed" It is this

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$hich has rendered the En*-ish )o$er in America

eHua- to that of S)ain( $ith a-- its mines of *o-d and

si-%er" If an' method cou-d e de%ised to ener%ate

the En*-ish co-onies it $ou-d e to esta-ish in them

the InHuisition"

 The eBam)-e of the Primiti%es( ca--ed #:uaers(#

has *i%en rise in Penns'-%ania to a ne$ societ'( in

a district $hich it ca--s Eu)hrates" This is the sect

=? Phi-oso)hica-

of Duners or Dum)ers( a sect much more sec-uded

from the $or-d than Penn5sG a sort of re-i*ious

hos)ita--ers( a-- c-othed uniform-'" 3arried )ersons

are not )ermitted to reside in the cit' of Eu)hrates 0

the' reside in the countr'( $hich the' cu-ti%ate"

 The )u-ic treasur' su))-ies a-- their $ants in times

of scarcit'" This societ' administers a)tism on-'

to adu-ts" It reQects the doctrine of ori*ina- sin as

im)ious( and that of the eternit' of )unishment as

ararous" The )urit' of their -i%es )ermits them

not to ima*ine that od $i-- torment &is creatures

crue--' or eterna--'" one astra' in a corner of the

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ne$ $or-d( far from the *reat oc of the Cath8

o-ic Church( the' are( u) to the )resent hour( not8

$ithstandin* this unfortunate error( the most Qust

and most inimita-e of men"

:uarre- et$een the ree and Latin Churches in

Asia and Euro)e"

It has een a matter of -amentation to a-- *ood

men for near-' fourteen centuries that the ree

and Latin Churches ha%e a-$a's een ri%a-s( and

that the roe of 1esus Christ( $hich $as $ithout a

seam( has een continua--' rent asunder" This o))o8

sition is )erfect-' natura-" Rome and Constantino)-e

hate each other" When masters cherish a mutua-

a%ersion( their de)endents entertain no mutua- re8

*ard" The t$o communions ha%e dis)uted on the

su)eriorit' of -an*ua*e( the antiHuit' of sees( on

-earnin*( e-oHuence( and )o$er"

Dictionar'" = =

It is certain that( for a -on* time( the rees )os8

sessed a-- the ad%anta*e" The' oasted that the'

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had een the masters of the Latins( and that the' had

tau*ht them e%er'thin*" The os)e-s $ere $ritten

in ree" There $as not a doctrine( a rite( a m's8

ter'( a usa*e( $hich $as not ree G from the $ord

#a)tism# to the $ord #eucharist# a-- $as ree"

No fathers of the Church $ere no$n eBce)t

amon* the rees ti-- St" 1erome( and e%en he $as

not a Roman( ut a Da-matian" St" Au*ustine( $ho

ourished soon after St" 1erome( $as an African"

 The se%en *reat ecumenica- counci-s $ere he-d in

ree cities 0 the isho)s of Rome $ere ne%er )res8

ent at them( ecause the' $ere acHuainted on-' $ith

their o$n Latin -an*ua*e( $hich $as a-read' eB8

ceedin*-' corru)ted"

 The hosti-it' et$een Rome and Constantino)-e

roe out in <( at the Counci- of Cha-cedon( $hich

had een assem-ed to decide $hether 1esus Christ

had )ossessed t$o natures and one )erson( or t$o

)ersons $ith one nature" It $as there decided that

the Church of Constantino)-e $as in e%er' res)ect

eHua- to that of Rome( as to honors( and the )a8

triarch of the one eHua- in e%er' res)ect to the )a8

triarch of the other" The )o)e( St" Leo( admitted

the t$o natures( ut neither he nor his successors

admitted the eHua-it'" It ma' e oser%ed that( in

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this dis)ute aout ran and )re8eminence( oth )ar8

ties $ere in direct o))osition to the inQunction of

 1esus Christ( recorded in the os)e- 0 #There sha--

iQ Phi-oso)hica-

not e amon* 'ou rst or -ast"# Saints are saints(

ut )ride $i-- insinuate itse-f e%er'$here" The same

dis)osition $hich made a mason5s son( $ho had een

raised to a isho)ric( foam $ith ra*e ecause he

$as not addressed ' the tit-e of #m' -ord(# has set

the $ho-e Christian $or-d in ames"

 The Romans $ere a-$a's -ess addicted to dis)u8

tation( -ess sut-e( than the rees( ut the' $ere

much more )o-itic" The isho)s of the east( $hi-e

the' ar*ued( 'et remained suQects 0 the isho) of

Rome( $ithout ar*uments( contri%ed e%entua--' to

esta-ish his )o$er on the ruins of the $estern em8

)ire" And $hat Vir*i- said of the Sci)ios and

Caesars mi*ht e said of the )o)es 0

#Romanes rerum dominos *entemHue to*atam# QEneid(

i" 7@"

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 This mutua- hatred -ed( at -en*th( to actua- di8

%ision( in the time of Photius( )a)a or o%erseer of

the !'4antine Church( and Nicho-as I"( )a)a or

o%erseer of the Roman Church" As( unfortunate-'(

an ecc-esiastica- Huarre- scarce-' e%er occurs $ithout

somethin* -udicrous ein* attached to it( it ha)8

)ened( in this instance( that the contest e*an e8

t$een t$o )atriarchs( oth of $hom $ere eunuchs 0

I*natius and Photius( $ho dis)uted the chair of Con8

stantino)-e( $ere oth emascu-ated" This muti-a8

tion de)ri%in* them of the )o$er of ecomin* nat8

ura- fathers( the' cou-d ecome fathers on-' of the

Church" It is oser%ed that )ersons of this unfortu8

nate descri)tion are medd-in*( ma-i*nant( and )-ot8

Dictionar'" =

tin*" I*natius and Photius e)t the $ho-e ree

court in a state of turu-ence"

 The Latin( Nicho-as I"( ha%in* taen the )art

of I*natius( Photius dec-ared him a heretic( on ac8

count of his admittin* the doctrine that the reath

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of od( or the &o-' S)irit( )roceeded from the

Father and the Son( contrar' to the unanimous de8

cision of the $ho-e ChurchQ $hich had decided that

it )roceeded from the Father on-'"

!esides this heretica- doctrine res)ectin* the )ro8

cession( Nicho-as ate( and )ermitted to e eaten(

e**s and cheese in Lent" In ne( as the %er' c-imaB

of une-ief( the Roman )a)a had his eard sha%ed(

$hich( to the ree )a)as( $as nothin* -ess than

do$nri*ht a)ostas' G as 3oses( the )atriarchs( and

 1esus Christ $ere a-$a's( ' the ree and Latin

)ainters( )ictured $ith eards"

When( in 7>( the )atriarch Photius $as restored

to his seat ' the ei*hth ecumenica- counci- con8

sistin* of four hundred isho)s( three hundred of

$hom had condemned him in the )recedin* counci-

he $as acno$-ed*ed ' Po)e 1ohn as his

rother" T$o -e*ates( des)atched ' him to this

counci-( Qoined the ree Church( and dec-ared that

$hoe%er asserted the &o-' S)irit )roceeded from

the Father and the Son $as a 1udas" !ut the )rac8

tice of sha%in* the chin and eatin* e**s in Lent

ein* )ersisted in( the t$o churches a-$a's re8

mained di%ided"

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 The schism $as com)-eted in =?< and =?<(

i' Phi-oso)hica-

$hen 3ichae- Ceru-arius( )atriarch of Constanti8

no)-e( )u-ic-' condemned the isho) of Rome( Leo

I;"( and a-- the Latins( addin* to a-- the re)roaches

a*ainst them ' Photius that( contrar' to the )rac8

tice of the a)ost-es( the' dared to mae use of un8

-ea%ened read in the eucharist G that the' $iced-'

ate -ood )uddin*s( and t$isted the necs( instead

of cuttin* oM the heads( of )i*eons intended for the

ta-e" A-- the Latin churches in the ree em)ire

$ere shut u)( and a-- intercourse $ith those $ho

ate -ood )uddin*s $as foridden"

Po)e Leo I;" entered into serious ne*otiation

on this matter $ith the Em)eror Constantine 3on8

omachus( and otained some miti*ations" It $as

)recise-' at this )eriod that those ce-erated Nor8

man *ent-emen( the sons of Tancred de &aute%i--e(

des)isin* at once the )o)e and the ree em)eror(

)-undered e%er'thin* the' cou-d in A)u-ia and Ca-8

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aria( and ate -ood )uddin*s $ith the utmost hardi8

hood" The ree em)eror fa%ored the )o)e as

much as he $as a-e G ut nothin* cou-d reconci-e

the rees $ith the Latins" The rees re*arded

their ad%ersaries as ararians( $ho did not no$

a sin*-e $ord of ree" The irru)tion of the Cru8

saders( under )retence of de-i%erin* the &o-' Land(

ut in rea-it' to *ain )ossession of Constantino)-e(

com)-eted the hatred entertained a*ainst the Ro8

mans"

!ut the )o$er of the Latin Church increased

e%er' da'( and the rees $ere at -en*th *radua--'

Dictionar'" =<

%anHuished ' the Turs" The )o)es( -on* since( e8

came )o$erfu- and $ea-th' so%erei*nsG the $ho-e

ree Church ecame s-a%es from the time of 3a8

homet II"( eBce)t Russia( $hich $as then a ar8

arous countr'( and in $hich the Church $as of no

account"

Whoe%er is ut s-i*ht-' informed of the state of

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aMair in the Le%ant no$s that the su-tan confers

the )atriarchate of the rees ' a cross and a rin*(

$ithout an' a))rehension of ein* eBcommunica8

ted( as some of the erman em)erors $ere ' the

)o)es( for this same ceremon'"

It is certain-' true that the church of Stamou-

has )reser%ed( in a))earance( the -iert' of choosin*

its archisho) G ut ne%er( in fact( chooses an' other

than the )erson )ointed out ' the Ottoman court"

 This )referment costs( at )resent( aout ei*ht' thou8

sand francs( $hich the )erson chosen contri%es to

*et refunded from the rees" If an' canon of

inuence and $ea-th comes for$ard( and oMers the

*rand %i4ier a -ar*e sum( the titu-ar )ossessor is

de)ri%ed( and the )-ace *i%en to the -ast idderG

)recise-' as the see of Rome $as dis)osed of( in

the tenth centur'( ' 3aro4ia and Theodora" If

the titu-ar )atriarch resists( he recei%es ft' -o$s

on the so-es of his feet( and is anished" Sometimes

he is eheaded( as $as the case $ith Lucas C'ri--e(

in =@7"

 The rand Tur dis)oses of a-- the other isho)8

rics( in the same manner( for mone' G and the )rice

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=@ Phi-oso)hica-

char*ed for e%er' isho)ric under 3ahomet II" is

a-$a's stated in the )atent G ut the additiona- sum

)aid is not mentioned in it" It is not eBact-' no$n

$hat a ree )riest *i%es for his isho)ric"

 These )atents are rather di%ertin* documents 0

#I *rant to N ( a Christian )riest( this order(

for the )erfection of his fe-icit'" I command him

to reside in the cit' herein named( as isho) of the

inde- Christians( accordin* to their ancient usa*e(

and their %ain and eBtra%a*ant ceremonies( $i--in*

and ordainin* that a-- Christians of that district

sha-- acno$-ed*e him( and that no mon or )riest

sha-- marr' $ithout his )ermission"# That is to

sa'( $ithout )a'in* for the same"

 The s-a%er' of this Church is eHua- to its i*no8

rance" !ut the rees ha%e on-' $hat the' deser%e"

 The' $ere $ho--' asored in dis)utes aout the

-i*ht on 3ount Taor( and the umi-ica- cord( at

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the %er' time of the tain* of Constantino)-e"

Whi-e recordin* these me-ancho-' truths $e en8

tertain the ho)e that the Em)ress Catherine II" $i--

*i%e the rees their -iert'" Wou-d she cou-d re8

store to them that coura*e and that inte--ect $hich

the' )ossessed in the da's of 3i-tiades and The8

mistoc-esG and that 3ount Athos su))-ied *ood

so-diers and fe$er mons"

Of the Present ree Church"

 The ree Church has scarce-' deser%ed the to-8

eration $hich the 3ussu-mans *ranted it" The fo-8

Dictionar'" =

-o$in* oser%ations are from 3r" Porter( the En*8

-ish amassador in Ture' 0

#I am inc-ined to dra$ a %ei- o%er those scan8

da-ous dis)utes et$een the rees and Romans(

on the suQect of !eth-ehem and the ho-' -and( as

the' denominate it" The unQust and odious )roceed8

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in*s $hich these ha%e occasioned et$een them are

a dis*race to the Christian name" In the midst of

these deates the amassador a))ointed to )rotect

the Romish communion ecomes( $ith a-- hi*h di*8

nit'( an oQect of sincere com)assion"

#In e%er' countr' $here the Roman Catho-ic

)re%ai-s( immense sums are -e%ied in order to su)8

)ort a*ainst the ree5s eHui%oca- )retensions to

the )recarious )ossession of a corner of the $or-d

re)uted ho-'G and to )reser%e in the hands of the

mons of the Latin communion the remains of an

o-d sta-e at !eth-ehem( $here a cha)e- has een

erected( and $here on the doutfu- authorit' of ora-

tradition( it is )retended that Christ $as ornG as

a-so a tom( $hich ma' e( and most )roa-' ma'

not e( $hat is ca--ed his se)u-chre G for the )recise

situation of these t$o )-aces is as -itt-e ascertained

as that $hich contains the ashes of Caesar"#

What renders the rees 'et more contem)ti-e

in the e'es of the Turs is the mirac-e $hich the'

)erform e%er' 'ear at Easter" The )oor isho) of

 1erusa-em is inc-osed in a sma-- ca%e( $hich is

)assed oM for the tom of our Lord 1esus Christ(

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$ith )acets of sma-- $aB ta)ersG he stries re(

Vo-" =

=7 Phi-oso)hica-

-i*hts one of these -itt-e ta)ers( and comes out of

his ca%e eBc-aimin*0 #The re is come do$n from

hea%en( and the ho-' ta)er is -i*hted"# A-- the

rees immediate-' u' u) these ta)ers( and the

mone' is di%ided et$een the Turish commander

and the isho)" The de)-ora-e state of this Church(

under the dominion of the Tur( ma' e Qud*ed

from this sin*-e trait"

 The ree Church in Russia has of -ate assumed

a much more res)ecta-e consistenc'( since the Em8

)ress Catherine II" has de-i%ered it from its secu-ar

cares G she has taen from it four hundred thou8

sand s-a%es( $hich it )ossessed" It is no$ )aid out

of the im)eria- treasur'( entire-' de)endent on the

*o%ernment( and restricted ' $ise -a$s G it can

eMect nothin* ut *ood( and is e%er' da' ecomin*

more -earned and usefu-" It )ossesses a )reacher

of the name of P-ato( $ho has com)osed sermons

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$hich the P-ato of antiHuit' $ou-d not ha%e dis8

dained"

C&2RC& OF ENLAND"

ENLAND is the countr' of sectsG #mu-tce sunt

mansiones in domo )atris mei0# an En*-ishman(

-ie a free man( *oes to hea%en $hich $a' he

)-eases" &o$e%er( a-thou*h e%er' one can ser%e

od in his o$n $a'( the nationa- re-i*ion that

in $hich fortunes are made is the E)isco)a-( ca--ed

the Church of En*-and( or em)hatica--'( #The

E3PRESS CAT&ERINE

Dictionar'" =>

Church"# No one can ha%e em)-o'ment of an'

conseHuence( either in En*-and or Ire-and( $ithout

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ein* memers of the esta-ishment" This reason8

in*( $hich is hi*h-' demonstrati%e( has con%erted so

man' nonconformists that at )resent there is not

a t$entieth )art of the nation out of the osom of

the dominant church"

 The En*-ish c-er*' ha%e retained man' Catho-ic

ceremonies( and ao%e a-- that of recei%in* tithes(

$ith a %er' scru)u-ous attention" The' a-so )os8

sess the )ious amition of ru-in* the )eo)-e( for

$hat %i--a*e rector $ou-d not e a )o)e if he cou-d J

With re*ard to manners( the En*-ish c-er*' are

more decorous than those of France( chie' e8

cause the ecc-esiastics are rou*ht u) in the uni%er8

sities of OBford and Camrid*e( far from the cor8

ru)tion of the metro)o-is" The' are not ca--ed to

the di*nities of the Church unti- %er' -ate( and at

an a*e $hen men( ha%in* no other )assion than a%8

arice( their amition is -ess as)irin*" Em)-o'ments

are( in En*-and( the recom)ense of -on* ser%ice in

the church( as $e-- as in the arm'" 6ou do not

there see 'oun* men ecome isho)s or co-one-s on

-ea%in* co--e*e G and( moreo%er( a-most a-- the )riests

are married" The )edantr' and a$$ardness of

manners( acHuired in the uni%ersities( and the -itt-e

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commerce the' ha%e $ith $omen( *enera--' o-i*e

a isho) to e contented $ith the one $hich e-on*s

to him" The c-er*' *o sometimes to the ta%ern(

ecause custom )ermits it( and if the' *et #!acchi

=7? Phi-oso)hica-

)-enum# it is in the co--e*e st'-e( *ra%e-' and $ith

due decorum"

 That indena-e character $hich is neither ec8

c-esiastica- nor secu-ar( $hich $e ca-- ae( is un8

no$n in En*-and" The ecc-esiastics there are *en8

era--' res)ected( and for the *reater )art )edants"

When the -atter -earn that in France 'oun* men

distin*uished ' their deaucheries( and raised to

the )re-ac' ' the intri*ues of $omen( )u-ic-' mae

-o%eG %ie $ith each other in the com)osition of

-o%e son*s G *i%e -uBurious su))ers e%er' da'( from

$hich the' arise to im)-ore the -i*ht of the &o-'

S)irit( and o-d-' ca-- themse-%es the a)ost-es5 suc8

cessors the' than od the' are Protestants" !ut

$hat thenJ The' are %i-e heretics( and t on-' for

urnin*( as master Francis Rae-ais sa's( #$ith a--

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the de%i-s"# &ence I dro) the suQect"

C&2RC& PROPERT6"

 T&E os)e- forids those $ho $ou-d attain )er8

fection to amass treasures( and to )reser%e their

tem)ora- *oods 0 #La' not u) for 'ourse-%es treas8

ures u)on earth( $here moth and rust doth corru)t(

and $here thie%es rea throu*h and stea-"# #If

thou $i-t e )erfect( *o and se-- that thou hast( and

*i%e to the )oor"# #And e%er' one that hath for8

saen houses( or rethren( or sisters( or father( or

mother( or $ife( or chi-dren( or -ands( for m' name5s

sae( sha-- recei%e an hundred8fo-d( and sha-- inherit

e%er-astin* -ife"#"

Dictionar'" =7=

 The a)ost-es and their rst successors $ou-d not

recei%e estatesG the' on-' acce)ted the %a-ue( and(

after ha%in* )ro%ided $hat $as necessar' for their

susistence( the' distriuted the rest amon* the

)oor" Sa))hira and Ananias did not *i%e their

*oods to St" Peter( ut the' so-d them and rou*ht

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 Qud*es( ' his ne$ code B%iii" cha)( ii"( to annu- the

$i--s made in fa%or of the Church( e%en $hen eBe8

= 7 Phi-oso)hica-

cuted $ithout the forma-ities )rescried ' the

-a$s"

Anastasius had enacted( in =( that church )ro)8

ert' shou-d e he-d ' a )rescri)tion( or tit-e( of

fort' 'ears5 duration" 1ustinian inserted this -a$

in his codeG ut this )rince( $ho $as continua--'

chan*in* his Quris)rudence( suseHuent-' eBtended

this )roscri)tion to a centur'" Immediate-' se%era-

ecc-esiastics( un$orth' of their )rofession( for*ed

fa-se tit-es( and dre$ out of the dust o-d testaments(

%oid ' the ancient -a$s( ut %a-id accordin* to

the ne$" Citi4ens $ere de)ri%ed of their )atrimo8

nies ' fraudG and )ossessions( $hich unti- then

$ere considered in%io-a-e( $ere usur)ed ' the

Church" In short( the ause $as so cr'in* that 1us8

tinian himse-f $as o-i*ed to re8esta-ish the dis)o8

sitions of the -a$ of Anastasius( ' his no%e- cBBBi"

cha)" %i"

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 The )ossessions of the Church durin* the rst

%e centuries of our era $ere re*u-ated ' deacons(

$ho distriuted them to the c-er*' and to the )oor"

 This communit' ceased at the end of the fth cen8

tur'( and Church )ro)ert' $as di%ided into four

)arts one ein* *i%en to the isho)s( another to

the c-er*'( a third to the )-ace of $orshi)( and the

fourth to the )oor" Soon after this di%ision the

isho)s a-one too char*e of the $ho-e four )or8

tions( and this is the reason $h' the inferior c-er*'

are *enera--' %er' )oor"

Dictionar'" = 7

3ons )ossessin* S-a%es"

What is sti-- more me-ancho-'( the !enedictines(

!ernar dines( and e%en the ChartreuB are )ermitted

to ha%e mortmains and s-a%es" 2nder their domi8

nation in se%era- )ro%inces of France and erman'

are sti-- reco*ni4ed0 )ersona- s-a%er'( s-a%er' of

)ro)ert'( and s-a%er' of )erson and )ro)ert'" S-a8

%er' of the )erson consists in the inca)acit' of a

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man5s dis)osin* of his )ro)ert' in fa%or of his

chi-dren( if the' ha%e not a-$a's -i%ed $ith their

father in the same house( and at the same ta-e( in

$hich case a-- e-on*s to the mons" The fortune

of an inhaitant of 3ount 1ura( )ut into the hands

of a notar'( ecomes( e%en in Paris( the )re' of

those $ho ha%e ori*ina--' emraced e%an*e-ica- )o%8

ert' at 3ount 1ura" The son ass a-ms at the door of

the house $hich his father has ui-t G and the mons(

far from *i%in* them( e%en arro*ate to themse-%es

the ri*ht of not )a'in* his father5s creditors( and of

re*ardin* as %oid a-- the mort*a*es on the house of

$hich the' tae )ossession" In %ain the $ido$

thro$s herse-f at their feet to otain a )art of her

do$r'" This do$r'( these dets( this )aterna- )ro)8

ert'( a-- e-on*( ' di%ine ri*ht( to the mons" The

creditors( the $ido$( and the chi-dren are a-- -eft

to die in e**ar'"

Rea- s-a%er' is that $hich is eMected ' resi8

dence" Whoe%er occu)ies a house $ithin the do8

main of these mons( and -i%es in it a 'ear and a

da'( ecomes their serf for -ife" It has sometimes

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 T + Phi-oso)hica-

ha))ened that a French merchant( and father of a

fami-'( -ed ' his usiness into this ararous coun8

tr'( has taen a house for a 'ear" D'in* after$ards

in his o$n countr'( in another )ro%ince of France(

his $ido$ and chi-dren ha%e een Huite astonished

to see ocers( armed $ith $rits( come and tae

a$a' their furniture( se-- it in the name of St"

aude" and dri%e a$a' a $ho-e fami-' from the

house of their father"

3iBed s-a%er' is that $hich( ein* com)osed of

the t$o( is( of a-- that ra)acit' has e%er in%ented"

the most eBecra-e( and e'ond the conce)tion e%en

of freeooters" There are( then( Christian )eo)-e

*roanin* in a tri)-e s-a%er' under mons $ho ha%e

taen the %o$ of humi-it' and )o%ert'" 6ou $i--

as ho$ *o%ernments suMer these fata- contradic8

tionsJ It is ecause the mons are rich and the

%assa-s are )oor" It is ecause the mons( to )re8

ser%e their &unnish ri*hts( mae )resents to their

commissaries and to the mistresses of those $ho

mi*ht inter)ose their authorit' to )ut do$n their

o))ression" The stron* a-$a's crush the $eaG

ut $h' must mons e the stron*erJ

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CICERO"

IT is at a time $hen( in France( the ne arts are

in a state of dec-ineG in an a*e of )aradoB( and

amidst the de*radation and )ersecution of -itera8

ture and )hi-oso)h'( that an attem)t is made to tar8

nish the name of Cicero" And $ho is the man $ho

Dictionar'" =7<

t-ras endea%ors to thro$ dis*race u)on is mem8

It is one $ho -ends his ser%ices in Arf ... of

)ersons accused -ie himse-f G it is an ad%ocate( $ho

has studied e-oHuence under that *reat masterG it

is a citi4en $ho a))ears to e( -ie Cicero( Q3mi&

' de%otion to the )u-ic *ood"

In a oo entit-ed #Na%i*a-e Cana-s(# a oo

aoundin* in *rand and )atriotic rather than )rac8

tica- %ie$s( $e fed no sma-- astonishment at uma*

the fo--o$in* )hi-i))ic a*ainst Cicero( $ho $as

ne%er concerned in di**in* cana-s0

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5The most *-orious trait in die histor' of Cicero

is the destruction of Cati-ine5s cons)irac'( $hich(

re*arded in its true -i*ht( )roduced tt sensation

at Rome( eBce)t in conseHuence of his aMectin* to

*i%e it im)ortance" The dan*er eBisted much more

in his discourses than in the aMair itse-f" It $as

an enter)rise of deauchees $hich it $as eas' to

disconcert" Neither the )rinci)a- nor the accom8

)-ices ad taen the s-i*htest measure to insure the

success of their *mh' at tem)i" There $as nothin*

this sin*u-ar matter ut the -uster8

in* $hich attended a-- the f*nf*3-h*s of die con8

su-( and the faci-it' $ith $inch he $as )ermitted

to sacrice to his se-f8-o%e so man' scions of us8

#!esides( the fe of Cicero aounds in traits of

meanness" &is e-oHuence $as as %ena- as his sou-

$as )usi--animous" If his ton*ue $as not *uided

' interest it $as *uided ' fear or ho)e" The de8

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= 7@ Phi-oso)hica-

sire of otainin* )artisans -ed him to the triune(

to defend( $ithout a -ush( men more dishonora-e(

and inca-cu-a-' more dan*erous( than Cati-ine" &is

c-ients $ere near-' a-- miscreants( and( ' a sin*u-ar

eBercise of di%ine Qustice( he at -ast met death from

the hands of one of those $retches $hom his si--

had eBtricated from the fan*s of human Qustice"#

We ans$er that( #re*arded in its true -i*ht(# the

cons)irac' of Cati-ine eBcited at Rome some$hat

more than a #s-i*ht sensation"# It )-un*ed her into

the *reatest disturance and dan*er" It $as ter8

minated on-' ' a att-e so -ood' that there is no

eBam)-e of eHua- carna*e( and scarce-' an' of eHua-

%a-or" A-- the so-diers of Cati-ine( after ha%in*

i--ed ha-f of the arm' of Petrius( $ere i--ed( to the

-ast man" Cati-ine )erished( co%ered $ith $ounds(

u)on a hea) of the s-ain G and a-- $ere found $ith

their countenances stern-' *-arin* u)on the enem'"

 This $as not an enter)rise so $onderfu--' eas' as

to e disconcerted" Caesar encoura*ed it G Caesar

-earned from it to cons)ire on a future da' more suc8

cessfu--' a*ainst his countr'"

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#Cicero defended( $ithout a -ush( men more dis8

honora-e( and inca-cu-a-' more dan*erous than

Cati-ine # Was this $hen he defended in the tri8

une Sici-' a*ainst Verres( and the Roman re)u-ic

a*ainst Anton'J Was it $hen he eBhorted the

c-emenc' of Caesar in fa%or of Li*arius and Kin*

DeiotarusJ or $hen he otained the ri*ht of cit8

i4enshi) for the )oet ArchiasJ or $hen( in his eB8

Dictionar'" =7

Huisite oration for the 3ani-ian -a$( he otained

e%er' Roman suMra*e on eha-f of the *reat Pom8

)e'J

&e )-eaded for 3i-o( the murderer of C-odiusG

ut C-odius had deser%ed the tra*ica- end he met

$ith ' his outra*es" C-odius had een in%o-%ed

in the cons)irac' of Cati-ine G C-odius $as his mor8

ta- enem'" &e had irritated Rome a*ainst him( and

had )unished him for ha%in* sa%ed Rome" 3i-o

$as his friend"

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What is it in our time that an' one %entures

to assert that od )unished Cicero for ha%in* de8

fended a mi-itar' triune ca--ed Po)i-ius Lena( and

that di%ine %en*eance made this same Po)i-ius Lena

the instrument of his assassination J No one no$s

$hether Po)i-ius Lena $as *ui-t' of the crime of

$hich he $as acHuitted( after Cicero5s defence of

him u)on his tria-G ut a-- no$ that the monster

$as *ui-t' of the most horri-e in*ratitude( the most

infamous a%arice( and the most detesta-e crue-t'

to otain the mone' of three $retches -ie himse-f"

It $as reser%ed for our times to ho-d u) the assas8

sination of Cicero as an act of di%ine Qustice" The

trium%irs $ou-d not ha%e dared to do it" E%er' a*e(

efore the )resent( has detested and de)-ored the

manner of his death"

Cicero is re)roached $ith too freHuent-' oast8

in* that he had sa%ed Rome( and $ith ein* too

fond of *-or'" !ut his enemies endea%ored to stain

his *-or'" A t'rannica- faction condemned him to

= 77 Phi-oso)hica-

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eBi-e( and ra4ed his house( ecause he had )reser%ed

e%er' house in Rome from the ames $hich Cati8

-ine had )re)ared for them" 3en are )ermitted and

e%en ound to oast of their ser%ices( $hen the'

meet $ith for*etfu-ness or in*ratitude( and more

)articu-ar-' $hen the' are con%erted into crimes"

Sci)io is sti-- admired for ha%in* ans$ered his8

accusers in these $ords0 #This is the anni%ersar'

of the da' on $hich I %anHuished &annia- G -et us

*o and return thans to the *ods"# The $ho-e as8

sem-' fo--o$ed him to the Ca)ito-( and our hearts

fo--o$ him thither a-so( as $e read the )assa*e in

histor' G thou*h( after a--( it $ou-d ha%e een et8

ter to ha%e de-i%ered in his accounts than to eBtri8

cate himse-f from the attac ' a on mot"

Cicero( in the same manner( eBcited the admira8

tion of the Roman )eo)-e $hen( on the da' in $hich

his consu-shi) eB)ired( ein* o-i*ed to tae the

customar' oaths( and )re)arin* to address the

)eo)-e as $as usua-( he $as hindered ' the triune

3ate--us( $ho $as desirous of insu-tin* him" Cic8

ero had e*un $ith these $ords0 #I s$ear(# the

triune interru)ted him( and dec-ared that he $ou-d

not suMer him to mae a s)eech" A *reat murmur8

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in* $as heard" Cicero )aused a moment( and e-e8

%atin* his fu-- and me-odious %oice( he eBc-aimed(

as a short sustitute for his intended s)eech( #I

s$ear that I ha%e sa%ed the countr'"# The assem8

-' cried out $ith de-i*ht and enthusiasm( #We

s$ear that he has s)oen the truth"# That moment

Dictionar'" =7>

$as the most ri--iant of his -ife" This is the true

$a' of -o%in* *-or'" I do not no$ $here I ha%e

read these unno$n %erses 0

Remains( faime -a *-oire( et ne %euB )oint m en taire

Des tra%auB des humains c5est -e di*ne sa-aire(

Ce n5est Hden %ous Hu t- -afaut acheter G

:ui n5ose -a %ou-oir( riose -a mtriter"

Romans( I o$n that *-or' I re*ard

Of human toi- the on-' Qust re$ardG

P-aced in 'our hands the immorta- *uerdon -ies(

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And he $i-- ne5er deser%e $ho s-i*hts the )ri4e"

Can $e des)ise Cicero if $e consider his conduct

in his *o%ernment of Ci-icia( $hich $as then one

of the most im)ortant )ro%inces of the Roman Em8

)ire( in conseHuence of its conti*uit' to S'ria and

the Parthian Em)ire" Laodicea( one of the most

eautifu- cities of the East( $as the ca)ita- of it"

 This )ro%ince $as then as ourishin* as it is at the

)resent da' de*raded under the *o%ernment of the

 Turs( $ho ne%er had a Cicero"

&e e*ins ' )rotectin* Arioar4anes( in* of

Ca))adocia( and he refuses the )resents $hich that

in* desires to mae him" The Parthians come and

attac Antioch in a state of )erfect )eace" Cicero

hasti-' marches to$ards it( comes u) $ith the Par8

thians ' forced marches at 3ount Taurus( routs

them( )ursues them in their retreat( and Arsaces(

their *enera-( is s-ain( $ith a )art of his arm'"

 Thence he rushes on Pendenissum( the ca)ita- of

a countr' in a--iance $ith the Parthians( and taes

it( and the )ro%ince is reduced to sumission" &e

instant-' directs his forces a*ainst the tries of

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= >? Phi-oso)hica-

)eo)-e ca--ed Tiuranians( and defeats them( and

his troo)s confer on him the tit-e of Im)erator(

$hich he )reser%ed a-- his -ife" &e $ou-d ha%e o8

tained the honors of a trium)h at Rome if he had

not een o))osed ' Cato( $ho induced the senate

mere-' to decree )u-ic reQoicin*s and thans to the

*ods( $hen( in fact( the' $ere due to Cicero"

If $e )icture to ourse-%es the eHuit' and disinter8

estedness of Cicero in his *o%ernment G his acti%it'(

his aMai-it' t$o %irtues so rare-' com)ati-e G the

enets $hich he accumu-ated u)on the )eo)-e o%er

$hom he $as an aso-ute so%erei*n G it $i-- e eB8

treme-' dicu-t to $ithho-d from such a man our

esteem"

If $e reect that this is the same man $ho rst

introduced )hi-oso)h' into RomeG that his #Tus8

cu-an :uestions(# and his oo #On the Nature of

the ods(# are the t$o no-est $ors that e%er $ere

$ritten ' mere human $isdom( and that his treat8

ise( #De Ociis(# is the most usefu- one that $e

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)ossess in mora-sG $e sha-- nd it sti-- more di8

cu-t to des)ise Cicero" We )it' those $ho do not

read himG $e )it' sti-- more those $ho refuse to

do him Qustice"

 To the French detractor $e ma' $e-- o))ose the

-ines of the S)anish 3artia-( in his e)i*ram a*ainst

Anton' oo %"( e)i*" @>( %" U 0

:uid Prosunt sacrce )retiosa si-entia -in*uae f

Inci)ient omnes )ro Cicerone -oHui"

Wh' sti-- his ton*ue $ith %en*eance $ea(

For 5Cicero a-- the $or-d $i-- s)ea-

Dictionar'" =>=

See( -ie$ise( $hat is said ' 1u%ena- sat" i%"(

%" U 0

Roma )air em )atriae Ciceronem -iera diBit"

Freed Rome( him father of his countr' ca--ed"

CIRC23CISION"

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W&EN &erodotus narrates $hat he $as to-d '

the ararians amon* $hom he tra%e--ed( he nar8

rates foo-eries( after the manner of the *reater )art

of tra%e--ers" Thus( it is not to e su))osed that he

eB)ects to e e-ie%ed in his recita- of the ad%enture

of '*es and Candau-es G of Arion( carried on the

ac of a do-)hinG of the orac-e $hich $as con8

su-ted on $hat Croesus $as at the time doin*( that

he $as then *oin* to dress a tortoise in a ste$8)an G

of Darius5 horse( $hich( ein* the rst out of a cer8

tain numer to nei*h( in fact )roc-aimed his master

a in* G and of a hundred other fa-es( t to amuse

chi-dren( and to e com)i-ed ' rhetoricians" !ut

$hen he s)eas of $hat he has seen( of the customs

of )eo)-e he has eBamined( of their antiHuities $hich

he has consu-ted( he then addresses himse-f to men"

#It a))ears(# sa's he( in his oo #Euter)e#

#that the inhaitants of Co-chis s)ran* from E*')t"

I Qud*e so from m' o$n oser%ations rather than

from hearsa' G for I found that( at Co-chis( the an8

cient E*')tians $ere more freHuent-' reca--ed to

m' mind than the ancient customs of Co-chis $ere

$hen I $as in E*')t"

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=> Phi-oso)hica-

#These inhaitants of the shores of the EuBine

Sea stated themse-%es to e a co-on' founded ' Se8

sostris" As for m'se-f( I shou-d thin this )roa-e(

not mere-' ecause the' are dar and $oo--'8haired(

ut ecause the inhaitants of Co-chis( E*')t( and

Ethio)ia are the on-' )eo)-e in the $or-d $ho( from

time immemoria-( ha%e )ractised circumcisionG for

the Phoenicians( and the )eo)-e of Pa-estine( con8

fess that the' ado)ted the )ractice from the E*')8

tians" The S'rians( $ho at )resent inhait the ans

of Thermodon( acno$-ed*e that it is( com)ara8

ti%e-'( ut recent-' that the' ha%e conformed to it"

It is )rinci)a--' from this usa*e that the' are con8

sidered of E*')tian ori*in"

#With res)ect to Ethio)ia and E*')t( as this cer8

emon' is of *reat antiHuit' in oth nations( I can8

not ' an' means ascertain $hich has deri%ed it

from the other" It is( ho$e%er( )roa-e that the

Ethio)ians recei%ed it from the E*')tians G $hi-e(

on the contrar'( the Phoenicians ha%e ao-ished the

)ractice of circumcisin* ne$8orn chi-dren since the

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en-ar*ement of their commerce $ith the rees"#

From this )assa*e of &erodotus it is e%ident

that man' )eo)-e had ado)ted circumcision from

E*')t( ut no nation e%er )retended to ha%e re8

cei%ed it from the 1e$s" To $hom( then( can $e

attriute the ori*in of this custom G to a nation from

$hom %e or siB others acno$-ed*e the' too it(

or to another nation( much -ess )o$erfu-( -ess con%

mercia-( -ess $ar-ie( hid a$a' in a corner of Ara8

Dictionar'" =>

ia Petraea( and $hich ne%er communicated an' one

of its usa*es to an' other )eo)-eJ

 The 1e$s admit that the' $ere( man' a*es since(

recei%ed in E*')t out of charit'" Is it not )roa-e

that the -esser )eo)-e imitated a usa*e of the su8

)erior one( and that the 1e$s ado)ted some customs

from their mastersJ

C-ement of A-eBandria re-ates that P'tha*oras(

$hen tra%e--in* amon* the E*')tians( $as o-i*ed

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to e circumcised in order to e admitted to their

m'steries" It $as( therefore( aso-ute-' necessar'

to e circumcised to e a )riest in E*')t" Those

)riests eBisted $hen 1ose)h arri%ed in E*')t" The

*o%ernment $as of *reat antiHuit'( and the ancient

ceremonies of the countr' $ere oser%ed $ith the

most scru)u-ous eBactness"

 The 1e$s acno$-ed*e that the' remained in

E*')t t$o hundred and %e 'ears" The' sa' that(

durin* that )eriod( the' did not ecome circumcised"

It is c-ear( then( that for t$o hundred and %e 'ears

the E*')tians did not recei%e circumcision from the

 1e$s" Wou-d the' ha%e ado)ted it from them after

the 1e$s had sto-en the %esse-s $hich the' had -ent

them( and( accordin* to their o$n account( ed $ith

their )-under into the $i-dernessJ Wi-- a master

ado)t the )rinci)a- s'mo- of the re-i*ion of a ro8

in* and runa$a' s-a%eJ It is not in human nature"

It is stated in the !oo of 1oshua that the 1e$s

$ere circumcised in the $i-derness" #I ha%e de-i%8

ered 'ou from $hat constituted 'our re)roach

Vo-" =

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=> Phi-oso)hica-

amon* the E*')tians"# !ut $hat cou-d this re8

)roach e( to a )eo)-e -i%in* et$een Phoenicians(

Araians( and E*')tians( ut somethin* $hich ren8

dered them contem)ti-e to these three nationsJ

&o$ eMectua--' is that re)roach remo%ed ' a8

stractin* a sma-- )ortion of the )re)uce J 3ust not

this e considered the natura- meanin* of the )ass8

a*eJ

 The !oo of enesis re-ates that Araham

had een circumcised efore" !ut Araham tra%8

e--ed in E*')t( $hich had een -on* a ourishin*

in*dom( *o%erned ' a )o$erfu- in*" There is

nothin* to )re%ent the su))osition that circumcision

$as( in this %er' ancient in*dom( an esta-ished

usa*e" 3oreo%er( the circumcision of Araham -ed

to no continuationG his )osterit' $as not circum8

cised ti-- the time of 1oshua"

!ut( efore the time of 1oshua( the 1e$s( ' their

o$n acno$-ed*ment( ado)ted man' of the customs

of the E*')tians" The' imitated them in man' sac8

rices( in man' ceremonies G as( for eBam)-e( in the

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fasts oser%ed on the e%es of the feasts of I sis G in

a-utions G in the custom of sha%in* the heads of the

)riestsG in the incense( the ranched cand-e8stic(

the sacrice of the red8haired co$( the )urication

$ith h'sso)( the astinence from s$ine5s esh( the

dread of usin* the itchen utensi-s of forei*ners G

e%er'thin* testies that the -itt-e )eo)-e of &ere$s(

not$ithstandin* its a%ersion to the *reat E*')tian

nation( had retained a %ast numer of the usa*es

Dictionar'" =><

of its former masters" The *oat A4a4e-( $hich $as

des)atched into the $i-derness -aden $ith the sins

of the )eo)-e( $as a %isi-e imitation of an E*')tian

)ractice" The rais are a*reed( e%en( that the $ord

A4a4e- is not &ere$" Nothin*( therefore( cou-d

eBist to ha%e )re%ented the &ere$s from imitatin*

the E*')tians in circumcision( as the Aras( their

nei*hors( did"

It is ' no means eBtraordinar' that od( $ho

sanctied a)tism( a )ractice so ancient amon* the

Asiatics( shou-d a-so ha%e sanctied circumcision(

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not -ess ancient amon* the Africans" We ha%e a-8

read' remared that he has a so%erei*n ri*ht to

attach his fa%ors to an' s'mo- that he chooses"

As to $hat remains since the time $hen( under

 1oshua( the 1e$ish )eo)-e ecame circumcised( it

has retained that usa*e do$n to the )resent da'"

 The Aras( a-so( ha%e faithfu--' adhered to it G ut

the E*')tians( $ho( in the ear-ier a*es( circumcised

oth their ma-es and fema-es( in the course of time

aandoned the )ractice entire-' as to the -atter( and

at -ast a))-ied it so-e-' to )riests( astro-o*ers( and

)ro)hets" This $e -earn from C-ement of A-eBan8

dria( and Ori*en" In fact( it is not c-ear that the

Pto-emies e%er recei%ed circumcision"

 The Latin authors $ho treat the 1e$s $ith such

)rofound contem)t as to a))-' to them in derision

the eB)ressions( #curtus A)e--a# #credat 1udYus

A)e--a(# #curti 1udai# ne%er a))-' such e)ithets to

the E*')tians( The $ho-e )o)u-ation of E*')t is

=>@ Phi-oso)hica-

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at )resent circumcised( ut for another reason than

that $hich o)erated former-' G name-'( ecause 3a8

hometanism ado)ted the ancient circumcision of

Araia" It is this Araian circumcision $hich has

eBtended to the Ethio)ians( amon* $hom ma-es and

fema-es are oth sti-- circumcised"

We must acno$-ed*e that this ceremon' a)8

)ears at rst a %er' stran*e one G ut $e shou-d re8

memer that( from the ear-iest times( the orienta-

)riests consecrated themse-%es to their deities '

)ecu-iar mars" An i%' -eaf $as indented $ith a

*ra%er on the )riests of !acchus" Lucian te--s us

that those de%oted to the *oddess Isis im)ressed

characters u)on their $rist and nec" The )riests

of C'e-e made themse-%es eunuchs"

It is hi*h-' )roa-e that the E*')tians( $ho

re%ered the instrument of human )roduction( and

ore its ima*e in )om) in their )rocessions( con8

cei%ed the idea of oMerin* to Isis and Osiris

throu*h $hom e%er'thin* on earth $as )roduced(

a sma-- )ortion of that or*an $ith $hich these dei8

ties had connected the )er)etuation of the human

s)ecies" Ancient orienta- manners are so )rodi*8

ious-' diMerent from our o$n that scarce-' an'thin*

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$i-- a))ear eBtraordinar' to a man of e%en ut -itt-e

readin*" A Parisian is eBcessi%e-' sur)rised $hen

he is to-d that the &ottentots de)ri%e their ma-e

chi-dren of one of the e%idences of %iri-it'" The

&ottentots are )erha)s sur)rised that the Parisians

)reser%e oth"

Dictionar'" =>

CLERK CLER6"

 T&ERE ma' e somethin* )erha)s sti-- remain8

in* for remar under this head( e%en after Du

Can*e5s #Dictionar'# and the #Enc'c-o)aedia"# We

ma' oser%e( for instance( that so $onderfu- $as

the res)ect )aid to -earnin*( aout the e-e%enth and

t$e-fth centuries( that a custom $as introduced and

fo--o$ed in France( in erman'( and in En*-and( of

remittin* the )unishment of the ha-ter to e%er' con8

demned crimina- $ho $as a-e to read" So neces8

sar' to the state $as e%er' man $ho )ossessed such

an eBtent of no$-ed*e" Wi--iam the !astard( the

conHueror of En*-and( carried thither this custom"

It $as ca--ed enet of c-er*' #enecum c-eri8

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corum aut c-er*icorum"#

We ha%e remared( in more )-aces than one( that

o-d usa*es( -ost in other countries( are found a*ain

in En*-and( as in the is-and of Samothrace $ere dis8

co%ered the ancient m'steries of Or)heus" To this

da' the enet of c-er*' susists amon* the En*8

-ish( in a-- its %i*or( for mans-au*hter( and for an'

theft not eBceedin* a certain amount of %a-ue( and

ein* the rst oMence" The )risoner $ho is a-e to

read demands his #enet of c-er*'(# $hich cannot

e refused him" The Qud*e refers to the cha)-ain of

the )rison( $ho )resents a oo to the )risoner( u)on

$hich the Qud*e )uts the Huestion to the cha)-ain(

#Le*itJ# #Does he readJ# The cha)-ain re)-ies0

#Le*it tot c-ericus"# #&e reads -ie a c-er*'man"#

=>7 Phi-oso)hica-

After this the )unishment of the )risoner is re8

stricted to the a))-ication of a hot randin* iron to

the )a-m of his hand"

Of the Ce-iac' of the C-er*'"

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It is ased $hether( in the rst a*es of the

Church( marria*e $as )ermitted to the c-er*'( and

$hen it $as foriddenJ It is unHuestiona-e that

the c-er*' of the 1e$ish re-i*ion( far from ein*

ound to ce-iac'( $ere( on the contrar'( ur*ed to

marria*e( not mere-' ' the eBam)-e of their

)atriarchs( ut ' the dis*race attached to not -ea%8

in* )osterit'"

In the times( ho$e%er( that )receded the rst

ca-amities $hich efe-- the 1e$s( certain sects of

ri*orists arose Essenians( 1udaites( Thera)eutse(

&erodiansG in some of $hich the Essenians and

 Thera)eutae( for eBam)-es the most de%out of the

sect astained from marria*e" This continence $as

an imitation of the chastit' of the %esta-s( instituted

' Numa Pom)i-iusG of the dau*hter of P'tha*8

oras( $ho founded a con%entG of the )riests of

Diana G of the P'thia of De-)hos G and( in more re8

mote antiHuit'( of the )riestesses of A)o--o( and

e%en of the )riestesses of !acchus" The )riests of

C'e-e not on-' ound themse-%es ' %o$s of

chastit'( ut( to )rec-ude the %io-ation of their %o$s(

ecame eunuchs" P-utarch( in the ei*hth Huestion

of his #Ta-e8ta-(# informs us that( in E*')t( there

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are co--e*es of )riests $hich renounce marria*e"

Dictionar'" =>>

 The rst Christians( a-thou*h )rofessin* to -ead

a -ife as )ure as that of the Essenians and Thera8

)eutse( did not consider ce-iac' as a %irtue" We

ha%e seen that near-' a-- the a)ost-es and disci)-es

$ere married" St" Pau- $rites to Titus0 #Choose

for a )riest him $ho is the husand of one $ife(

ha%in* e-ie%in* chi-dren( and not under accusation

of disso-uteness"# &e sa's the same to Timoth'0

#Let the su)erintendent e the husand of one

$ife"# &e seems to thin so hi*h-' of marria*e

that( in the same e)ist-e to Timoth'( he sa's 0 #The

$ife( not$ithstandin* her )re%arication( sha-- e

sa%ed in chi-d8earin*"#

 The )roceedin*s of the Counci- of Nice( on the

suQect of married )riests( deser%e *reat attention"

Some isho)s( accordin* to the re-ations of So4o8

men and Socrates( )ro)osed a -a$ commandin*

isho)s and )riests thencefor$ard to astain from

their $i%es G ut St" Pa)hnucius the 3art'r( isho)

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of Thees( in E*')t( strenuous-' o))osed itG o8

ser%in*( #that marria*e $as chastit'# G and the

counci- ado)ted his o)inion" Suidas( e-asius(

Cesicenus( Cassiodorus( and Nice)horus Ca--istus(

record )recise-' the same thin*" The counci- mere-'

forade the c-er*' from -i%in* $ith a*a)etae( or fe8

ma-e associates esides their o$n $i%es( eBce)t their

mothers( sisters( aunts( and others $hose a*e $ou-d

)rec-ude sus)icion"

After that time( the ce-iac' of the c-er*' $as

recommended( $ithout ein* commanded" St"

OO Phi-oso)hica-

 1erome( a de%out rec-use( $as( of a-- the fathers(

hi*hest in his eu-o*iums of the ce-iac' of )riests G

'et he reso-ute-' su))orts the cause of Carterius( a

S)anish isho)( $ho had een married t$ice"

#Were I(# sa's he( #to enumerate a-- the isho)s

$ho ha%e entered into second nu)tia-s( I shou-d

name as man' as $ere )resent at the Counc5- of

Rimini# #Tantus numerus con*re*aitur ut Rimi8

nensis s'nodus su)eretur"#

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 The eBam)-es of c-er*'men married( and -i%in*

$ith their $i%es( are innumera-e" S'donius(

isho) of C-ermont( in Au%er*ne( in the fth cen8

tur'( married Pa)iani--a( dau*hter of the Em)eror

A%itus( and the house of Po-i*nac c-aims descent

from this marria*e" Sim)-icius( isho) of !our*es(

had t$o chi-dren ' his $ife Pa--adia" St" re*or'

of Na4ian4en $as the son of another re*or'(

isho) of Na4ian4en( and of Nonna( ' $hom that

isho) had three chi-dren Cesarius( or*onia( and

the saint"

In the Roman decreta-s( under the canon Osius(

$e nd a %er' -on* -ist of isho)s $ho $ere the

sons of )riests" Po)e Osius himse-f $as the son of

a su8deacon Ste)henG and Po)e !oniface I"( son

of the )riest 1ocondo" Po)e Fe-iB III" $as the son

of Fe-iB( a )riest( and $as himse-f one of the *rand8

fathers of re*or' the reat" The )riest ProQectus

$as the father of 1ohn II" G and ordian( the father

of A*a)et" Po)e S'-%ester $as the son of Po)e

&ormisdas" Theodore I" $as orn of a marria*e of

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Dictionar'" ?=

 Theodore( )atriarch of 1erusa-emG a circumstance

$hich shou-d )roduce the reconci-iation of the t$o

Churches"

At -en*th( after se%era- counci-s had een he-d

$ithout eMect on the suQect of the ce-iac'( $hich

ou*ht a-$a's to accom)an' the )riesthood( Po)e

re*or' eBcommunicated a-- married )riests G either

to add res)ectai-it' to the Church( ' the *reater

ri*or of its disci)-ine( or to attach more c-ose-' to

the court of Rome the isho)s and )riests of other

countries( $ho $ou-d thus ha%e no other fami-'

than the Church" This -a$ $as not esta-ished $ith8

out *reat o))osition"

It is a %er' remara-e circumstance that the

Counci- of !ase-( ha%in* de)osed( at -east nomina--'(

Po)e Eu*enius IV"( and e-ected Amadeus of Sa%o'(

man' isho)s ha%in* oQected a*ainst that )rince

that he had een married( Eneas S'-%ius( $ho $as

after$ards )o)e( under the name of Pius II" ( su)8

)orted the e-ection of Amadeus in these $ords0

#Non so-um Hui uBorem hauit( sed uBorem haens(

)otest assumere# #Not on-' ma' he e made a )o)e

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$ho has een married( ut a-so he $ho is so"#

 This Pius II" $as consistent" Peruse his -etters

to his mistress( in the co--ection of his $ors" &e

$as con%inced( that to defraud nature of her ri*hts

$as aso-ute insanit'( and that it $as the dut' of

man not to destro'( ut to contro- her"

&o$e%er this ma' e( since the Counci- of Trent

there has no -on*er een an' dis)ute aout the ce-i8

? Phi-oso)hica-

ac' of the Roman Catho-ic c-er*' G there ha%e een

on-' desires" A-- Protestant communions are( on

this )oint( in o))osition to Rome"

In the ree Church( $hich at )resent eBtends

from the frontiers of China to Ca)e 3ata)an( the

)riests ma' marr' once" Customs e%er'$here %ar' G

disci)-ine chan*es conforma-' to time and )-ace"

We here on-' record factsG $e enter into no con8

tro%ers'"

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Of C-ers of the C-oset( Since Denominated Secre8

taries of State and 3inisters"

C-ers of the c-oset( c-ers of the in*( more re8

cent-' denominated secretaries of state( in France

and En*-and( $ere ori*ina--' the #in*5s notaries"#

 The' $ere after$ards ca--ed #secretaries of orders#

secretaires des commandemens" This $e are in8

formed of ' the -earned and -aorious PasHuier"

&is authorit' is unHuestiona-e( as he had under his

ins)ection the re*isters of the chamer of accounts(

$hich( in our o$n times( ha%e een destro'ed ' re"

At the unfortunate )eace of Cateau8Camresis(

a c-er of Phi-i) II"( ha%in* taen the tit-e of secre8

tar' of state( de =5Aues)ine( $ho $as secretar' of"

orders to the in* of France( and his notar'( too

that tit-e -ie$ise( that the honors of oth mi*ht e

eHua-( $hate%er mi*ht e the case $ith their emo-u8

ments"

In En*-and( efore the rei*n of &enr' VIIL(

there $as on-' one secretar' of the in*( $ho stood

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Dictionar'" ?

$hi-e he )resented memoria-s and )etitions to the

counci-" &enr' VIII" a))ointed t$o( and conferred

on them the same tit-es and )rero*ati%es as in S)ain"

 The *reat no-es did not( at that )eriod( acce)t

these situations G ut( in time( the' ha%e ecome of

so much conseHuence that )eers of the rea-m and

commanders of armies are no$ in%ested $ith them"

 Thus e%er'thin* chan*es" There is at )resent no

re-ic in France of the *o%ernment of &u*h Ca)et(

nor in En*-and of the administration of Wi--iam

the !astard"

CLI3ATE"

IT is certain that the sun and atmos)here mar

their em)ire on a-- the )roductions of nature( from

man to mushrooms" In the *rand a*e of Louis

;IV"( the in*enious Fontene--e remared 0

#One mi*ht ima*ine that the torrid and t$o

fri*id 4ones are not $e-- suited to the sciences"

Do$n to the )resent da' the' ha%e not tra%e--ed

e'ond E*')t and 3auritania( on the one side( nor

on the other e'ond S$eden" Perha)s it is not

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o$in* to mere chance that the' are retained $ithin

3ount At-as and the !a-tic Sea" We no$ not

$hether these ma' not e the -imits a))ointed to

them ' nature( or $hether $e ma' e%er ho)e to see

*reat authors amon* La)-anders or ne*roes"#

Chardin( one of those tra%e--ers $ho reason and

in%esti*ate( *oes sti-- further than Fontene--e( $hen

s)eain* of Persia" #The tem)erature of $arm

? Phi-oso)hica-

c-imates(# sa's he( #ener%ates the mind as $e-- as

the od'( and dissi)ates that re $hich the ima*ina8

tion reHuires for in%ention" In such c-imates men

are inca)a-e of the -on* studies and intense a))-i8

cation $hich are necessar' to the )roduction of

rst8rate $ors in the -iera- and mechanic arts(#

etc"

Chardin did not consider that Sadi and Loman

$ere Persians" &e did not reco--ect that Archi8

medes e-on*ed to Sici-'( $here the heat is *reater

than in three8fourths of Persia" &e for*ot that

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P'tha*oras former-' tau*ht *eometr' to the !rah8

mins" The Ae Duos su))orted and de%e-o)ed(

as $e-- as he $as a-e( the o)inion of Chardin"

One hundred and ft' 'ears efore them( !odin

made it the foundation of his s'stem in his #Re8

)u-ic(# and in his #3ethod of &istor'# G he asserts

that the inuence of c-imate is the )rinci)-e oth of

the *o%ernment and the re-i*ion of nations" Dio8

dorus of Sici-' $as of the same o)inion -on* efore

!odin"

 The author of the #S)irit of La$s(# $ithout

Huotin* an' authorit'( carried this idea farther than

Chardin and !odin" A certain )art of the nation

e-ie%ed him to ha%e rst su**ested it( and im)uted

it to him as a crime" This $as Huite in character

$ith that )art of the nation a--uded to" There are

e%er'$here men $ho )ossess more 4ea- than un8

derstandin*"

We mi*ht as those $ho maintain that c-imate

Dictionar'" ?<

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does e%er'thin*( $h' the Em)eror 1u-ian( in his

#3iso)o*on(# sa's that $hat )-eased him in the

Parisians $as the *ra%it' of their characters and

the se%erit' of their manners G and $h' these Paris8

ians( $ithout the s-i*htest chan*e of c-imate( are

tio$ -ie )-a'fu- chi-dren( at $hom the *o%ernment

)unishes and smi-es at the same moment( and $ho

themse-%es( the moment after( a-so smi-e and sin*

-am)oons u)on their masters"

Wh' are the E*')tians( $ho are descried as

ha%in* een sti-- more *ra%e than the Parisians( at

)resent the most -a4'( fri%o-ous( and co$ard-' of

)eo)-e( after ha%in*( as $e are to-d( conHuered the

$ho-e $or-d for their )-easure( under a in* ca--ed

SesostrisJ Wh' are there no -on*er Anacreons(

Aristot-es( or 9euBises at AthensJ Whence comes

it that Rome( instead of its Ciceros( Catos( and

Li%'s( has mere-' citi4ens $ho dare not s)ea their

minds( and a ruta-i4ed )o)u-ace( $hose su)reme

ha))iness consists in ha%in* oi- chea)( and in *a4in*

at )rocessions J

Cicero( in his -etters( is occasiona--' %er' Qocu-ar

on the En*-ish" &e desires his rother :uintus(

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Caesar5s -ieutenant( to inform him $hether he has

found an' *reat )hi-oso)hers amon* them( in his

eB)edition to !ritain" &e -itt-e sus)ected that that

countr' $ou-d one da' )roduce mathematicians

$hom he cou-d not understand" 6et the c-imate

has not at a-- chan*ed( and the s' of London is as

c-oud' no$ as it $as then"

?@ Phi-oso)hica-

E%er'thin* chan*es( oth in odies and minds(

' time" Perha)s the Americans $i-- in some

future )eriod cross the sea to instruct Euro)eans

in the arts" C-imate has some inuence( *o%ern8

ment a hundred times more G re-i*ion and *o%ern8

ment comined more sti--"

Inuence of C-imate"

C-imate inuences re-i*ion in res)ect to cere8

monies and usa*es" A -e*is-ator cou-d ha%e eB)eri8

enced no dicu-t' in inducin* the Indians to athe

in the an*es at certain a))earances of the moon G

it is a hi*h *ratication to them" &ad an' one

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)ro)osed a -ie ath to the )eo)-e $ho inhait the

ans of the D$ina( near Archan*e-( he $ou-d ha%e

een stoned" Forid )or to an Ara( $ho after

eatin* this s)ecies of anima- food the most misera8

-e and dis*ustin* in his o$n countr'U $ou-d e

aMected ' -e)ros'( he $i-- oe' 'ou $ith Qo'G )ro8

hiit it to a West)ha-ian( and he $i-- e tem)ted to

noc 'ou do$n" Astinence from $ine is a *ood

)rece)t of re-i*ion in Araia( $here oran*e( citron(

and -emon $aters are necessar' to hea-th" 3a8

homet $ou-d not ha%e foridden $ine in S$it4er8

-and( es)ecia--' efore *oin* to att-e"

 There are usa*es mere-' fancifu-" Wh' did the

)riests of E*')t de%ise circumcisionJ It $as not

for the sae of hea-th" Cam'ses( $ho treated as

the' deser%ed oth them and their u-- A)is( the

Dictionar'" "?

courtiers of Cam'ses( and his so-diers( enQo'ed )er8

fect-' *ood hea-th $ithout such muti-ation" C-imate

has no )ecu-iar inuence o%er this )articu-ar )ortion

of the )erson of a )riest" The oMerin* in Huestion

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$as made to Isis( )roa-' on the same )rinci)-e as

the rst-in*s of the fruits of the earth $ere e%er'8

$here oMered" It $as t')ica- of an oMerin* of the

rst fruits of -ife"

Re-i*ions ha%e a-$a's turned on t$o )i%ots

forms of ceremonies( and faith" Forms and cere8

monies de)end much on c-imateG faith not at a--"

A doctrine $i-- e recei%ed $ith eHua- faci-it' under

the eHuator or near the )o-e" It $i-- e after$ards

eHua--' reQected at !ata%ia and the Orcades( $hi-e

it $i-- e maintained( un*uius et rostro $ith tooth

and nai- at Sa-amanca" This de)ends not on sun

and atmos)here( ut so-e-' u)on o)inion( that c-e

em)ress of the $or-d"

Certain -iations of $ine $i-- e natura--' en8

 Qoined in a countr' aoundin* in %ine'ards G and it

$ou-d ne%er occur to the mind of an' -e*is-ator to

institute sacred m'steries( $hich cou-d not e ce-e8

rated $ithout $ine( in such a countr' as Nor$a'"

It $i-- e eB)ress-' commanded to urn incense

in the court of a tem)-e $here easts are i--ed in

honor of the Di%init'( and for the )riests5 su))er"

 This s-au*hter8house( ca--ed a tem)-e( $ou-d e a

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)-ace of aomina-e infection( if it $ere not con8

tinua--' )uried G and $ithout the use of aromatics(

o7 Phi-oso)hica-

the re-i*ion of the ancients $ou-d ha%e introduced

the )-a*ue" The interior of the tem)-e $as e%en

festooned $ith o$ers to s$eeten the air"

 The co$ $i-- not e sacriced in the urnin* ter8

ritor' of the Indian )eninsu-a( ecause it su))-ies

the necessar' artic-e of mi-( and is %er' rare in

arid and arren districts( and ecause its esh( ein*

dr' and tou*h( and 'ie-din* ut -itt-e nourishment(

$ou-d aMord the !rahmins ut misera-e cheer"

On the contrar'( the co$ $i-- e considered sacred(

in conseHuence of its rareness and uti-it'"

 The tem)-e of 1u)iter Ammon( $here the heat

is eBcessi%e( $i-- e entered on-' $ith are feet" To

)erform his de%otions at Co)enha*en( a man re8

Huires his feet to e $arm and $e-- co%ered"

It is not thus $ith doctrine" Po-'theism has

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een e-ie%ed in a-- c-imates G and it is eHua--' eas'

for a Crim Tartar and an inhaitant of 3ecca to

acno$-ed*e one on-' incommunica-e od( neither

e*otten nor e*ettin*" It is ' doctrine( more than

' rites( that a re-i*ion eBtends from one c-imate

to another" The doctrine of the unit' of od

)assed ra)id-' from 3edina to 3ount Caucasus"

C-imate( then( 'ie-ds to o)inion"

 The Aras said to the Turs 0 #We )racticed

the ceremon' of circumcision in Araia $ithout

%er' $e-- no$in* $h'" It $as an ancient usa*e

of the )riests of E*')t to oMer to Oshiret( or Osiris(

a sma-- )ortion of $hat the' considered most %a-u8

a-e" We had ado)ted this custom three thousand

Dictionar'" ?>

'ears efore $e ecame 3ahometans" 6ou $i-- e8

come circumcised -ie us G 'ou $i-- ind 'ourse-f to

s-ee) $ith one of 'our $i%es e%er' Frida'( and to

*i%e t$o and a ha-f )er cent( of 'our income an8

nua--' to the )oor" We drin nothin* ut $ater

and sheretG a-- intoBicatin* -iHuors are foridden

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us" In Araia the' are )ernicious" 6ou $i-- em8

race the same re*imen( a-thou*h 'ou shou-d e

)assionate-' fond of $ineG and e%en a-thou*h( on

the ans of the Phasis and AraBes( it shou-d often

e necessar' for 'ou" In short( if 'ou $ish to *o to

hea%en( and to otain *ood )-aces there( 'ou $i--

tae the road throu*h 3ecca"#

 The inhaitants north of the Caucasus suQect

themse-%es to these -a$s( and ado)t( in the fu--est

eBtent( a re-i*ion $hich $as ne%er framed for them"

In E*')t the em-ematica- $orshi) of anima-s

succeeded to the doctrines of Thaut" The *ods of

the Romans after$ards shared E*')t $ith the do*s(

the cats( and the crocodi-es" To the Roman re-i*ion

succeeded Christianit'G that $as com)-ete-' an8

ished ' 3ahometanism( $hich $i-- )erha)s e

su)erseded ' some ne$ re-i*ion"

In a-- these chan*es c-imate has eMected nothin* G

*o%ernment has done e%er'thin*" We are here

considerin* on-' second causes( $ithout raisin* our

unha--o$ed e'es to that Pro%idence $hich directs

them" The Christian re-i*ion( $hich recei%ed its

irth in S'ria( and *re$ u) to$ards its fu-ness of

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stature in A-eBandria( inhaits no$ those countries

Vo-" 8=

io Phi-oso)hica-

$here Teutat and Irminsu-( Fre'a and Odin( $ere

former-' adored"

 There are some nations $hose re-i*ion is not the

resu-t either of c-imate or of *o%ernment" What

cause detached the north of erman'( Denmar(

three )arts of S$it4er-and( &o--and( En*-and( Scot8

-and( and Ire-and( from the Romish communionJ

Po%ert'" Indu-*ences( and de-i%erance from )ur*a8

tor' for the sou-s of those $hose odies $ere at that

time in )ossession of %er' -itt-e mone'( $ere so-d

too dear" The )re-ates and mons asored the

$ho-e re%enue of a )ro%ince" Peo)-e ado)ted a

chea)er re-i*ion" In short( after numerous ci%i-

$ars( it $as conc-uded that the )o)e5s re-i*ion $as

a *ood one for no-es( and the reformed one for

citi4ens" Time $i-- sho$ $hether the re-i*ion of

the rees or of the Turs $i-- )re%ai- on the coasts

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of the EuBine and 8E*ean seas"

CO&ERENCE CO&ESION AD&ESION"

 T&E )o$er ' $hich the )arts of odies are e)t

to*ether" It is a )henomenon the most common(

ut the -east understood" Ne$ton derides the

hooed atoms( ' means of $hich it has een at8

tem)ted to eB)-ain coherenceG for it sti-- remained

to e no$n $h' the' are hooed( and $h' the'

cohere" &e treats $ith no *reater res)ect those

$ho ha%e eB)-ained cohesion ' rest" #It is(# sa's

he( #an occu-t Hua-it'"#

Dictionar'" ==

&e has recourse to an attraction" !ut is not

this attraction( $hich ma' indeed eBist( ut is '

no means ca)a-e of demonstration( itse-f an occu-t

Hua-it'J The *rand attraction of the hea%en-'

odies is demonstrated and ca-cu-ated" That of ad8

herin* odies is inca-cu-a-e" !ut ho$ can $e ad8

mit a force that is immeasura-e to e of the same

nature as one that can e measuredJ

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Ne%erthe-ess( it is demonstrated that the force of

attraction acts u)on a-- the )-anets and a-- hea%'

odies in )ro)ortion to their so-idit'G ut it acts

on a-- the )artic-es of matter G it is( therefore( %er'

)roa-e that( $hi-e it eBists in e%er' )art in refer8

ence to the $ho-e( it eBists a-so in e%er' )art in ref8

erence to cohesionG coherence( therefore( ma' e

the eMect of attraction"

 This o)inion a))ears admissi-e ti-- a etter one

can e found( and that etter is not easi-' to e met

$ith"

CO33ERCE"

SINCE the fa-- of Cartha*e( no )eo)-e had een

)o$erfu- in commerce and arms at the same time(

unti- Venice set the eBam)-e" The Portu*uese

ha%in* )assed the Ca)e of ood &o)e( $ere( for

some time( *reat -ords on the coast of India( and

e%en formida-e in Euro)e" The 2nited Pro%inces

ha%e on-' een $arriors in s)ite of themse-%es( and

it $as not as united et$een themse-%es( ut as

united $ith En*-and that the' assisted to ho-d the

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= Phi-oso)hica-

a-ance of Euro)e at the commencement of the

ei*hteenth centur'"

Cartha*e( Venice( and Amsterdam ha%e een

)o$erfu-G ut the' ha%e acted -ie those )eo)-e

amon* us( $ho( ha%in* amassed mone' ' trade(

u' -ord-' estates" Neither Cartha*e( Venice( &o-8

-and( nor an' )eo)-e( ha%e commenced ' ein* $ar8

riors( and e%en conHuerors( to nish ' ein* mer8

chants" The En*-ish on-' ans$er this descri)8

tionG the' had fou*ht a -on* time efore the'

ne$ ho$ to recon" The' did not no$( $hen

the' *ained the att-es of A*incourt( Crec'( and

Poitiers( that the' $ere a-e to dea- -ar*e-' in

corn( and mae roadc-oth( $hich $ou-d e of much

more %a-ue to them than such %ictories" The

no$-ed*e of these arts a-one has au*mented( en8

riched( and stren*thened the nation" It is on-' e8

cause the En*-ish ha%e ecome merchants that Lon8

don eBceeds Paris in eBtent and numer of citi4ens G

that the' can s)read t$o hundred shi)s of $ar o%er

the seas( and ee) ro'a- a--ies in )a'"

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When Louis ;IV" made Ita-' trem-e( and his

armies( a-read' masters of Sa%o' and Piedmont(

$ere read' to tae Turin( Prince Eu*ene $as

o-i*ed to march to the sirts of erman'( to the

succor of the due of Sa%o'" &a%in* no mone'(

$ithout $hich he cou-d neither tae nor defend

to$ns( he had recourse to the En*-ish merchants"

In ha-f an hour the' ad%anced him the sum of %e

mi--ions of -i%res( $ith $hich he de-i%ered Turin(

Dictionar'" =

eat the French( and $rote this -itt-e i--et to those

$ho had -ent it him 0 #ent-emen( I ha%e recei%ed

'our mone'( and I atter m'se-f that I ha%e em8

)-o'ed it to 'our satisfaction"# A-- this eBcites Qust

)ride in an En*-ish merchant( and maes him

%enture to com)are himse-f( and not $ithout reason(

to a Roman citi4en" Thus the 'oun*er sons of a

)eer of the rea-m disdain not to e merchants" Lord

 To$nsend( minister of state( had a rother $ho $as

contented $ith ein* a merchant in the cit'" At the

time that Lord Orford *o%erned En*-and( his

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'oun*er rother $as a factor at A-e))o( $hence he

$ou-d not return( and $here he died" This custom

$hich( ho$e%er( e*ins to dec-ine a))eared mon8

strous to the )ett' erman )rinces" The' cou-d

not concei%e ho$ the son of a )eer of En*-and $as

on-' a rich and )o$erfu- trader( $hi-e in erman'

the' are a-- )rinces" We ha%e seen near-' thirt'

hi*hnesses of the same name( ha%in* nothin* for

their fortunes ut o-d armories and aristocratica-

hauteur" In France( an'od' ma' e a marHuis

that -iesG and $hoe%er arri%es at Paris from a

remote )ro%ince( $ith mone' to s)end( and a name

endin* in ac or i--e( ma' sa'0 #A man -ie me#

#A man of m' Hua-it' # and so%erei*n-' des)ise a

merchantG $hi-e the merchant so often hears his

)rofession s)oen of $ith disdain that he is $ea

enou*h to -ush at it" Which is the more usefu- to

a state a $e--8)o$dered -ord( $ho no$s )recise-'

at $hat hour the in* rises and retires( and $ho

= Phi-oso)hica-

*i%es himse-f airs of *reatness( $hi-e )-a'in* the

)art of a s-a%e in the antechamer of a minister G or

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a merchant $ho enriches his countr'( sends orders

from his oce to Surat and A-e))o( and contriutes

to the ha))iness of the $or-d J

CO33ON SENSE"

 T&ERE is sometimes in %u-*ar eB)ressions an

ima*e of $hat )asses in the heart of a-- men"

#Sensus communis# si*nied amon* the Romans

not on-' common sense( ut a-so humanit' and sensi8

i-it'" As $e are not eHua- to the Romans( this

$ord $ith us con%e's not ha-f $hat it did $ith

them" It si*nies on-' *ood sense )-ain( strai*ht8

for$ard reasonin* the rst notion of ordinar'

thin*s a medium et$een du-ness and inte--ect"

 To sa'( #that man has not common sense(# is a *ross

insu-t G $hi-e the eB)ression( #that man has common

sense(# is an aMront a-soG it $ou-d im)-' that he

$as not Huite stu)id( ut that he $anted inte--ect"

!ut $hat is the meanin* of common sense( if it e

not senseJ 3en( $hen the' in%ented this term(

su))osed that nothin* entered the mind eBce)t

' the senses G other$ise $ou-d the' ha%e used the

$ord #sense# to si*nif' the resu-t of the common

facu-t' of reason J

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It is said( sometimes( that common sense is %er'

rare" What does this eB)ression meanJ That( in

man' men( da$nin* reason is arrested in its )ro*8

ress ' some )reQudices G that a man $ho Qud*es

Dictionar'" =<

reasona-' on one aMair $i-- decei%e himse-f *ross-'

in another" The Ara( $ho( esides ein* a *ood

ca-cu-ator( $as a -earned chemist and an eBact as8

tronomer( ne%erthe-ess e-ie%ed that 3ahomet )ut

ha-f of the moon into his s-ee%e"

&o$ is it that he $as so much ao%e common

sense in the three sciences ao%e mentioned( and

eneath it $hen he )roceeded to the suQect of ha-f

the moonJ It is ecause( in the rst case( he had

seen $ith his o$n e'es( and )erfected his o$n in8

te--i*ence G and( in the second( he had used the e'es

of others( ' shuttin* his o$n( and )er%ertin* the

common sense $ithin him"

&o$ cou-d this stran*e )er%ersion of mind

o)erateJ &o$ cou-d the ideas $hich had so re*u8

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-ar and rm a footin* in his rain( on man' su8

 Qects( ha-t on another a thousand times more )a-)a8

-e and eas' to com)rehend J This man had a-$a's

the same )rinci)-es of inte--i*ence in him G he must

ha%e therefore )ossessed a %itiated or*an( as it some8

times ha))ens that the most de-icate e)icure has a

de)ra%ed taste in re*ard to a )articu-ar ind of

nourishment"

&o$ did the or*an of this Ara( $ho sa$ ha-f

of the moon in 3ahomet5s s-ee%e( ecome dis8

ordered J !' fear" It had een to-d him that if he

did not e-ie%e in this s-ee%e his sou-( immediate-'

5after his death( in )assin* o%er the narro$ rid*e(

$ou-d fa-- fore%er into the a'ss" &e $as to-d much

$orse if e%er 'ou dout this s-ee%e( one der%ish

i @ Phi-oso)hica-

$i-- treat 'ou $ith i*nomin' G another $i-- )ro%e 'ou

mad( ecause( ha%in* a-- )ossi-e moti%es for credi8

i-it'( 'ou $i-- not sumit 'our su)er reason to

e%idence G a third $i-- refer 'ou to the -itt-e di%an of

a sma-- )ro%ince( and 'ou $i-- e -e*a--' im)a-ed"

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A-- this )roduces a )anic in the *ood Ara( his

$ife( sister( and a-- his -itt-e fami-'" The' )os8

sess *ood sense in a-- the rest( ut on this artic-e

their ima*ination is diseased -ie that of Pasca-(

$ho continua--' sa$ a )reci)ice near his couch"

!ut did our Ara rea--' e-ie%e in the s-ee%e of

3ahomet J No G he endea%ored to e-ie%e it G he

said( #It is im)ossi-e( ut true I e-ie%e that $hich5

I do not credit"# &e formed a chaos of ideas in his

head in re*ard to this s-ee%e( $hich he feared to dis8

entan*-e( and he *a%e u) his common sense"

CONFESSION"

REPENTANCE for one5s fau-ts is the on-' thin*

that can re)air the -oss of innocence G and to a))ear

to re)ent of them( $e must e*in ' acno$-ed*in*

them" Confession( therefore( is a-most as ancient as

ci%i- societ'" Confession $as )ractised in a-- the

m'steries of E*')t( reece( and Samothrace" We

are to-d( in the -ife of 3arcus Aure-ius( that $hen

he dei*ned to )artici)ate in the E-eusinian m's8

teries( he confessed himse-f to the hiero)hant(

thou*h no man had -ess need of confession than

himse-f"

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 This mi*ht e a %er' sa-utar' ceremon'G it

Dictionar'" =

mi*ht a-so ecome %er' detrimenta- G for such is the

case $ith a-- human institutions" We no$ the

ans$er of the S)artan $hom a hiero)hant $ou-d

ha%e )ersuaded to confess himse-f0 #To $hom

shou-d I acno$-ed*e m' fau-tsJ to od( or to

theeJ# #To od(# said the )riest" #Retire( then(

O man"#

It is hard to determine at $hat time this )ractice

$as esta-ished amon* the 1e$s( $ho orro$ed a

*reat man' of their rites from their nei*hors" The

3ishna( $hich is the co--ection of the 1e$ish -a$s(

sa's that often( in confessin*( the' )-aced their hand

u)on a ca-f e-on*in* to the )riestG and this $as

ca--ed #the confession of ca-%es"#

It is said( in the same 3ishna( that e%er' cu-)rit

under sentence of death( $ent and confessed himse-f

efore $itnesses( in some retired s)ot( a short time

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efore his eBecution" If he fe-t himse-f *ui-t' he

said( #3a' m' death atone for a-- m' sins # If in8

nocent( he said( #3a' m' death atone for a-- m'

sins( eBce)tin* that of $hich I am no$ accused"#

On the da' of the feast $hich $as ca--ed ' the

 1e$s the so-emn atonement( the de%out amon* them

confessed to one another( s)ecif'in* their sins" The

confessor re)eated three times thirteen $ords of the

se%ent'8se%enth Psa-m( at the same time *i%in* the

confessed thirt'8nine stri)es( $hich the -atter re8

turned( and the' $ent a$a' Huits" It is said that

this ceremon' is sti-- in use"

St" 1ohn5s re)utation for sanctit' rou*ht cro$ds

= 7 Phi-oso)hica-

to confess to him( as the' came to e a)ti4ed '

him $ith the a)tism of QusticeG ut $e are not

informed that St" 1ohn *a%e his )enitents thirt'8

nine stri)es" Confession $as not then a sacrament G

for this there are se%era- reasons" The rst is( that

the $ord #sacrament# $as at that time unno$n(

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$hich reason is of itse-f sucient" The Christians

too their confession from the 1e$ish rites( and not

from the m'steries of Isis and Ceres" The 1e$s

confessed to their associates( and the Christians did

a-so" It after$ards a))eared more con%enient that

this shou-d e the )ri%i-e*e of the )riests" No rite(

no ceremon'( can e esta-ished ut in )rocess of

time" It $as hard-' )ossi-e that some trace shou-d

not remain of the ancient usa*e of the -ait' of con8

fessin* to one another"

In Constantine5s rei*n( it $as at rst the )ractice

)u-ic-' to confess )u-ic oMences" In the fth cen8

tur'( after the schism of No%atus and No%atian(

)enitentiaries $ere instituted for the aso-ution of

such as had fa--en into ido-atr'" This confession to

)enitentiar' )riests $as ao-ished under the Em8

)eror Theodosius" A $oman ha%in* accused herse-f

a-oud( to the )enitentiar' of Constantino)-e( of

-'in* $ith the deacon( caused so much scanda- and

disturance throu*hout the cit' that Nectarius )er8

mitted a-- the faithfu- to a))roach the ho-' ta-e

$ithout confession( and to communicate in oedi8

ence to their consciences a-one" &ence these $ords

of St" 1ohn Chr'sostom( $ho succeeded Nectarius 0

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Dictionar'" =>

#Confess 'ourse-%es continua--' to odG I do not

rin* 'ou for$ard on a sta*e to disco%er 'our fau-ts

to 'our fe--o$8ser%ants G sho$ 'our $ounds to od(

and as of &im their cure G acno$-ed*e 'our sins

to &im $ho $i-- not re)roach 'ou efore menG it

$ere %ain to stri%e to hide them from &im $ho

no$s a-- thin*s(# etc"

It is said that the )ractice of auricu-ar confession

did not e*in in the $est unti- aout the se%enth

centur'( $hen it $as instituted ' the aots( $ho

reHuired their mons to come and acno$-ed*e their

oMences to them t$ice a 'ear" These aots it $as

$ho in%ented the formu-a0 #I aso-%e thee to the

utmost of m' )o$er and th' need"# It $ou-d sure-'

ha%e een more res)ectfu- to$ards the Su)reme

!ein*( as $e-- as more Qust( to sa' 0 #3a' &e for8

*i%e oth th' fau-ts and mine #

 The *ood $hich confession has done is that it

has sometimes )rocured restitution from )ett'

thie%es" The i-- is( that( in the interna- trou-es of

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states( it has sometimes forced the )enitents to e

conscientious-' ree--ious and -ood8thirst'" The

ue-)h )riests refused aso-ution to the hie--ines(

and the hie--ines to the ue-)hs"

 The counse--or of state( Lenet( re-ates( in his

#3emoirs(# that a-- he cou-d do in !ur*und' to

mae the )eo)-e rise in fa%or of the Prince Conde(

detained at Vincennes ' Cardina- 3a4arin( $as

#to -et -oose the )riests in the confessiona-s#

s)eain* of them as -oodhounds( $ho $ere to fan

==? Phi-oso)hica-

the ame of ci%i- $ar in the )ri%ac' of the confes8

siona-"

At the sie*e of !arce-ona( the mons refused a8

so-ution to a-- $ho remained faithfu- to Phi-i) V"

In the -ast re%o-ution of enoa( it $as intimated to

a-- consciences that there $as no sa-%ation for $ho8

soe%er shou-d not tae u) arms a*ainst the Aus8

trians" This sa-utar' remed' has( in e%er' a*e(

een con%erted into a )oison" Whether a Sfor4a( a

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3edici( a Prince of Oran*e( or a Kin* of France

$as to e assassinated( the )arricide a-$a's )re8

)ared himse-f ' the sacrament of confession" Louis

;L( and the 3archioness de !rin%i--iers a-$a's

confessed as soon as the' had committed an' *reat

crimeG and the' confessed often( as *-uttons tae

medicines to increase their a))etite"

 The Disc-osure of Confessions"

 1auri*ini and !a-tha4ar erard( the assassins of

Wi--iam L( Prince of Oran*e( the dominican 1acHues

C-ement( 1ean Chate-( the Feui--ant Ra%ai--ac( and

a-- the other )arricides of that da'( confessed them8

se-%es efore committin* their crimes" Fanaticism(

in those de)-ora-e a*es( had arri%ed at such a )itch

that confession $as ut an additiona- )-ed*e for

the consummation of %i--ain'" It ecame sacred for

this reason that confession is a sacrament"

Strada himse-f sa's 0 #1auri*ni non ante f acinus

a**redi sustinuit( Huam eB)iatam noBis animam

a)ud Dominicanum sacerdotem cce-esti )ane rma8

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Dictionar'" =

uerit"# #1 au ri*im did not %enture u)on this act unti-

he had )ur*ed his sou- ' confession at the feet of

a Dominican( and fortied it ' the ce-estia- read"#

We nd( in the interro*ator' of Ra%ai--ac( that

the $retched man( Huittin* the Feui--ans( and $ish8

in* to e recei%ed amon* the 1esuits( a))-ied to the

 1esuit d5Aui*n' and( after s)eain* of se%era- a)8

)aritions that he had seen( sho$ed him a nife( on

the -ade of $hich $as en*ra%ed a heart and a cross(

and said( #This heart indicates that the in*5s heart

must e rou*ht to mae $ar on the &u*uenots"#

Perha)s( if this d5Aui*n' had een 4ea-ous and

)rudent enou*h to ha%e informed the in* of these

$ords( and *i%en him a faithfu- )icture of the man

$ho had uttered them( the est of in*s $ou-d not

ha%e een assassinated"

On Au*ust ?( =@=?( three months after the death

of &enr' IV"( $hose $ounds 'et -eed in the heart

of e%er' Frenchman( the Ad%ocate8enera- Sir%in(

sti-- of i--ustrious memor'( reHuired that the 1esuits

shou-d e made to si*n the four fo--o$in* ru-es 0

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i" That the counci- is ao%e the )o)e" " That

the )o)e cannot de)ri%e the in* of an' of his ri*hts

' eBcommunication" " That ecc-esiastics( -ie

other )ersons( are entire-' suQect to the in*" "

 That a )riest $ho is made acHuainted( ' confession(

$ith a cons)irac' a*ainst the in* and the state(

must disc-ose it to the ma*istrates"

On the nd( the )ar-iament )assed a decree( '

$hich it forade the 1esuits to instruct 'outh efore

Phi-oso)hica-

the' had si*ned these four artic-es G ut the court of

Rome $as then so )o$erfu-( and that of France so

fee-e( that this decree $as of no eMect" A fact

$orth' of attention is( that this same court of Rome(

$hich did not choose that confession shou-d e dis8

c-osed $hen the -i%es of so%erei*ns $ere endan8

*ered( o-i*ed its confessors to denounce to the in8

Huisitors those $hom their fema-e )enitents accused

in confession of ha%in* seduced and aused them"

Pau- IV"( Pius IV"( C-ement VIII"( and re*or'

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;V"( ordered these disc-osures to e made"

 This $as a %er' emarrassin* snare for con8

fessors and fema-e )enitentsG it $as main* the

sacrament a re*ister of informations( and e%en of

sacri-e*es" For( ' the ancient canons( and es8

)ecia--' ' the Lateran Counci- under Innocent III"(

e%er' )riest that disc-osed a confession( of $hate%er

nature( $as to e interdicted and condemned to )er8

)etua- im)risonment"

!ut this is not the $orst G here are four )o)es( of

the siBteenth and se%enteenth centuries( orderin* the

disc-osure of a sin of im)urit'( ut not )ermittin*

that of a )arricide" A $oman( in the sacrament( de8

c-ares( or )retends( efore a carme-ite( that a cor8

de-ier has seduced her G and the carme-ite must de8

nounce the corde-ier" A fanatica- assassin( thinin*

that he ser%es od ' i--in* his )rince( comes and

consu-ts a confessor on this case of conscience G and

the confessor commits a sacri-e*e if he sa%es his

so%erei*n5s -ife(

Dictionar'"

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 This asurd and horri-e contradiction is one un8

fortunate conseHuence of the constant o))osition

eBistin* for so man' centuries et$een the ci%i- and

ecc-esiastica- -a$s" The citi4en nds himse-f( on

ft' occasions( )-aced $ithout a-ternati%e et$een

sacri-e*e and hi*h treasonG the ru-es of *ood and

e%i- ein* not 'et dra$n from eneath the chaos

under $hich the' ha%e so -on* een uried" The

 1esuit Coton5s re)-' to &enr' IV" $i-- endure -on*er

than his order" Wou-d 'ou re%ea- the confession of

a man $ho had reso-%ed to assassinate me J# #No G

ut I $ou-d thro$ m'se-f et$een him and 'ou"#

Father Coton5s maBim has not a-$a's een fo-8

-o$ed" In some countries there are state m'steries

unno$n to the )u-ic( of $hich re%ea-ed confes8

sions form no inconsidera-e )art" !' means of

suorned confessors the secrets of )risoners are

-earned" Some confessors( to reconci-e their con8

science $ith their interest( mae use of a sin*u-ar

artice" The' *i%e an account( not )recise-' of $hat

the )risoner has to-d them( ut of $hat he has not

to-d them" If( for eBam)-e( the' are em)-o'ed to

nd out $hether an accused )erson has for his ac8

com)-ice a Frenchman or an Ita-ian( the' sa' to the

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man $ho em)-o's them( #the )risoner has s$orn to

me that no Ita-ian $as informed of his desi*nsG#

$hence it is conc-uded that the sus)ected French8

man is *ui-t'"

!odin thus eB)resses himse-f( in his oo( #De

-a Re)u-iHue# 0 #Nor must it e concea-ed( if the

Phi-oso)hica-

cu-)rit is disco%ered to ha%e cons)ired a*ainst the

-ife of the so%erei*n( or e%en to ha%e $i--ed it on-' G

as in the case of a *ent-eman of Normand'( $ho

confessed to a mon that he had a mind to i--

Francis I" The mon a))rised the in*( $ho sent

the *ent-eman to the court of )ar-iament( $here he

$as condemned to death( as I -earned from 3"

Cana*e( an ad%ocate in )ar-iament"#

 The $riter of this artic-e $as himse-f a-most $it8

ness to a disc-osure sti-- more im)ortant and sin*u8

-ar" It is no$n ho$ the 1esuit Dauenton etra'ed

Phi-i) V"( in* of S)ain( to $hom he $as confessor"

&e thou*ht( from a %er' mistaen )o-ic'( that he

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shou-d re)ort the secrets of his )enitent to the due

of Or-eans( re*ent of the in*dom( and had the

im)rudence to $rite to him $hat he shou-d not(

e%en %era--'( communicate to an' one" The due

of Or-eans sent his -etter to the in* of S)ain" The

 1esuit $as discarded( and died a short time after"

 This is an authenticated fact"

It is sti-- a *ra%e and )er)-eBin* Huestion( in

$hat cases confessions shou-d e disc-osed" For(

if $e decide that it shou-d e in cases of human

hi*h treason( this treason ma' e made to inc-ude

an' direct oMence a*ainst maQest'( e%en the smu*8

*-in* of sa-t or mus-ins" 3uch more shou-d hi*h

treasons a*ainst the Di%ine 3aQest' e disc-osedG

and these ma' e eBtended to the sma--est fau-ts( as

ha%in* missed e%enin* ser%ice"

It $ou-d( then( e %er' im)ortant to come to

Dictionar'" <

a )erfect understandin* aout $hat confessions

shou-d e disc-osed( and $hat shou-d e e)t secret"

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 6et $ou-d such a decision e %er' dan*erousG for

ho$ man' thin*s are there $hich must not e in8

%esti*ated

Pontas( $ho( in three fo-io %o-umes( decides on

a-- the )ossi-e cases of conscience in France( and

is unno$n to the rest of the $or-d( sa's that on

no occasion shou-d confession e disc-osed" The )ar8

-iaments ha%e decided the contrar'" Which are

$e to e-ie%eJ Pontas( or the *uardians of the

-a$s of the rea-m( $ho $atch o%er the -i%es of

)rinces and the safet' of the state J

Whether La'men and Women &a%e !een Con8

fessorsJ =

As( in the o-d -a$( the -ait' confessed to one

another G so( in the ne$ -a$( the' -on* had the same

)ri%i-e*e ' custom" In )roof of this( -et it suce to

cite the ce-erated 1oin%i--e( $ho eB)ress-' sa's that

#the consta-e of C')rus confessed himse-f to him(

and he *a%e him aso-ution( accordin* to the ri*ht

$hich he had so to do"# St" Thomas( in his dream(

eB)resses himse-f thus0 #Confessio eB defectu sa8

cerdotis -aico facta( sacramenta-is est Huodam

modo(# #Confession made to a -a'man( in defau-t

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of a )riest( is in some sort sacramenta-"#

We nd in the -ife of St" !ur*undosarius( and in

the ru-e of an unno$n saint( that the nuns con8

fessed their %er' *rossest sins to their aess" The

Vo-" =<

@ Phi-oso)hica-

ru-e of St" Donatus ordains that the nuns sha-- dis8

co%er their fau-ts to their su)erior three times a da'"

 The ca)itu-ars of our in*s sa' that aesses must

e foridden the eBercise of the ri*ht $hich the'

ha%e arro*ated a*ainst the custom of the ho-'

church( of *i%in* enediction and im)osin* hands(

$hich seems to si*nif' the )ronouncin* of aso-u8

tion( and su))oses the confession of sins" 3arcus(

)atriarch of A-eBandria( ass !a-4amon( a ce-e8

rated canonist of his time( $hether )ermission

shou-d e *ranted to aesses to hear confessions(

to $hich !a-4amon ans$ers in the ne*ati%e" We

ha%e( in the canon -a$( a decree of Po)e Innocent

III"( enQoinin* the isho)s of Va-encia and !ur*os(

in S)ain( to )re%ent certain aesses from -essin*

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their nuns( from confessin*( and from )u-ic )reach8

in*0 #A-thou*h(# sa's he( #the -essed Vir*in

3ar' $as su)erior to a-- the a)ost-es in di*nit'

and in merit( 'et it is not to her( ut to the a)ost-es(

that the Lord has conded the e's of the in*dom

of hea%en"#

So ancient $as this ri*ht( that $e nd it esta8

-ished in the ru-es of St" !asi-" &e )ermits aesses

to confess their nuns( conQoint-' $ith a )riest"

Father 3artene( in his #Ri*hts of the Church(#

sa's that( for a -on* time( aesses confessed their

nuns G ut( adds he( the' $ere so curious( that it

$as found necessar' to de)ri%e them of this

)ri%i-e*e"

 The eB81esuit Nonnotte shou-d confess himse-f

Dictionar'"

and do )enanceG not for ha%in* een one of the

most i*norant of dauers on )a)er( for that is no

crime G not for ha%in* *i%en the name of errors to

truths $hich he did not understand G ut for ha%in*(

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$ith the most inso-ent stu)idit'( ca-umniated the

author of this artic-e( and ca--ed his rother raca

a foH-U( $hi-e he denied these facts and man'

others( aout $hich he ne$ not one $ord" &e has

)ut himse-f in dan*er of he-- reG -et us ho)e that

he $i-- as )ardon of od for his enormous fo--'"

We desire not the death of a sinner( ut that he

turn from his $icedness and -i%e"

It has -on* een deated $h' men( %er' famous

in this )art of the $or-d $here confession is in use(

ha%e died $ithout this sacrament" Such are Leo

;"( Pe-isson( and Cardina- Duois" The cardina-

had his )erineum o)ened ' La Pe'ronie5s istour' G

ut he mi*ht ha%e confessed and communicated e8

fore the o)eration" Pe-isson( $ho $as a Protestant

unti- he $as fort' 'ears o-d( ecame a con%ert that

he mi*ht e made master of reHuests and ha%e

eneces" As for Po)e Leo ;"( $hen sur)rised '

death( he $as so much occu)ied $ith tem)ora- con8

cerns( that he had no time to thin of s)iritua- ones"

Confession Ticets"

In Protestant countries confession is made to

od G in Catho-ic ones( to man" The Protestants sa'

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'ou can hide nothin* from od( $hereas man no$s

on-' $hat 'ou choose to te-- him" As $e sha--

7 Phi-oso)hica-

ne%er medd-e $ith contro%ers'( $e sha-- not enter

here into this o-d dis)ute" Our -iterar' societ' is

com)osed of Catho-ics and Protestants( united '

the -o%e of -etters G $e must not suMer ecc-esiastica-

Huarre-s to so$ dissension amon* us" We $i-- con8

tent ourse-%es $ith once more re)eatin* the ne

ans$er of the ree a-read' mentioned( to the )riest

$ho $ou-d ha%e had him confess in the m'steries

of Ceres 0 #Is it to od( or to thee( that I am to ad8

dress m'se-f J# #To od"# #De)art then( O man"#

In Ita-'( and in a-- the countries of oedience(

e%er' one( $ithout distinction( must confess and

communicate" If 'ou ha%e a stoc of enormous

sins on hand( 'ou ha%e a-so *rand )enitentiaries to

aso-%e 'ou" If 'our confession is $orth nothin*(

so much the $orse for 'ou" At a %er' reasona-e

rate( 'ou *et a )rinted recei)t( $hich admits 'ou to

communionG and a-- the recei)ts are thro$n into a

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)iB G such is the ru-e"

 These earers5 ticets $ere unno$n at Paris

unti- aout the 'ear =<?( $hen an archisho) of

Paris ethou*ht himse-f of introducin* a sort of

s)iritua- an( to eBtir)ate 1ansenism and insure the

trium)h of the u-- 2ni*enitus" It $as his )-easure

that eBtreme unction and the %iaticum shou-d e

refused to e%er' sic )erson $ho did not )roduce a

ticet of confession( si*ned ' a constitutionar'

)riest"

 This $as refusin* the sacrament to nine8tenths

of Paris" In %ain $as he to-d0 #Thin $hat 'ou

Dictionar'" >

are doin* G either these sacraments are necessar'( to

esca)e damnation( or sa-%ation ma' e otained

$ithout them ' faith( ho)e( charit'( *ood $ors(

and the merits of our Sa%iour" If sa-%ation e at8

taina-e $ithout this %iaticum( 'our ticets are use8

-ess G if the sacraments e aso-ute-' necessar'( 'ou

damn a-- $hom 'ou de)ri%e of themG 'ou consi*n

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to eterna- re se%en hundred thousand sou-s( su))os8

in* 'ou -i%e -on* enou*h to ur' them G this is %io8

-ent G ca-m 'ourse-f( and -et each one die as $e-- as

he can"#

In this di-emma he *a%e no ans$er( ut )ersisted"

It is horri-e to con%ert re-i*ion( $hich shou-d e

man5s conso-ation( into his torment" The )ar-ia8

ment( in $hose hands is the hi*h )o-ice( ndin* that

societ' $as distured( o))osed accordin* to cus8

tom decrees to mandaments" !ut ecc-esiastica-

disci)-ine $ou-d not 'ie-d to -e*a- authorit'" The

ma*istrac' $as under the necessit' of usin* force(

and to send archers to otain for the Parisians con8

fession( communion( and interment"

!' this eBcess of asurdit'( men5s minds $ere

soured and caa-s $ere formed at court( as if there

had een a farmer8*enera- to e a))ointed( or a

minister to e dis*raced" In the discussion of a

Huestion there are a-$a's incidents miBed u) that

ha%e no radica- connection $ith itG and in this case

so much so( that a-- the memers of the )ar-iament

$ere eBi-ed( as $as a-so the archisho) in his turn"

 These confession ticets $ou-d( in the times )re8

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? Phi-oso)hica-

cedin*( ha%e caused a ci%i- $ar( ut ha))i-'( in our

da's( the' )roduced on-' ci%i- ca%i-s" The s)irit of

)hi-oso)h'( $hich is no other than reason( has e8

come( $ith a-- honest men( the on-' antidote a*ainst

these e)idemic disorders"

CONFISCATION"

IT is $e-- oser%ed( in the #Dictionnaire Enc'c-o8

)ediHue# in the artic-e #Conscation(# that the sc(

$hether )u-ic( or ro'a-( or sei*noria-( or im)eria-(

or dis-o'a-( $as a sma-- aset of reeds or osiers( in

$hich $as )ut the -itt-e mone' that $as recei%ed or

cou-d e eBtorted" We no$ use a*s G the ro'a- sc

is the ro'a- a*"

In se%era- countries of Euro)e it is a recei%ed

maBim( that $hosoe%er conscates the od'( con8

scates the *oods a-so" This usa*e is esta-ished

in those countries in )articu-ar $here custom ho-ds

the )-ace of -a$G and in a-- cases( an entire fami-'

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is )unished for the fau-t of one man on-'"

 To conscate the od'( is not to )ut a man5s od'

into his so%erei*n -ord5s aset" This )hrase( in the

ararous -an*ua*e of the ar( means to *et )osses8

sion of the od' of a citi4en( in order either to tae

a$a' his -ife( or to condemn him to anishment for

-ife" If he is )ut to death( or esca)es death '

i*ht( his *oods are sei4ed" Thus it is not enou*h

to )ut a man to death for his oMences G his chi-dren(

too( must e de)ri%ed of the means of -i%in*"

Dictionar'" =

In more countries than one( the ri*or of custom

conscates the )ro)ert' of a man $ho has %o-untar8

i-' re-eased himse-f from the miseries of this -ife(

and his chi-dren are reduced to e**ar' ecause

their father is dead" In some Roman Catho-ic )ro%8

inces( the head of a fami-' is condemned to the

*a--e's for -ife( ' an aritrar' sentence( for ha%in*

harored a )reacher in his house( or for ha%in*

heard one of his sermons in some ca%ern or desert

)-ace( and his $ife and fami-' are forced to e*

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their read"

 This Quris)rudence( $hich consists in de)ri%in*

or)hans of their food( $as unno$n to the Roman

common$ea-th" Su--a introduced it in his )roscri)8

tions( and it must e acno$-ed*ed that a ra)ine

in%ented ' Su--a $as not an eBam)-e to e fo-8

-o$ed" Nor $as this -a$( $hich seems to ha%e een

dictated ' inhumanit' and a%arice a-one( fo--o$ed

either ' Caesar( or ' the *ood Em)eror TraQan(

or ' the Antonines( $hose names are sti-- )ro8

nounced in e%er' nation $ith -o%e and re%erence"

E%en under 1ustinian( conscations too )-ace on-'

in cases of hi*h treason" Those $ho $ere accused

ha%in* een( for the most )art( men of *reat )os8

sessions( it seems that 1ustinian made this ordi8

nance throu*h a%arice a-one" It a-so a))ears that(

in the times of feuda- anarch'( the )rinces and -ords

of -ands( ein* not %er' rich( sou*ht to increase

their treasure ' the condemnation of their suQects"

 The' $ere a--o$ed to dra$ a re%enue from crime"

Phi-oso)hica-

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 Their -a$s ein* aritrar'( and the Roman Quris8

)rudence unno$n amon* them( their customs(

$hether $himsica- or crue-( )re%ai-ed" !ut no$

that the )o$er of so%erei*ns is founded on immense

and assured $ea-th( their treasure needs no -on*er

to e s$o--en ' the s-ender $rec of the fortunes

of some unha))' fami-'" It is true that the *oods

so a))ro)riated are aandoned to the rst $ho ass

for them" !ut is it for one citi4en to fatten on the

remains of the -ood of another citi4en J

Conscation is not admitted in countries $here

the Roman -a$ is esta-ished( eBce)t $ithin the

 Qurisdiction of the )ar-iament of Tou-ouse" It $as

former-' esta-ished at Ca-ais( $here it $as ao-8

ished ' the En*-ish $hen the' $ere masters of that

)-ace" It a))ears %er' stran*e that the inhaitants

of the ca)ita- -i%e under a more ri*orous -a$ than

those of the sma--er to$nsG so true is it( that Quris8

)rudence has often een esta-ished ' chance( $ith8

out re*u-arit'( $ithout uniformit'( as the huts are

ui-t in a %i--a*e"

 The fo--o$in* $as s)oen ' Ad%ocate8enera-

Omer Ta-on( in fu-- )ar-iament( at the most *-orious

)eriod in the anna-s of France( in =@( concernin*

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the )ro)ert' of one 3ademoise--e de Cani--ac( $hich

had een conscated" Reader( attend to this s)eech G

it is not in the st'-e of Cicero5s orator'( ut it is

curious 0

#In the thirteenth cha)ter of Deuteronom'( od

sa's( 5If thou sha-t nd a cit' $here ido-atr' )re8

Dictionar'"

%ai-s( thou sha-t sure-' smite the inhaitants of that

cit' $ith the ed*e of the s$ord( destro'in* it utter-'(

and a-- that is therein" And thou sha-t *ather a--

the s)oi- of it into the midst of the street thereof(

and sha-t urn $ith re the cit' and a-- the s)oi-

thereof( e%er' $hit( for the Lord th' od"5

#So( in the crime of hi*h treason( the in* sei4ed

the )ro)ert'( and the chi-dren $ere de)ri%ed of it"

Naoth ha%in* een )roceeded a*ainst( 5Huia ma-e8

diBerat re*i5 Kin* Aha too )ossession of his

inheritance" Da%id( ein* a))rised that 3e)hio8

sheth had taen )art in the ree--ion( *a%e a-- his

*oods to Shea( $ho rou*ht him the ne$s 5Tii

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sunt omnia Hua fuerunt 3e)hiosheth"5 #

 The Huestion here $as( $ho shou-d inherit the

)ro)ert' of 3ademoise--e de Cani--ac )ro)ert' for8

mer-' conscated from her father( aandoned ' the

in* to a ee)er of the ro'a- treasure( and after8

$ards *i%en ' this ee)er of the ro'a- treasure to

the testatriB" And in this case of a $oman of Au8

%er*ne a -a$'er refers us to that of Aha( one of the

)ett' in*s of a )art of Pa-estine( $ho conscated

Naoth5s %ine'ard( after assassinatin* its )ro8

)rietor $ith the )oniard of 1e$ish Qustice an aom8

ina-e act( $hich has ecome a )ro%er to ins)ire

men $ith a horror for usur)ation" Assured-'(

Naoth5s %ine'ard has no connection $ith 3ade8

moise--e de Cani--ac5s inheritance" Nor do the mur8

der and conscation of the *oods of 3e)hiosheth(

*randson of Kin* Sau-( and son of Da%id5s friend

Phi-oso)hica-

 1onathan( ear a much *reater anit' to this -ad'5s

$i--"

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With this )edantr'( this ra*e for citations for8

ei*n to the suQect G $ith this i*norance of the rst

)rinci)-es of human nature G $ith these i--8concei%ed

and i--8ada)ted )reQudices( has Quris)rudence een

treated on ' men $ho( in their s)here( ha%e had

some re)utation"

CONSCIENCE"

SECTION I"

Of the Conscience of ood and of E%i-"

LOCKE has demonstrated if $e ma' use that

term in mora-s and meta)h'sics that $e ha%e no

innate ideas or )rinci)-es" &e $as o-i*ed to dem8

onstrate this )osition at *reat -en*th( as the con8

trar' $as at that time uni%ersa--' e-ie%ed" It

hence c-ear-' fo--o$s that it is necessar' to insti-

 Qust ideas and *ood )rinci)-es into the mind as soon

as it acHuires the use of its facu-ties"

Loce adduces the eBam)-e of sa%a*es( $ho i--

and de%our their nei*hors $ithout an' remorse of

conscience G and of Christian so-diers( decent-' edu8

cated( $ho( on the tain* of a cit' ' assau-t(

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)-under( s-a'( and %io-ate( not mere-' $ithout re8

morse( ut $ith ra)ture( honor( and *-or'( and $ith

the a))-ause of a-- their comrades"

It is )erfect-' certain that( in the massacres of St"

!artho-ome$( and in the #autos8da8fe# the ho-' acts

Dictionar'" <

of faith of the InHuisition( no murderer5s conscience

e%er u)raided him $ith ha%in* massacred men(

$omen( and chi-dren( or $ith the shries( faintin*s(

and d'in* tortures of his misera-e %ictims( $hose

on-' crime consisted in ee)in* Easter in a man8

ner diMerent from that of the inHuisitors" It resu-ts(

therefore( from $hat has een stated( that $e ha%e

no other conscience than $hat is created in us '

the s)irit of the a*e( ' eBam)-e( and ' our o$n

dis)ositions and reections"

3an is orn $ithout )rinci)-es( ut $ith the fac8

u-t' of recei%in* them" &is natura- dis)osition $i--

inc-ine him either to crue-t' or indness G his under8

standin* $i-- in time inform him that the sHuare of

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t$e-%e is a hundred and fort'8four( and that he

ou*ht not to do to others $hat he $ou-d not that

others shou-d do to him G ut he $i-- not( of him8

se-f( acHuire these truths in ear-' chi-dhood" &e

$i-- not understand the rst( and he $i-- not fee- the

second"

A 'oun* sa%a*e $ho( $hen hun*r'( has recei%ed

from his father a )iece of another sa%a*e to eat(

$i--( on the morro$( as for the -ie mea-( $ithout

thinin* aout an' o-i*ation not to treat a nei*hor

other$ise than he $ou-d e treated himse-f" &e

acts( mechanica--' and irresisti-'( direct-' contrar'

to the eterna- )rinci)-e"

Nature has made a )ro%ision a*ainst such hor8

rors" She has *i%en to man a dis)osition to )it'(

and the )o$er of com)rehendin* truth" These t$o

@ Phi-oso)hica-

*ifts of od constitute the foundation of ci%i- so8

ciet'" This is the reason there ha%e e%er een ut

fe$ cannia-s G and $hich renders -ife( amon* ci%8

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i-i4ed nations( a -itt-e to-era-e" Fathers and moth8

ers esto$ on their chi-dren an education $hich

soon renders them socia-( and this education confers

on them a conscience"

Pure re-i*ion and mora-it'( ear-' incu-cated( so

stron*-' im)ress the human heart that( from the a*e

of siBteen or se%enteen( a sin*-e ad action $i--

not e )erformed $ithout the u)raidin*s of con8

science" Then rush on those head-on* )assions

$hich $ar a*ainst conscience( and sometimes de8

stro' it" Durin* the conict( men( hurried on '

the tem)est of their fee-in*s( on %arious occasions

consu-t the ad%ice of others G as( in )h'sica- diseases(

the' as it of those $ho a))ear to enQo' *ood hea-th"

 This it is $hich has )roduced casuistsG that is(

)ersons $ho decide on cases of conscience" One

of the $isest casuists $as Cicero" In his oo of

#Oces(# or #Duties# of man( he in%esti*ates )oints

of the *reatest nicet'G ut -on* efore him 9oro8

aster had a))eared in the $or-d to *uide the con8

science ' the most eautifu- )rece)t( #If 'ou dout

$hether an action e *ood or ad( astain from

doin* it"# We treat of this e-se$here"

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Whether a fud*e Shou-d Decide accordin* to his

Conscience( or accordin* to the E%idence"

 Thomas AHuinas( 'ou are a *reat saint( and a

Dictionar'"

*reat di%ine( and no Dominican has a *reater %en8

eration for 'ou than I ha%e G ut 'ou ha%e decided(

in 'our #Summar'(# that a Qud*e ou*ht to *i%e

sentence accordin* to the e%idence )roduced a*ainst

the )erson accused( a-thou*h he no$s that )erson

to e )erfect-' innocent" 6ou maintain that the de)8

osition of $itnesses( $hich must ine%ita-' e fa-se(

and the )retended )roofs resu-tin* from the )rocess(

$hich are im)ertinent( ou*ht to $ei*h do$n the

testimon' of his o$n senses" &e sa$ the crime

committed ' anotherG and 'et( accordin* to 'ou(

he ou*ht in conscience to condemn the accused( a-8

thou*h his conscience te--s him the accused is inno8

cent" Accordin* to 'our doctrine( therefore( if the

 Qud*e had himse-f committed the crime in Huestion(

his conscience ou*ht to o-i*e him to condemn the

man fa-se-' accused of it"

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In m' conscience( *reat saint( I concei%e that 'ou

are most asurd-' and most dreadfu--' decei%ed"

It is a )it' that( $hi-e )ossessin* such a no$-ed*e

of canon -a$( 'ou shou-d e so -itt-e acHuainted $ith

natura- -a$" The dut' of a ma*istrate to e Qust(

)recedes that of ein* a forma-ist" If( in %irtue of

e%idence $hich can ne%er eBceed )roai-it'( I $ere

to condemn a man $hose innocence I $as other$ise

con%inced of( I shou-d consider m'se-f a foo- and

an assassin"

Fortunate-' a-- the triuna-s of the $or-d thin

diMerent-' from 'ou" I no$ not $hether Fari8

naceus and ri--andus ma' e of 'our o)inion"

7 Phi-oso)hica-

&o$e%er that ma' e( if e%er 'ou meet $ith

Cicero( 2-)ian( Treonian( Demou-in( the Chance--or

de =5&o)ita-( or the Chance--or d5A*uesseau( in the

shades( e sure to as )ardon of them for fa--in* into

such an error"

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Of a Deceitfu- Conscience"

 The est thin* )erha)s that $as e%er said u)on

this im)ortant suQect is in the $itt' $or of #Tris8

tram Shand'(# $ritten ' a c-er*'man of the name

of Sterne( the second Rae-ais of En*-and" It re8

sem-es those sma-- satires of antiHuit'( the essen8

tia- s)irit of $hich is so )iHuant and )recious"

An o-d ha-f8)a' ca)tain and his cor)ora-( assisted

' Doctor S-o)( )ut a numer of %er' ridicu-ous

Huestions" In these Huestions the French di%ines

are not s)ared" 3ention is )articu-ar-' made of a

memoir )resented to the Soronne ' a sur*eon( re8

Huestin* )ermission to a)ti4e unorn chi-dren '

means of a c-'ster8)i)e( $hich mi*ht e introduced

into the $om $ithout inQurin* either the mother or

the chi-d" At -en*th the cor)ora- is directed to read

to them a sermon( com)osed ' the same c-er*'8

man( Sterne"

Amon* man' )articu-ars( su)erior e%en to those

of Remrandt and Ca-ot( it descries a *ent-eman(

a man of the $or-d( s)endin* his time in the )-eas8

ures of the ta-e( in *amin*( and deaucher'( 'et

doin* nothin* to eB)ose himse-f to the re)roaches

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of $hat is ca--ed *ood com)an'( and conseHuent-'

5Dictionar'" >

ne%er incurrin* his o$n" &is conscience and his

honor accom)an' him to the theatres( to the *am8

in* houses( and are more )articu-ar-' )resent $hen

he -iera--' )a's his -ad' under )rotection" &e

)unishes se%ere-'( $hen in oce( the )ett' -arcenies

( of the %u-*ar( -i%es a -ife of *a'et'( and dies $ithout

the s-i*htest fee-in* of remorse"

Doctor S-o) interru)ts the readin* to oser%e that

such a case $as im)ossi-e $ith res)ect to a fo--o$er

of the Church of En*-and( and cou-d ha))en on-'

amon* )a)ists" At -ast the sermon adduces the eB8

am)-e of Da%id( $ho sometimes )ossessed a con8

science tender and en-i*htened( at others hardened

and dar"

When he has it in his )o$er to assassinate his

in* in a ca%ern( he scru)-es *oin* e'ond cuttin*

oM a corner of his roe here is the tender con8

science" &e )asses an entire 'ear $ithout fee-in*

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the s-i*htest com)unction for his adu-ter' $ith !ath8

shea and his murder of 2riah here is the same

conscience in a state of odurac' and darness"

Such( sa's the )reacher( are the *reater numer

of manind" We concede to this c-er*'man that

the *reat ones of the $or-d are %er' often in this

stateG the torrent of )-easures and aMairs ur*es

them a-most irresisti-' onG the' ha%e no time to

ee) a conscience" Conscience is )ro)er enou*h

for the )eo)-eG ut e%en the )eo)-e dis)ense $ith

it( $hen the Huestion is ho$ to *ain mone'" It

is Qudicious( ho$e%er( at times( to endea%or to

? Phi-oso)hica-

a$aen conscience oth in mantua8maers and in

monarchs( ' the incu-cation of a mora-it' ca-8

cu-ated to mae an im)ression u)on othG ut( in

order to mae this im)ression( it is necessar' to

)reach etter than modern )reachers usua--' do(

$ho se-dom ta- eMecti%e-' to either"

Liert' of Conscience"

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Trans-ated from the erman"

We do not ado)t the $ho-e of the fo--o$in* ar8

tic-eG ut( as it contains some truths( $e did not

consider ourse-%es o-i*ed to omit itG and $e do

not fee- ourse-%es ca--ed u)on to Qustif' $hat ma'

e ad%anced in it $ith too *reat rashness or se8

%erit'" Author"

#The a-moner of Prince ( $ho is a Roman

Catho-ic( threatened an anaa)tist that he $ou-d *et

him anished from the sma-- estates $hich the

)rince *o%erned" &e to-d him that there $ere on-'

three authori4ed sects in the em)ire that $hich

eats 1esus Christ( ' faith a-one( in a morse- of

read( $hi-e drinin* out of a cu) G that $hich eats

 1esus Christ $ith read a-one G and that $hich eats

 1esus Christ in od' and in sou-( $ithout either

read or $ine G and that as for the anaa)tist $ho

does not in an' $a' eat od( he $as not t to -i%e

in monsei*neur5s territor'" At -ast( the con%ersa8

tion ind-in* into *reater %io-ence( the a-moner

erce-' threatened the anaa)tist that he $ou-d *et

him han*ed" 5So much the $orse for his hi*hness(5

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Dictionar'" =

re)-ied the anaa)tist G 5I am a -ar*e manufacturer G

I em)-o' t$o hundred $ormenG I occasion the

inuB of t$o hundred thousand cro$ns a 'ear into

his territoriesG m' fami-' $i-- *o and sett-e some8

$here e-seG monsei*neur $i-- in conseHuence e a

-oser"5

# 5!ut su))ose monsei*neur han*s u) 'our t$o

hundred $ormen and 'our fami-'(5 reQoined the

a-moner( 5and *i%es 'our manufactor' to *ood Cath8

o-ics J5

# 5I def' him to do it sa's the o-d *ent-eman"

5A manufactor' is not to e *i%en -ie a farm G e8

cause industr' cannot e *i%en" It $ou-d e more

si--' for him to act so than to order a-- his horses

to e i--ed( ecause( ein* a ad horseman( one

ma' ha%e thro$n him oM his ac" The interest

of monsei*neur does not consist in m' s$a--o$in*

the *odhead in a $afer( ut in m' )rocurin* some8

thin* to eat for his suQects( and increasin* the re%8

enues ' m' industr'" I am a *ent-eman G and a-8

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thou*h I had the misfortune not to e orn such( m'

occu)ation $ou-d com)e- me to ecome oneG for

mercanti-e transactions are of a %er' diMerent na8

ture from those of a court( and from 'our o$n"

 There can e no success in them $ithout )roit'"

Of $hat conseHuence is it to 'ou that I $as a)ti4ed

at $hat is ca--ed the a*e of discretion( and 'ou $hi-e

'ou $ere an infantJ Of $hat conseHuence is it to

'ou that I $orshi) od after the manner of m'

fathersJ Were 'ou a-e to fo--o$ u) 'our $ise

Vo-" =@

Phi-oso)hica-

maBims( from one end of the $or-d to the other(

'ou $i-- han* u) the ree( $ho does not e-ie%e

that the s)irit )roceeds from the Father and the

SonG a-- the En*-ish( a-- the &o--anders( Danes(

S$edes( Ice-anders( Prussians( &ano%erians( SaB8

ons( &o-steiners( &essians( Wiirtemer*ers( !er8

nese( &amur*ers( Cossacs( Wa--achians( and

Russians( none of $hom e-ie%e the )o)e to e in8

fa--i-eG a-- the 3ussu-mans( $ho e-ie%e in one

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od( and $ho *i%e him neither father nor mother G

the Indians( $hose re-i*ion is more ancient than the

 1e$ish G and the -ettered Chinese( $ho( for the s)ace

of four thousand 'ears( ha%e ser%ed one on-' od

$ithout su)erstition and $ithout fanaticism" This(

then( is $hat 'ou $ou-d )erform had 'ou ut the

)o$er5 53ost assured-' sa's the mon( 5for the

4ea- of the house of the Lord de%ours me"5 59e-us

domus sua comedit me"5

5 51ust te-- me no$( m' *ood a-moner(5 resumed

the anaa)tist( 5are 'ou a Dominican( or a 1esuit(

or a de%i- J5 5I am a 1esuit(5 sa's the other" 5A-as(

m' friend( if 'ou are not a de%i-( $h' do 'ou ad8

%ance thin*s so utter-' diao-ica-J5 5!ecause the

re%erend father( the rector( has commanded me to

do so"5 5And $ho commanded the re%erend father(

the rector( to commit such an aominationJ5 5The

)ro%incia-"5 5From $hom did the )ro%incia- recei%e

the command J5 5From our *enera-( and a-- to )-ease

the )o)e"5

#The )oor anaa)tist eBc-aimed 0 56e ho-' )o)es(

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I A3 A 1E@2IT(# SAVS T&E OT&ER

Dictionar'"

$ho are at Rome in )ossession of the throne of the

Caesars archisho)s( isho)s( and aes( ecome

so%erei*ns( I res)ect and ' 'ou G ut if( in the re8

cesses of 'our heart( 'ou confess that 'our o)u-ence

and )o$er are founded on-' on the i*norance and

stu)idit' of our fathers( at -east enQo' them $ith

moderation" We do not $ish to dethrone 'ou G ut

do not crush us" EnQo' 'ourse-%es( and -et us e

Huiet" If other$ise( trem-e( -est at -ast )eo)-e

shou-d -ose their )atience( and reduce 'ou( for the

*ood of 'our sou-s( to the condition of the a)ost-es(

of $hom 'ou )retend to e the successors"5

# 5Wretch 'ou $ou-d $ish the )o)e and the

isho) of Wiirtemer* to *ain hea%en ' e%an8

*e-ica- )o%ert' 5 56ou( re%erend father( $ou-d $ish

to ha%e me han*ed 5 #

CONSE:2ENCE"

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W&AT is our rea- nature( and $hat sort of a cur8

ious and contem)ti-e understandin* do $e )os8

sessJ A man ma'( it a))ears( dra$ the most cor8

rect and -uminous conc-usions( and 'et e destitute

of common sense" This is( in fact( too true" The

Athenian foo-( $ho e-ie%ed that a-- the %esse-s

$hich came into the )ort e-on*ed to him( cou-d ca-8

cu-ate to a nicet' $hat the car*oes of those %esse-s

$ere $orth( and $ithin ho$ man' da's the' $ou-d

arri%e from Sm'rna at the Piraeus"

We ha%e seen idiots $ho cou-d ca-cu-ate and rea8

son in a sti-- more eBtraordinar' manner" The'

Phi-oso)hica-

$ere not idiots( then( 'ou te-- me" I as 'our )ar8

don the' certain-' $ere" The' rested their $ho-e

su)erstructure on an asurd )rinci)-eG the' re*u8

-ar-' strun* to*ether chimeras" A man ma' $a-

$e--( and *o astra' at the same time G and( then( the

etter he $a-s the farther astra' he *oes"

 The Fo of the Indians $as son of an e-e)hant(

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$ho condescended to )roduce oMs)rin* ' an Indian

)rincess( $ho( in conseHuence of this s)ecies of

-eft8handed union( $as rou*ht to ed of the *od

Fo" This )rincess $as sister to an em)eror of the

Indies" Fo( then( $as the ne)he$ of that em)eror(

and the *randson of the e-e)hant and the monarch

$ere cousins8*erman G therefore( accordin* to the

-a$s of the state( the race of the em)eror ein* eB8

tinct( the descendants of the e-e)hant ecome the

ri*htfu- successors" Admit the )rinci)-e( and the

conc-usion is )erfect-' correct"

It is said that the di%ine e-e)hant $as nine stand8

ard feet in hei*ht" 6ou reasona-' su))ose that

the *ate of his sta-e shou-d e ao%e nine feet in

hei*ht( in order to admit his enterin* $ith ease"

&e consumed t$ent' )ounds of rice e%er' da'( and

t$ent' )ounds of su*ar( and dran t$ent'8%e

)ounds of $ater" 6ou nd( ' usin* 'our arith8

metic( that he s$a--o$s thirt'8siB thousand %e hun8

dred )ounds $ei*ht in the course of a 'earG it

is im)ossi-e to recon more correct-'" !ut did

'our e-e)hant e%er( in fact( eBist J Was he the em8

)eror5s rother8in8-a$J &ad his $ife a chi-d '

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Dictionar'" <

this -eft8handed union J This is the matter to e in8

%esti*ated" T$ent' diMerent authors( $ho -i%ed in

Cochin China( ha%e successi%e-' $ritten aout itG

it is incument on 'ou to co--ate these t$ent' au8

thors( to $ei*h their testimonies( to consu-t ancient

records( to see if there is an' mention of this e-e8

)hant in the )u-ic re*istersG to eBamine $hether

the $ho-e account is not a fa-e( $hich certain im8

)ostors ha%e an interest in sanctionin*" 6ou )ro8

ceed u)on an eBtra%a*ant )rinci)-e( ut dra$ from

it correct conc-usions"

Lo*ic is not so much $antin* to men as the

source of -o*ic" It is not sucient for a madman to

sa' siB %esse-s $hich e-on* to me carr' t$o hun8

dred tons each G the ton is t$o thousand )ounds

$ei*htG I ha%e therefore t$e-%e hundred thousand

)ounds $ei*ht of merchandise in the )ort of the

Piraeus" The *reat )oint is( are those %esse-s 'ours J

 That is the )rinci)-e u)on $hich 'our fortune de8

)ends G $hen that is sett-ed( 'ou ma' estimate and

recon u) after$ards"

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An i*norant man( $ho is a fanatic( and $ho at

the same time strict-' dra$s his conc-usions from

his )remises( ou*ht sometimes to e smothered to

death as a madman" &e has read that Phineas(

trans)orted ' a ho-' 4ea-( ha%in* found a 1e$ in

ed $ith a 3idianitish $oman( s-e$ them oth( and

$as imitated ' the Le%ites( $ho massacred e%er'

househo-d that consisted one8ha-f of 3idianites

and the other of 1e$s" &e -earns that 3r" (

@ Phi-oso)hica-

his Catho-ic nei*hor( intri*ued $ith 3rs" (

another nei*hor( ut a &u*uenot( and he $i-- i--

oth of them $ithout scru)-e" It is im)ossi-e to

act in *reater consistenc' $ith )rinci)-e G ut $hat

is the remed' for this dreadfu- disease of the sou- J

It is to accustom chi-dren etimes to admit nothin*

$hich shocs reason( to a%oid re-atin* to them his8

tories of *hosts( a))aritions( $itches( demoniaca-

)ossessions( and ridicu-ous )rodi*ies" A *ir- of an

acti%e and susce)ti-e ima*ination hears a stor' of

demoniaca- )ossessions G her ner%es ecome shaen(

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she fa--s into con%u-sions( and e-ie%es herse-f )os8

sessed ' a demon or de%i-" I actua--' sa$ one

'oun* $oman die in conseHuence of the shoc her

frame recei%ed from these aomina-e histories"

CONSTANTINE"

SECTION I"

 The A*e of Constantine"

A3ON the a*es $hich fo--o$ed the Au*ustan(

that of Constantine merits )articu-ar distinction"

It is immorta-i4ed ' the *reat chan*es $hich it

ushered into the $or-d" It commenced( it is true(

$ith rin*in* ac ararism" Not mere-' $ere

there no Ciceros( &oraces( and Vir*i-s( an' -on*er

to e found( ut there $as not e%en a Lucan or

a Seneca G there $as not e%en a )hi-oso)hic and ac8

curate historian" Nothin* $as to e seen ut eHui%8

oca- satires or mere random )ane*'rics"

Dictionar'"

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It $as at that time that the Christians e*an to

$rite histor'( ut the' too not Titus Li%'( or

 Thuc'dides as their mode-s" The fo--o$ers of the

ancient re-i*ion $rote $ith no *reater e-oHuence

or truth" The t$o )arties( in a state of mutua- eB8

as)eration( did not %er' scru)u-ous-' in%esti*ate

the char*es $hich the' hea)ed u)on their ad%er8

saries G and hence it arises that the same man is

sometimes re)resented as a *od and sometimes as

a monster"

 The dec-ine of e%er'thin*( in the commonest

mechanica- arts( as $e-- as in e-oHuence and %irtue(

too )-ace after the rei*n of 3arcus Aure-ius" &e

$as the -ast em)eror of the sect of stoics( $ho e-e8

%ated man ao%e himse-f ' renderin* him se%ere

to himse-f on-'( and com)assionate to others" Af8

ter the death of this em)eror( $ho $as a *enuine

)hi-oso)her( there $as nothin* ut t'rann' and con8

fusion" The so-diers freHuent-' dis)osed of the em8

)ire" The senate had fa--en into such com)-ete con8

tem)t that( in the time of a&-ienus( an eB)ress -a$

$as enacted to )re%ent senators from en*a*in* in

$ar" Thirt' heads of )arties $ere seen( at one time(

assumin* the tit-e of em)eror in thirt' )ro%inces

of the em)ire" The ararians a-read' )oured in(

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on e%er' side( in the midd-e of the third centur'(

on this rent and -acerated em)ire" 6et it $as he-d

to*ether ' the mere mi-itar' disci)-ine on $hich

it had een founded"

Durin* a-- these ca-amities( Christianit' *radu8

7 Phi-oso)hica-

a--' esta-ished itse-f( )articu-ar-' in E*')t( S'ria(

and on the coasts of Asia 3inor" The Roman Em8

)ire admitted a-- sorts of re-i*ions( as $e-- as a--

sects of )hi-oso)h'" The $orshi) of Osiris $as )er8

mitted( and e%en the 1e$s $ere -eft in the enQo'ment

of considera-e )ri%i-e*es( not$ithstandin* their re8

%o-ts" !ut the )eo)-e in the )ro%inces freHuent-'

rose u) a*ainst the Christians" The ma*istrates

)ersecuted them( and edicts $ere freHuent-' o8

tained a*ainst them from the em)erors" There is

no *round for astonishment at the *enera- hatred

in $hich Christians $ere at rst he-d( $hi-e so man'

other re-i*ions $ere to-erated" The reason $as that

neither E*')tians nor 1e$s( nor the $orshi))ers of

the *oddess of S'ria and so man' other forei*n de8

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ities( e%er dec-ared o)en hosti-it' to the *ods of the

em)ire" The' did not arra' themse-%es a*ainst the

esta-ished re-i*ion G ut one of the most im)erious

duties of the Christians $as to eBterminate the )re8

%ai-in* $orshi)" The )riests of the *ods raised a

c-amor on )ercei%in* the diminution of sacrices

and oMerin*sG and the )eo)-e( e%er fanatica- and

im)etuous( $ere stirred u) a*ainst the Christians(

$hi-e in the meantime man' em)erors )rotected

them" Adrian eB)ress-' forade the )ersecution of

them" 3arcus Aure-ius commanded that the'

shou-d not e )rosecuted on account of re-i*ion"

Caraca--a( &e-io*aa-us( A-eBander( Phi-i)( and a-8

-ienus -eft them entire -iert'" The' had( in the

third centur'( )u-ic churches numerous-' attended

Dictionar'" >

and %er' o)u-ent G and so *reat $as the -iert' the'

enQo'ed that( in the course of that centur'( the' he-d

siBteen counci-s" The road to di*nities $as shut

u) a*ainst the rst Christians( $ho $ere near-' a--

of oscure condition( and the' turned their attention

to commerce( and some of them amassed *reat af8

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uence" This is the resource of a-- societies that

cannot ha%e access to oces in the state" Such has

een the case $ith the Ca-%inists in France( a-- the

Nonconformists in En*-and( the Catho-ics in &o-8

-and( the Armenians in Persia( the !anians in India(

and the 1e$s a-- o%er the $or-d" &o$e%er( at -ast

the to-eration $as so *reat( and the administration

of the *o%ernment so mi-d( that the Christians

*ained access to a-- the honors and di*nities of the

state" The' did not sacrice to the *ods of the em8

)ire G the' $ere not mo-ested( $hether the' attended

or a%oided the tem)-esG there $as at Rome the

most )erfect -iert' $ith res)ect to the eBercises of

their re-i*ion G none $ere com)e--ed to en*a*e in

them" The Christians( therefore( enQo'ed the same

-iert' as others" It is so true that the' attained to

honors( that Dioc-etian and a-erius de)ri%ed no

fe$er than three hundred and three of them of those

honors( in the )ersecution of $hich $e sha-- ha%e

to s)ea"

It is our dut' to adore Pro%idence in a-- its dis8

)ensations G ut I conne m'se-f to )o-itica- histor'"

3anes( under the rei*n of Prous( aout the 'ear

7( formed a ne$ re-i*ion in A-eBandria" The

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<? Phi-oso)hica-

)rinci)-es of this sect $ere made u) of some ancient

doctrines of the Persians and certain tenets of Chris8

tianit'" Prous( and his successor( Carus( -eft

3anes and the Christians in the enQo'ment of )eace"

Numerien )ermitted them entire -iert'" Dioc-etian

)rotected the Christians( and to-erated the 3ani8

chseans( durin* t$e-%e 'ears G ut in >@ he issued

an edict a*ainst the 3anichseans( and )roscried

them as enemies to the em)ire and adherents of the

Persians" The Christians $ere not com)rehended

in the edict G the' continued in tranHui--it' under

Dioc-etian( and made o)en )rofession of their re8

-i*ion throu*hout the $ho-e em)ire unti- the -atter

'ears of that )rince5s rei*n"

 To com)-ete the setch( it is necessar' to descrie

of $hat at that )eriod the Roman Em)ire consisted"

Not$ithstandin* interna- and forei*n shocs( not8

$ithstandin* the incursions of ararians( it com8

)rised a-- the )ossessions of the *rand sei*nor at

the )resent da'( eBce)t AraiaG a-- that the house

of Austria )ossesses in erman'( and a-- the er8

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man )ro%inces as far as the E-eG Ita-'( France(

S)ain( En*-and( and ha-f of Scot-andG a-- Africa

as far as the desert of Sahara( and e%en the Canar'

Is-es" A-- these nations $ere retained under the

'oe ' odies of mi-itar' -ess considera-e than

$ou-d e raised ' erman' and France at the )res8

ent da'( $hen in actua- $ar"

 This immense )o$er ecame more conrmed and

en-ar*ed( from Caesar do$n to Theodosius( as $e--

Dictionar'"

' -a$s( )o-ice( and rea- ser%ices conferred on the

)eo)-e( as ' arms and terror" It is e%en 'et a mat8

ter of astonishment that none of these conHuered

nations ha%e een a-e( since the' ecame their o$n

ru-ers( to form such hi*h$a's( and to erect such

am)hitheatres and )u-ic aths( as their conHuerors

esto$ed u)on them" Countries $hich are at )res8

ent near-' ararous and deserted( $ere then )o)8

u-ous and $e-- *o%erned" Such $ere E)irus( 3ace8

donia( Thessa-'( I--'ria( Pannonia( $ith Asia 3inor(

and the coasts of AfricaG ut it must a-so e ad8

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mitted that erman'( France( and !ritain $ere then

%er' diMerent from $hat the' are no$" These

three states are those $hich ha%e most eneted '

*o%ernin* themse-%es G 'et it reHuired near-' t$e-%e

centuries to )-ace those in*doms in the ourishin*

situation in $hich $e no$ eho-d them G ut it must

e acno$-ed*ed that a-- the rest ha%e -ost much '

)assin* under diMerent -a$s" The ruins of Asia

3inor and reece( the de)o)u-ation of E*')t and

the ararism of Africa( are sti-- eBistin* testimo8

nia-s of Roman *reatness" The *reat numer of

ourishin* cities $hich co%ered those countries had

no$ ecome misera-e %i--a*es( and the soi- had e8

come arren under the hands of a ruta-i4ed )o)8

u-ation"

SECTION II"

Character of Constantine"

I $i-- not here s)ea of the confusion $hich

a*itated the em)ire after the adication of Dioc-e8

< Phi-oso)hica-

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tian" There $ere after his death siB em)erors at

once" Constantine trium)hed o%er them a--( chan*ed

the re-i*ion of the em)ire( and $as not mere-' the

author of that *reat re%o-ution( ut of a-- those

$hich ha%e since occurred in the $est" What $as

his characterJ As it of 1u-ian( of 9osimus( of

So4omen( and of Victor G the' $i-- te-- 'ou that he

acted at rst -ie a *reat )rince( after$ards as a )u8

-ic roer( and that the -ast sta*e of his -ife $as that

of a sensua-ist( a trier( and a )rodi*a-" The' $i--

descrie him as e%er amitious( crue-( and san8

*uinar'" As his character of Euseius( of re*8

or' Na4ian4en( and Lactantius G the' $i-- inform

'ou that he $as a )erfect man" !et$een these t$o

eBtremes authentic facts a-one can ena-e us to o8

tain the truth" &e had a father8in8-a$( $hom he

im)e--ed to han* himse-f G he had a rother8in8-a$(

$hom he ordered to e stran*-ed G he had a ne)he$

t$e-%e or thirteen 'ears o-d( $hose throat he ordered

to e cut G he had an e-dest son( $hom he eheaded G

he had a $ife( $hom he ordered to e suMocated in

a ath" An o-d a--ic author said that #he -o%ed to

mae a c-ear house"#

If 'ou add to a-- these domestic acts that( ein*

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on the ans of the Rhine in )ursuit of some hordes

of Frans $ho resided in those )arts( and ha%in*

taen their in*s( $ho )roa-' $ere of the fami-'

of our Pharamond or C-odion -e Che%e-u( he eB8

)osed them to easts for his di%ersion G 'ou ma' in8

fer from a-- this( $ithout an' a))rehension of ein*

Dictionar'" <

decei%ed( that he $as not the most courteous and

accommodatin* )ersona*e in the $or-d"

Let us eBamine( in this )-ace( the )rinci)a- e%ents

of his rei*n" &is father( Constantius Ch-orus( $as

in the heart of !ritain( $here he had for some

months assumed the tit-e of em)eror" Constantine

$as at Nicomedia( $ith the em)eror a-erius" &e

ased )ermission of the em)eror to *o to see his

father( $ho $as i--" a-erius *ranted it( $ithout

dicu-t'" Constantine set oM $ith *o%ernment re8

-a's( ca--ed %eredarii" It mi*ht e said to e as

dan*erous to e a )ost8horse as to e a memer of

the fami-' of Constantine( for he ordered a-- the

horses to e hamstrun* after he had done $ith them(

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fearfu- -est a-erius shou-d re%oe his )ermission

and order him to return to Nicomedia" &e found

his father at the )oint of death( and caused himse-f

to e reco*ni4ed em)eror ' the sma-- numer of

Roman troo)s at that time in !ritain"

An e-ection of a Roman em)eror at 6or( ' %e

or siB thousand men( $as not -ie-' to e considered

-e*itimate at Rome" It $anted at -east the formu-a

of #Senatus )o)u-usHue Romanus# The senate(

the )eo)-e( and the )raetorian ands unanimous-'

e-ected 3aBentius( son of the Caesar 3aBimi-ian

&ercu-es( $ho had een a-read' Caesar( and rother

of that Fausta $hom Constantine had married(

and $hom he after$ards caused to e suMocated"

 This 3aBentius is ca--ed a t'rant and usur)er '

our historians( $ho are uniform-' the )artisans of

< Phi-oso)hica-

the successfu-" &e $as the )rotector of the )a*an

re-i*ion a*ainst Constantine( $ho a-read' e*an to

dec-are himse-f for the Christians" !ein* oth )a8

*an and %anHuished( he cou-d not ut e an aom8

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ina-e man"

Euseius te--s us that Constantine( $hen *oin*

to Rome to *ht 3aBentius( sa$ in the c-ouds( as

$e-- as his $ho-e arm'( the *rand im)eria- standard

ca--ed the -aarum( surmounted $ith a Latin P" or

a -ar*e ree R" $ith a cross in #sa-tier# and cer8

tain reZ $ords $hich si*nied( #!' this si*n thou

sha-t conHuer"# Some authors )retend that this si*n

a))eared to him at !esancon( others at Co-o*ne(

some at Trier and others at Tro'es" It is stran*e

that in a-- these )-aces hea%en shou-d ha%e eB)ressed

its meanin* in ree" It $ou-d ha%e a))eared

more natura- to the $ea understandin*s of men

that this si*n shou-d ha%e a))eared in Ita-' on the

da' of the att-e G ut then it $ou-d ha%e een neces8

sar' that the inscri)tion shou-d ha%e een in Latin"

A -earned antiHuar'( of the name of Loise-( has re8

futed this narrati%e G ut he $as treated as a re)ro8

ate"

It mi*ht( ho$e%er( e $orth $hi-e to reect that

this $ar $as not a $ar of re-i*ion( that Constantine

$as not a saint( that he died sus)ected of ein* an

Arian( after ha%in* )ersecuted the orthodoB G and(

therefore( that there is no %er' o%ious moti%e to

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su))ort this )rodi*'"

After this %ictor'( the senate hastened to )a' its

Dictionar'" <<

de%otion to the conHueror( and to eB)ress its detesta8

tion of the memor' of the conHuered" The trium8

)ha- arch of 3arcus Aure-ius $as s)eedi-' dis8

mant-ed to adorn that of Constantine" A statue of

*o-d $as )re)ared for him( an honor $hich had

ne%er een sho$n eBce)t to the *ods" &e recei%ed

it( not$ithstandin* the -aarum( and recei%ed fur8

ther the tit-e of PontifeB 3aBimus( $hich he re8

tained a-- his -ife" &is rst care( accordin* to 9os8

imus( $as to eBterminate the $ho-e race of the

t'rant( and his )rinci)a- friends G after $hich he as8

sisted %er' *racious-' at the )u-ic s)ectac-es and

*ames"

 The a*ed Dioc-etian $as at that time d'in* in

his retreat at Sa-onica" Constantine shou-d not ha%e

een in such haste to )u-- do$n his statues at Rome G

he shou-d ha%e reco--ected that the for*otten em8

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)eror had een the enefactor of his father( and

that he $as indeted to him for the em)ire" A-8

thou*h he had conHuered 3aBentius( Licinius( his

rother8in8-a$( an Au*ustus -ie himse-f( $as sti--

to e *ot rid of G and Licinius $as eHua--' anBious

to e rid of Constantine( if he had it in his )o$er"

&o$e%er( their Huarre-s not ha%in* 'et roen out

in hosti-it'( the' issued conQoint-' at 3i-an( in =(

the ce-erated edict of -iert' of conscience" #We

*rant(# the' sa'( #to a-- the -iert' of fo--o$in*

$hate%er re-i*ion the' )-ease( in order to dra$ do$n

the -essin* of hea%en u)on us and our suQectsG

$e dec-are that $e ha%e *ranted to the Christians

<@ Phi-oso)hica-

the free and fu-- )o$er of eBercisin* their re-i*ion G

it ein* understood that a-- others sha-- enQo' the

same -iert'( in order to )reser%e the tranHui--it'

of our *o%ernment"# A %o-ume mi*ht e $ritten on

such an edict( ut I sha-- mere-' %enture a fe$ -ines"

Constantine $as not as 'et a Christian G nor( in8

deed( $as his co--ea*ue( Licinius( one" There $as

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sti-- an em)eror or a t'rant to e eBterminated G this

$as a determined )a*an( of the name of 3aBimin"

Licinius fou*ht $ith him efore he fou*ht $ith

Constantine" &ea%en $as sti-- more fa%ora-e to

him than to Constantine himse-f G for the -atter had

on-' the a))arition of a standard( ut Licinius that

of an an*e-" This an*e- tau*ht him a )ra'er( '

means of $hich he $ou-d e sure to %anHuish the

ararian 3aBimin" Licinius $rote it do$n( or8

dered it to e recited three times ' his arm'( and

otained a com)-ete %ictor'" If this same Licinius(

the rother8in8-a$ of Constantine( had rei*ned ha)8

)i-'( $e shou-d ha%e heard of nothin* ut his an8

*e- G ut Constantine ha%in* had him han*ed( and

his son s-ain( and ecome aso-ute master of e%er'8

thin*( nothin* has een ta-ed of ut Constantine5s

-aarum"

It is e-ie%ed that he )ut to death his e-dest son

Cris)us( and his o$n $ife Fausta( the same 'ear

that he con%ened the Counci- of Nice" 9osimus and

So4omen )retend that( the heathen )riests ha%in*

to-d him that there $ere no eB)iations for such

*reat crimes( he then made o)en )rofession of Chris8

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Dictionar' <

tianit'( and demo-ished man' tem)-es in the East"

It is not %er' )roa-e that the )a*an )ontiMs

shou-d ha%e omitted so ne an o))ortunit' of *et8

tin* ac their *rand )ontiM( $ho had aandoned

them" &o$e%er( it is ' no means im)ossi-e that

there mi*ht e amon* them some se%ere menG

scru)u-ous and austere )ersons are to e found

e%er'$here" What is more eBtraordinar' is( that

Constantine( after ecomin* a Christian( )erformed

no )enance for his )arricide" It $as at Rome that he

eBercised that crue-t'( and from that time residence

at Rome ecame hatefu- to him" &e Huitted it for8

e%er( and $ent to -a' the foundations of Constanti8

no)-e" &o$ dared he sa'( in one of his rescri)ts(

that he transferred the seat of em)ire to Constanti8

no)-e( #' the command of od himse-fJ# Is it

an'thin* ut an im)udent mocer' of od and

manJ If od had *i%en him an' command( $ou-d

it not ha%e een not to assassinate his $ife and

sonJ

Dioc-etian had a-read' furnished an eBam)-e of

transferrin* the em)ire to$ards Asia" The )ride(

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the des)otism( and the *enera- manners of the Asiat8

ics dis*usted the Romans( de)ra%ed and s-a%ish as

the' had ecome" The em)erors had not %entured

to reHuire( at Rome( that their feet shou-d e issed(

nor to introduce a cro$d of eunuchs into their )a-8

aces" Dioc-etian e*an in Nicomedia( and Constan8

tine com)-eted the s'stem at Constantino)-e( to as8

simi-ate the Roman court to the courts of the Per8

Vo-" =

<7 Phi-oso)hica-

sians" The cit' of Rome from that time -an*uished

in deca'( and the o-d Roman s)irit dec-ined $ith her"

Constantine thus eMected the *reatest inQur' to the

em)ire that $as in his )o$er"

Of a-- the em)erors( he $as unHuestiona-' the

most aso-ute" Au*ustus had -eft an ima*e of -i8

ert'G Tierius( and e%en Nero( had humored the

senate and )eo)-e of RomeG Constantine humored

none" &e had at rst esta-ished his )o$er in Rome

' disandin* those hau*ht' )raetorians $ho con8

sidered themse-%es the masters of the em)erors" &e

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made an entire se)aration et$een the *o$n and

the s$ord" The de)ositories of the -a$s( e)t do$n

under mi-itar' )o$er( $ere on-' Qurists in chains"

 The )ro%inces of the em)ire $ere *o%erned u)on a

ne$ s'stem"

 The *rand oQect of Constantine $as to e mas8

ter in e%er'thin* G he $as so in the Church( as $e--

as in the State" We eho-d him con%oin* and o)en8

in* the Counci- of NiceG ad%ancin* into the midst

of the assem-ed fathers( co%ered o%er $ith Qe$e-s(

and $ith the diadem on his head( seatin* himse-f in

the hi*hest )-ace( and anishin* unconcerned-'

sometimes Arius and sometimes Athanasius" &e

)ut himse-f at the head of Christianit' $ithout ein*

a Christian G for at that time a)tism $as essentia-

to an' )erson5s ecomin* oneG he $as on-' a cat8

echumen" The usa*e of $aitin* for the a))roach

of death efore immersin* in the $ater of re*enera8

tion( $as e*innin* to dec-ine $ith res)ect to )ri8

Dictionar'" <>

%ate indi%idua-s" If Constantine( ' de-a'in* his

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a)tism ti-- near the )oint of death( entertained the

notion that he mi*ht commit e%er' act $ith im)u8

nit' in the ho)e of a com)-ete eB)iation( it $as un8

fortunate for the human race that such an o)inion

shou-d ha%e e%er su**ested itse-f to the mind of a

man in )ossession of uncontro--ed )o$er"

CONTRADICTIONS"

SECTION I"

 T&E more $e see of the $or-d( the more $e see

it aoundin* in contradictions and inconsistencies"

 To e*in $ith the rand Tur0 he orders e%er'

head that he dis-ies struc oM( and can %er' rare-'

)reser%e his o$n" If $e )ass from the rand Tur

to the &o-' Father( he conrms the e-ection of

em)erors( and has in*s amon* his %assa-s G ut he

is not so )o$erfu- as a due of Sa%o'" &e eB)e8

dites orders for America and Africa( 'et cou-d not

$ithho-d the s-i*htest of its )ri%i-e*es from the re8

)u-ic of Lucca" The em)eror is the in* of the

RomansG ut the ri*ht of their in* consists in

ho-din* the )o)e5s stirru)( and handin* the $ater

to him at mass" The En*-ish ser%e their monarch

u)on their nees( ut the' de)ose( im)rison( and

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ehead him"

3en $ho mae a %o$ of )o%ert'( *ain in con8

seHuence an income of aout t$o hundred thousand

cro$ns G and( in %irtue of their %o$ of humi-it'( the'

=@? Phi-oso)hica-

ecome aso-ute so%erei*ns" The )-ura-it' of ene8

ces $ith care of sou-s is se%ere-' denounced at

Rome( 'et e%er' da' it des)atches a u-- to some

erman( to ena-e him to ho-d %e or siB isho)rics

at once" The reason( $e are to-d( is that the erman

isho)s ha%e no cure of sou-s" The chance--or of

France is the rst )erson in the State( ut he cannof

sit at ta-e $ith the in*( at -east he cou-d not ti--

-ate-'( a-thou*h a co-one-( $ho is scarce-' )erha)s

a *ent-eman *enti-8homme ma' enQo' that dis8

tinction" The $ife of a )ro%incia- *o%ernor is a

Hueen in the )ro%ince( ut mere-' a citi4en5s $ife at

court"

Persons con%icted of the crime of nonconformit'

are )u-ic-' roasted( and in a-- our co--e*es the sec8

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ond ec-o*ue of Vir*i- is eB)-ained $ith *reat *ra%8

it'( inc-udin* Cor' don5s dec-arations of -o%e to the

eautifu- A-eBis G and it is remared to the o's

that( a-thou*h A-eBis e fair and Am'ntas ro$n(

'et Am'ntas ma' sti-- deser%e the )reference"

If an unfortunate )hi-oso)her( $ithout intendin*

the -east harm( taes it into his head that the earth

turns round( or to ima*ine that -i*ht comes from

the sun( or to su))ose that matter ma' contain some

other )ro)erties than those $ith $hich $e are ac8

Huainted( he is cried do$n as a -as)hemer( and a

disturer of the )u-ic )eaceG and 'et there are

trans-ations in usum De-)hini of the #Tuscu-an

:uestions# of Cicero( and of Lucretius( $hich are

t$o com)-ete courses of irre-i*ion"

Dictionar'" @=

Courts of Qustice no -on*er e-ie%e that )ersons

are )ossessed ' de%i-s( and -au*h at sorcerers G ut

auMredi and randier $ere urned for sorcer'G

and one8ha-f of a )ar-iament $anted to sentence to

the stae a mon accused of ha%in* e$itched a

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*ir- of ei*hteen ' reathin* u)on her"

 The se)tica- )hi-oso)her !a'-e $as )ersecuted(

e%en in &o--and" La 3otte -e Va'er( more of a

se)tic( ut -ess of a )hi-oso)her( $as )rece)tor of

the in* Louis ;IV"( and of the in*5s rother"

our%i--e $as han*ed in e*' at Paris( $hi-e

French minister in erman'"

 The ce-erated atheist S)ino4a -i%ed and died in

)eace" Vanini( $ho had mere-' $ritten a*ainst

Aristot-e( $as urned as an atheist G he has( in con8

seHuence( otained the honor of main* one artic-e

in the histories of the -earned( and in a-- the diction8

aries( $hich( in fact( constitute immense re)ositories

of -ies( miBed u) $ith a %er' sma-- )ortion of truth"

O)en these oos( and 'ou $i-- there nd not mere-'

that Vanini )u-ic-' tau*ht atheism in his $ritin*s(

ut that t$e-%e )rofessors of his sect $ent $ith

him to Na)-es $ith the intention of e%er'$here

main* )rose-'tes" After$ards( o)en the oos of

Vanini( and 'ou $i-- e astonished to nd in them

nothin* ut )roofs of the eBistence of od" Read

the fo--o$in* )assa*e( taen from his #Am)hi8

theatrum(# a $or eHua--' unno$n and con8

demned0 #od is &is o$n ori*ina- and oundar'(

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$ithout end and $ithout e*innin*( reHuirin*

@ Phi-oso)hica-

neither the one nor the other( and father of a-- e8

*innin* and end G &e e%er eBists( ut not in time G

to &im there has een no )ast( and $i-- e no future G

&e rei*ns e%er'$here( $ithout ein* in an' )-aceG

immo%a-e $ithout rest( ra)id $ithout motion G &e

is a--( and out of a-- G &e is in a--( $ithout ein*

enc-osed G out of e%er'thin*( $ithout ein* eBc-uded

from an'thin*G *ood( ut $ithout Hua-it'G entire(

ut $ithout )artsG immuta-e( $hi-e chan*in* the

$ho-e uni%erseG &is $i-- is &is )o$erG aso-ute(

there is nothin* of &im of $hat is mere-' )ossi-e G

a-- in &im is rea- G &e is the rst( the midd-e( and

the -astG na--'( a-thou*h constitutin* a--( &e is

ao%e a-- ein*s( out of them( $ithin them( e'ond

them( efore them( and after them"# It $as after

such a )rofession of faith that Vanini $as dec-ared

an atheist" 2)on $hat *rounds $as he condemned J

Sim)-' u)on the de)osition of a man named Fran8

con" In %ain did his oos de)ose in fa%or of him G

a sin*-e enem' de)ri%ed him of -ife( and sti*mati4ed

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his name throu*hout Euro)e"

 The -itt-e oo ca--ed #C'ma-um 3undi(# $hich

is mere-' a co-d imitation of Lucian( and $hich has

not the s-i*htest or remotest reference to Chris8

tianit'( $as condemned to e urned" !ut Rae8

-ais $as )rinted #cum )ri%i-e*io# G and a free

course $as a--o$ed to the #Turish S)'(# and

e%en to the #Persian Letters#G that %o-ati-e( in8

*enious( and darin* $or( in $hich there is one

$ho-e -etter in fa%or of suicideG another in $hich

Dictionar'" @

$e nd these $ords 0 #If $e su))ose such a thin*

as re-i*ion G# a third( in $hich it is eB)ress-' said

that #the isho)s ha%e no other functions than dis8

)ensin* $ith the oser%ance of the -a$s#G and(

na--'( another in $hich the )o)e is said to e a

ma*ician( $ho maes )eo)-e e-ie%e that three are

one( and that the read $e eat is not read( etc"

 The Ae St" Pierre( a man $ho cou-d freHuent-'

decei%e himse-f( ut $ho ne%er $rote $ithout a

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%ie$ to the )u-ic *ood( and $hose $ors $ere

ca--ed ' Cardina- Duois( #The dreams of an

honest citi4en# G the Ae = St" Pierre( I sa'( $as

unanimous-' eB)e--ed from the French Academ'

for ha%in*( in some )o-itica- $or( )referred the

esta-ishment of counci-s under the re*enc' to that

of secretaries of state under Louis ;IV"G and for

sa'in* that to$ards the c-ose of that *-orious rei*n

the nances $ere $retched-' conducted" The

author of the #Persian Letters# has not mentioned

Louis ;IV" in his oo( eBce)t to sa' that he $as

a ma*ician $ho cou-d mae his suQects e-ie%e that

)a)er $as mone'G that he -ied no *o%ernment

ut that of Ture'G that he )referred a man $ho

handed him a na)in to a man $ho *ained him

att-es G that he had conferred a )ension on a man

$ho had run a$a' t$o -ea*ues( and a *o%ernment

u)on another $ho had run a$a' four G that he $as

o%er$he-med $ith )o%ert'( a-thou*h it is said( in

the same -etter( that his nances are ineBhausti-e"

Oser%e( then( I re)eat( a-- that this $riter( in the

@ Phi-oso)hica-

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on-' $or then no$n to e his( has said of Louis

;IV"( the )atron of the French Academ'" We ma'

add( too( as a c-imaB of contradiction( that that

societ' admitted him as a memer for ha%in*

turned them into ridicu-eG for( of a-- the oos '

$hich the )u-ic ha%e een entertained at the eB8

)ense of the societ'( there is not one in $hich it

has een treated more disres)ectfu--' than in the

#Persian Letters"# See that -etter $herein he sa's(

#The memers of this od' ha%e no other usiness

than incessant-' to chatterG )ane*'ric comes and

taes its )-ace as it $ere s)ontaneous-' in their

eterna- *a-e(# etc" After ha%in* thus treated this

societ'( the' )raise him( on his introduction( for his

si-- in dra$in* -ienesses"

Were I dis)osed to continue the research into

the contraries to e found in the em)ire of -etters( I

mi*ht *i%e the histor' of e%er' man of -earnin* or

$it G Qust in the same manner as( if I $ere inc-ined

to detai- the contradictions eBistin* in societ'( it

$ou-d e necessar' to $rite the histor' of man8

ind" An Asiatic( $ho shou-d tra%e- to Euro)e(

mi*ht $e-- consider us as )a*ansG our $ee da's

ear the names of 3ars( 3ercur'( 1u)iter( and

VenusG and the nu)tia-s of Cu)id and Ps'che are

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)ainted in the )o)e5s )a-ace G ut( )articu-ar-'( $ere

this Asiatic to attend at our o)era( he $ou-d not

hesitate in conc-udin* it to e a festi%a- in honor of

the )a*an deities" If he endea%ored to *ain more

)recise information res)ectin* our manners( he

Dictionar'" @<

$ou-d eB)erience sti-- *reater astonishmentG he

$ou-d see( in S)ain( that a se%ere -a$ forids an'

forei*ner from ha%in* the s-i*htest share( ho$e%er

indirect( in the commerce of AmericaG and that(

not$ithstandin*( forei*ners throu*h the medium

of S)anish factors carr' on a commerce $ith it

to the eBtent of fteen mi--ions a 'ear" Thus S)ain

can e enriched on-' ' the %io-ation of a -a$ a-$a's

susistin* and a-$a's e%aded" &e $ou-d see that

in another countr' the *o%ernment esta-ishes and

encoura*es a com)an' for tradin* to the Indies(

$hi-e the di%ines of that countr' ha%e dec-ared the

recei%in* of di%idends u)on the shares oMensi%e in

the si*ht of od" &e $ou-d see that the oces

of a Qud*e( a commander( a )ri%' counse--or( are

)urchased G he $ou-d e una-e to com)rehend $h'

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it is stated in the )atents a))ointin* to such oces

that the' ha%e een esto$ed *ratis and $ithout

)urchase( $hi-e the recei)t for the sum *i%en for

them is attached to the commission itse-f" Wou-d

not our Asiatic e sur)rised( a-so( to see comedians

sa-aried ' so%erei*ns( and eBcommunicated '

)riestsJ &e $ou-d inHuire $h' a )-eeian -ieuten8

ant8*enera-( $ho had $on att-es( shou-d e suQect

to the fai--e( -ie a )easant G and a sheriM shou-d e

considered( at -east in reference to this )oint( as

no-e as a 3ontmorenc'G $h'( $hi-e re*u-ar

dramas are foridden to e )erformed durin* a

$ee sacred to edication( merr'8andre$s are )er8

mitted to oMend e%en the -east de-icate ears $ith

@@ Phi-oso)hica-

their ria-dr'" &e $ou-d a-most e%er'$here see

our usa*es in o))osition to our -a$s G and $ere $e

to tra%e- to Asia( $e shou-d disco%er the eBistence

of eBact-' simi-ar contradictions"

3en are e%er'$here inconsistent a-ie" The'

ha%e made -a$s ' )iecemea-( as reaches are re8

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)aired in $a--s" &ere the e-dest sons tae e%er'8

thin* the' are a-e from the 'oun*er onesG there

a-- share eHua--'" Sometimes the Church has or8

dered due-s( sometimes it has anathemati4ed them"

 The )artisans and the o))onents of Aristot-e ha%e

een oth eBcommunicated in their turnG as ha%e

a-so the $earers of -on* hair and short hair" There

has een ut one )erfect -a$ in the $or-d( and that

$as desi*ned to re*u-ate a s)ecies of fo--' that is

to sa'( )-a'" The -a$s of )-a' are the on-' ones

$hich admit of no eBce)tion( re-aBation( chan*e or

t'rann'" A man $ho has een a -ace'( if he )-a's

at -ansHuenet $ith in*s( is )aid $ith )erfect readi8

ness $hen he $ins" In other cases the -a$ is e%er'8

$here a s$ord( $ith $hich the stron*est )art' cuts

in )ieces the $eaest"

In the meantime the $or-d *oes on as if e%er'8

thin* $as $ise-' arran*edG irre*u-arit' is )art of

our nature" Our socia- $or-d is -ie the natura-

*-oe( rude and unsha)e-'( ut )ossessin* a )rinci8

)-e of )reser%ation G it $ou-d e fo--' to $ish that

mountains( seas( and ri%ers $ere traced in re*u-ar

and nished forms G it $ou-d e a sti-- *reater fo--'

to eB)ect from man the )erfection of $isdomG if

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Dictionar'" @

$ou-d e as $ea as to $ish to attach $in*s to

do*s or horns to ea*-es"

EBam)-es Taen from &istor'( from Sacred Scri)8

ture( from Numerous Authors( etc"

We ha%e Qust een instancin* a %ariet' of con8

tradictions in our usa*es( our manners( and our -a$s(

ut $e ha%e not said enou*h" E%er'thin*( )articu8

-ar-' in Euro)e( has een made in the same manner

as &ar-eHuin5s hait" &is master( $hen he $anted

to ha%e a dress made for him( had not a )iece of

c-oth( and therefore too o-d cuttin*s of a-- sorts of

co-ors" &ar-eHuin $as -au*hed at( ut then he $as

c-othed"

 The ermans are a ra%e nation( $hom neither

the ermanicuses nor the TraQans $ere e%er a-e

com)-ete-' to suQu*ate" A-- the erman nations

that d$e-t e'ond the E-e $ere in%inci-e( a-thou*h

ad-' armedG and from these *-oom' c-imes issued

forth( in )art( the a%en*ers of the $or-d" erman'(

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far from constitutin* the Roman Em)ire( has een

instrumenta- in destro'in* it"

 This em)ire had found a refu*e at Constanti8

no)-e( $hen a erman an Austrasian $ent from

AiB8-a8Cha)e--e to Rome( to stri) the ree Caesars

of the remainder of their )ossessions in Ita-'" &e

assumed the name of Caesar Im)eratorG ut neither

he nor his successors e%en %entured to reside at

Rome" That ca)ita- cou-d not either oast or re*ret

that from the time of Au*ustu-us( the na- eBcre8

@7 Phi-oso)hica-

merit of the *enuine Roman Em)ire( a sin*-e Caesar

had -i%ed and een uried $ithin its $a--s"

It is dicu-t to su))ose the em)ire can e #ho-'(#

as it )rofesses three diMerent re-i*ions( of $hich t$o

are dec-ared im)ious( aomina-e( damna-e( and

damned( ' the court of Rome( $hich the $ho-e im8

)eria- court considers in such cases to e su)reme"

It is certain-' not Roman( since the em)eror has

not an' residence at Rome"

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In En*-and )eo)-e $ait u)on the in* nee-in*"

 The constant maBim is( #The in* can do no

$ron*# G his ministers on-' can deser%e -ame G he

is as infa--i-e in his actions as the )o)e in his

 Qud*ments" Such is the fundamenta-( the #Sa-ic#

-a$ of En*-and" 6et the )ar-iament sat in Qud*8

ment on its in*( Ed$ard II"( $ho had een %an8

Huished and taen )risoner ' his $ife G he $as de8

c-ared to ha%e done a-- )ossi-e $ron*( and de)ri%ed

of a-- his ri*hts to the cro$n" Sir Wi--iam Tresse-

$ent to him in )rison( and made him the fo--o$in*

com)-imentar' address 0

#I( Wi--iam Tresse-( as )roB' for the )ar-iament

and the $ho-e En*-ish nation( re%oe the homa*e

former-' )aid 'ou G I )ut 'ou to deance( and de8

)ri%e 'ou of ro'a- )o$er( and from this time forth

$e $i-- ho-d no a--e*iance to 'ou"#

 The )ar-iament tried and sentenced Kin* Richard

II"( *randson of the *reat Ed$ard III" Thirt'8one

artic-es of accusation $ere rou*ht a*ainst him(

amon* $hich t$o are not a -itt-e sin*u-ar that he

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Dictionar'" @>

had orro$ed mone' and not re)aid itG and that

he had asserted efore $itnesses that he $as master

of the -i%es and )ro)erties of his suQects"

 The )ar-iament de)osed &enr' VI"( $ho( un8

douted-'( $as eBceedin*-' $ron*( ut in a some8

$hat diMerent sense 0 he $as imeci-e"

 The )ar-iament dec-ared Ed$ard IV" a traitor(

and conscated his *oodsG and after$ards( on his

ein* successfu-( restored him" As for Richard III"(

he undouted-' committed more $ron* than a-- the

othersG he $as a Nero( ut a o-d oneG and the

)ar-iament did not dec-are his $ron*s ti-- after he

$as s-ain"

 The &ouse of Commons im)uted to Char-es I"

more $ron*s than he $as Qust-' char*ea-e $ith(

and rou*ht him to the scaMo-d" Par-iament %oted

that 1ames II" had committed %er' *ross and a8

*rant $ron*s( and )articu-ar-' that of $ithdra$in*

himse-f from the in*dom" It dec-ared the throne

%acant G that is( it de)osed him" In the )resent da'(

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 1unius $rites to the in* of En*-and that he is

fau-t' in ein* *ood and $ise" If these are not

contradictions( I no$ not $here to nd them"

Contradictions in Certain Rites"

NeBt to those *reat )o-itica- contradictions( $hich

are sudi%ided into innumera-e -itt-e ones( nothin*

more forci-' attracts our notice than the contradic8

tion a))arent in reference to some of our rites" We

hate 1udaism" No -on*er than fteen 'ears a*o

? Phi-oso)hica-

 1e$s $ere sti-- urned at the stae" We consider

them as murderers of our od( and 'et $e assem-e

e%er' Sunda' to chant 1e$ish )sa-ms and cantic-es G

it is on-' o$in* to @ur i*norance of the -an*ua*e

that $e do not recite then%in &ere$" !ut the

fteen rst isho)s( the )riests( deacons and con*re8

*ation of 1erusa-em( $hich $as the crad-e of the

Christian re-i*ion( a-$a's recited the 1e$ish )sa-ms

in the 1e$ish idiom of the S'riac -an*ua*e G and(

ti-- the time of the Ca-i)h Omar( a-most a-- the Chris8

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tians( from T're to A-e))o( )ra'ed in that 1e$ish

idiom" At )resent an' one recitin* the )sa-ms as

the' $ere ori*ina--' com)osed( or chantin* them in

the 1e$ish -an*ua*e( $ou-d e sus)ected of ein* a

circumcised 1e$( and mi*ht e urned as oneG at

-east( not more than t$ent' 'ears since( that $ou-d

ha%e een his fate( a-thou*h 1esus Christ $as cir8

cumcised( as $ere a-so his a)ost-es and disci)-es" I

set aside the m'sterious doctrines of our ho-' re8

-i*ion e%er'thin* that is an oQect of faith e%er'8

thin* that $e ou*ht to a))roach on-' $ith a$e and

sumission" I -oo on-' at eBterna-s G I refer sim)-'

to oser%ancesG I as if an'thin* $as e%er more

contradictor' J

Contradictions in Thin*s and 3en"

If an' -iterar' societ' is inc-ined to undertae a

histor' of contradictions( I $i-- suscrie for t$ent'

fo-io %o-umes" The $or-d dis)-a's nothin* ut con8

tradictions" What $ou-d e necessar' to )ut an

Dictionar'" =

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end to them J To assem-e the states8*enera- of the

human race" !ut( accordin* to the nature and con8

stitution of manind(( it $ou-d e a ne$ contradic8

tion $ere the' to a*ree" !rin* to*ether a-- the

raits in the $or-d( and there $ou-d not e t$o

diMerent minds amon* them"

I no$ on-' t$o descri)tions of immo%a-e

ein*s in the $or-d *eometricians and rute ani8

ma-s G the' are *uided ' t$o in%aria-e ru-es

demonstration and instinct" Some dis)utes( indeed(

ha%e occurred et$een *eometricians( ut rutes

ha%e ne%er %aried"

 The contrasts( the -i*hts and shades( in $hich

men are re)resented in histor'( are not contradic8

tions G the' are faithfu- )ortraits of human nature"

E%er' da' oth censure and admiration are a))-ied

to A-eBander( the murderer of C-itus( ut the

a%en*er of reece G the conHueror of Persia( and the

founder of A-eBandriaG to Csesar( the deauchee(

$ho roed the )u-ic treasur' of Rome to ens-a%e

his countr'( ut $hose c-emenc' $as eHua- to his

%a-or( and $hose *enius $as eHua- to his coura*e G

to 3ahomet( the im)ostor and roer( ut the on-'

-e*is-ator of re-i*ion that e%er dis)-a'ed coura*e( or

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founded a *reat em)ireG to the enthusiast( Crom8

$e--( at once na%e and fanatic( the murderer of his

in* ' form of -a$( ut eHua--' )rofound as a

)o-itician( and %a-iant as a $arrior" A thousand

contrasts freHuent-' )resent themse-%es at once to

the mind( and these contrasts are in nature" The'

Phi-oso)hica-

are not more astonishin* than a ne da' fo--o$ed

' a tem)est"

A))arent Contradictions in !oos"

We must accurate-' distin*uish in oos( and

)articu-ar-' the sacred ones( et$een a))arent and

rea- contradictions" It is said in the Pentateuch

that 3oses $as the meeest of men( and that he

ordered t$ent'8three thousand &ere$s to e s-ain

$ho had $orshi))ed the *o-den ca-f( and t$ent'8

four thousand more( $ho had( -ie himse-f( married

3idianitish $omen" !ut sa*acious commentators

ha%e adduced so-id )roofs that 3oses )ossessed a

most amia-e tem)er( and that he on-' eBecuted the

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%en*eance of od in massacrin* these fort'8se%en

thousand Israe-ites( as Qust stated"

Some darin* critics ha%e )retended to )ercei%e a

contradiction in the narrati%e in $hich it is said that

3oses chan*ed a-- the $aters of E*')t into -ood(

and that the ma*icians of Pharaoh after$ards )er8

formed the same )rodi*' the !oo of EBodus

-ea%in* no inter%a- of time et$een the mirac-e of

3oses and the ma*ica- o)eration of the enchanters"

It a))ears( at rst %ie$( im)ossi-e that these

ma*icians shou-d chan*e to -ood that $hich $as

a-read' made suchG ut the dicu-t' ma' e re8

mo%ed ' su))osin* that 3oses had a--o$ed the

$aters to resume their ori*ina- nature( in order to

*i%e Pharaoh time for reection" This su))osition

is the more )-ausi-e( inasmuch as( if not eB)ress-'

fa%ored ' the teBt( the -atter is not contrar' to it"

Dictionar'"

 The same se)tics inHuire ho$( after a-- the

horses $ere destro'ed ' hai-( in the siBth )-a*ue(

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Pharaoh $as a-e to )ursue the 1e$ish nation $ith

ca%a-r'" !ut this contradiction is not e%en an a)8

)arent one( since the hai- $hich i--ed a-- the horses

that $ere out in the e-ds( cou-d not fa-- on those

$hich $ere in the sta-es"

One of the *reatest contradictions $hich has een

su))osed to e found in the histor' of the in*s is

the utter scarcit' of oMensi%e and defensi%e arms

amon* the 1e$s at the time of the accession of Sau-(

com)ared $ith the arm' of three hundred and thirt'

thousand men( $hom he conducted a*ainst the

Ammonites $ho $ere esie*in* 1aesh i-ead"

It is a fact re-ated that then( and e%en after that

att-e( there $as not a -ance( not e%en a sin*-e s$ord(

amon* the $ho-e &ere$ )eo)-eG that the Phi-is8

tines )re%ented the &ere$s from manufacturin*

s$ords and -ances G that the &ere$s $ere o-i*ed

to ha%e recourse to the Phi-istines for shar)enin*

and re)airin* their )-o$shares( mattocs( aBes( and

)runin*8hoos"

 This acno$-ed*ment seems to )ro%e that the

&ere$s consisted of on-' a %er' sma-- numer( and

that the Phi-istines $ere a )o$erfu- and %ictorious

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nation( $ho e)t the Israe-ites under the 'oe( and

treated them as s-a%esG in short( that it $as im8

)ossi-e for Sau- to co--ect three hundred and thirt'

thousand *htin* men( etc"

 The re%erend Father Ca-met sa's it is )roa-e

Vo-" =7

Phi-oso)hica-

#that there is a -itt-e eBa**eration in $hat is stated

aout Sau- and 1onathan# G ut that -earned man

for*ets that the other commentators ascrie the rst

%ictories of Sau- and 1onathan to one of those de8

cided mirac-es $hich od so often condescended to

)erform in fa%or of his misera-e )eo)-e" 1onathan(

$ith his armor8earer on-'( at the %er' e*innin*(

s-e$ t$ent' of the enem' G and the Phi-istines( ut8

ter-' confounded( turned their arms a*ainst each

other" The author of the !oo of Kin*s )ositi%e-'

dec-ares that it $as a mirac-e of od 0 #Accidit Huasi

miracu-um a Deo"# There is( therefore( no con8

tradiction"

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 The enemies of the Christian re-i*ion( the Ce-8

suses( the Por)h'r's( and the 1u-ians( ha%e eB8

hausted the sa*acit' of their understandin*s u)on

this suQect" The 1e$ish $riters ha%e a%ai-ed them8

se-%es of a-- the ad%anta*es the' deri%ed from their

su)erior no$-ed*e of the &ere$ -an*ua*e to eB8

)-ain these a))arent contradictions" The' ha%e

een fo--o$ed e%en ' Christians( such as Lord &er8

ert( Wo--aston( Tinda-( To-and( Co--ins( Shaftes8

ur'( Woo-ston( ordon( !o-in*roe( and man'

others of diMerent nations" Freret( )er)etua- sec8

retar' of the Academ' of !e--es Lettres in France(

the -earned Le C-erc himse-f( and Simon of the Ora8

tor' thou*ht the' )ercei%ed some contradictions

$hich mi*ht e ascried to the co)'ists" An im8

mense numer of other critics ha%e endea%ored to

Dictionar'" <

remo%e or correct contradictions $hich a))eared to

them ineB)-ica-e"

We read in a dan*erous -itt-e oo( com)osed

$ith much art0 #St" 3atthe$ and St" Lue *i%e

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each a *enea-o*' of Christ diMerent from the other 1

and -est it shou-d e thou*ht that the diMerences are

on-' s-i*ht( such as mi*ht e im)uted to ne*-ect or

o%ersi*ht( the contrar' ma' easi-' e sho$n ' read8

in* the rst cha)ter of 3atthe$ and the third of

Lue" We sha-- then see that fteen *enerations

more are enumerated in the one than in the other G

that( from Da%id( the' com)-ete-' se)arateG that

the' Qoin a*ain at Sa-athie- G ut that( after his son(

the' a*ain se)arate( and do not reunite a*ain ut in

 1ose)h"

#In the same *enea-o*'( St" 3atthe$ a*ain fa--s

into a manifest contradiction( for he sa's that 244iah

$as the father of 1othamG and in the #Para-i)o8

mena(# oo i( cha)( iii"( %" n( =( $e nd three

*enerations et$een them 1oas( Ama4ias( and

A4arias of $hom Lue( as $e-- as 3atthe$( mae

no mention" Further( this *enea-o*' has nothin* to

do $ith that of 1esus( since( accordin* to our creed(

 1ose)h had had no intercourse $ith 3ar'"#

In order to re)-' to this oQection( ur*ed from

the time of Ori*en( and rene$ed from a*e to a*e(

$e must read 1u-ius Africanus" See the t$o *ene8

a-o*ies reconci-ed in the fo--o$in* ta-e( as $e nd

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it in the re)ositor' of ecc-esiastica- $riters 0

@

So-omon and his

descendants( enu8

merated ' Saint

3atthe$"

3athan( her rst

husand"

 1aco( son of 3a8

than( the rst hus8

and"

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 1ose)h( natura-

son of 1aco"

Phi-oso)hica-

DAVID"

EST&ER"

 The $ife of these

t$o )ersons suc8

cessi%e-'( married

rst to &e-i( '

$hom she had no

chi-d( and after8

$ards to 1aco(

his rother"

Nathan and his

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descendants( enu8

merated ' Saint

Lue"

3e-chi( or rather

3athat( her sec8

ond husand"

&e-i"

Le*itimate son of

&e-i"

 There is another method to reconci-e the t$o

*enea-o*ies( ' St" E)i)hanius" Accordin* to him(

 1aco Panther( descended from So-omon( is the

father of 1ose)h and of C-eo)has" 1ose)h has siB

chi-dren ' his rst $ife 1ames( 1oshua( Simeon(

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 1ude( 3ar'( and Sa-ome" &e then es)ouses the

Vir*in 3ar'( the mother of 1esus( and the dau*hter

of 1oachim and Anne"

 There are man' other methods of eB)-ainin*

these t$o *enea-o*ies" See the #Dissertation# of

Father Ca-met( in $hich he endea%ors to reconci-e

St" 3atthe$ $ith St" Lue( on the *enea-o*' of

 1esus Christ" The same -earned se)tics( $ho mae

it their usiness to com)are dates( to eB)-ore oos

and meda-s( to co--ate ancient authors( and to see

for truth ' human si-- and stud'( and $ho -ose

in their no$-ed*e the sim)-icit' of their faith( re8

Dictionar'"

)roach St" Lue $ith contradictin* the other e%an8

*e-ists( and in ein* mistaen in $hat he ad%ances

on the suQect of our Lord5s irth" The author of

the #Ana-'sis of the Christian Re-i*ion# thus

rash-' eB)resses himse-f on the suQect )" U 0

#St" Lue sa's that C'renius $as the *o%ernor of

S'ria( $hen Au*ustus ordered the numerin* of a--

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the )eo)-e of the em)ire" We $i-- sho$ ho$ man'

decided fa-sehoods are contained in these fe$ $ords"

First( Tacitus and Suetonius( the most )recise of

historians( sa' not a sin*-e $ord of the )retended

numerin* of the $ho-e em)ire( $hich certain-'

$ou-d ha%e een a %er' sin*u-ar e%ent( since there

ne%er had een one under an' em)eror at -east( no

author mentions such a case" Second-'( C'renius

did not arri%e in S'ria ti-- ten 'ears after the time

Bed ' St" Lue G it $as then *o%erned ' :uin8

ti-ius Varus( as Tertu--ian re-ates( and as is con8

rmed ' meda-s"#

We contend that in fact there ne%er $as a num8

erin* of the $ho-e Roman em)ire( ut on-' a cen8

sus of Roman citi4ens( accordin* to usa*e G a-thou*h

it is )ossi-e that the co)'ists ma' ha%e $ritten

#numerin*# for #census"# With re*ard to C'ren8

ius( $hom the co)'ists ha%e made Cirinus( it is cer8

tain that he $as not *o%ernor of S'ria at the time of

the irth of 1esus Christ( the *o%ernor ein* :uin8

ti-ius Varus G ut it is %er' )roa-e that :uinti-ius

mi*ht send into 1udaea this same C'renius( $ho ten

'ears after succeeded him in the *o%ernment of

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' 7 Phi-oso)hica-

S'ria" We cannot dissem-e( ho$e%er( that this eB8

)-anation sti-- -ea%es some dicu-ties"

In the rst )-ace( the census made under Au8

*ustus does not corres)ond in time $ith the irth

of 1esus Christ" Second-'( the 1e$s $ere not com8

)rised in that census" 1ose)h and his $ife $ere

not Roman citi4ens" 3ar'( therefore( it is said(

ein* under no necessit'( $as not -ie-' to *o from

Na4areth( $hich is at the eBtremit' of 1udaea( $ithin

a fe$ mi-es of 3ount Taor( in the midst of the

desert( to -ie in at !eth-ehem( $hich is ei*ht' mi-es

from Na4areth"

!ut it mi*ht easi-' ha))en that Cirinus( or C'ren8

ius( ha%in* een sent to 1erusa-em ' :uinti-ius

Varus to im)ose a )o--8taB( 1ose)h and 3ar' $ere

summoned ' the ma*istrate of !eth-ehem to *o and

)a' the taB in the to$n of !eth-ehem( the )-ace of

their irth" In this there is nothin* contradictor'"

 The critics ma' endea%or to $eaen this so-ution

' re)resentin* that it $as &erod on-' $ho im8

)osed taBesG that the Romans at that time -e%ied

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nothin* on 1udaea G that Au*ustus -eft &erod com8

)-ete-' his o$n master for the triute $hich that

Idumean )aid to the em)ire" !ut( in an emer*enc'(

it is not im)ossi-e to mae some arran*ement $ith

a triutar' )rince( and send him an intendant to es8

ta-ish in concert $ith him the ne$ taB"

We $i-- not here sa'( -ie so man' others( that

co)'ists ha%e committed man' errors( and that in

Dictionar'" >

the %ersion $e )ossess there are to e found more

than ten thousandG $e had rather sa' $ith the

doctors of the Church and the most en-i*htened

)ersons( that the os)e-s $ere *i%en us on-' to

teach us to -i%e ho-i-'( and not to criticise -earned-'"

 These )retended contradictions )roduced a dread8

fu- im)ression on the much -amented 1ohn 3es-ier(

rector of Etre)i*ni and !ut in Cham)a*ne" This

tru-' %irtuous and charita-e( ut at the same time

me-ancho-'( man( ein* )ossessed of scarce-' an'

other oos than the !i-e and some of the fathers(

read them $ith a studiousness of attention that e8

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came fata- to him" A-thou*h ound ' the duties

of his oce to incu-cate doci-it' u)on his oc( he

$as not sucient-' doci-e himse-f" &e sa$ a)8

)arent contradictions( and shut his e'es to the means

su**ested for reconci-in* them" &e ima*ined that

he )ercei%ed the most fri*htfu- contradictions e8

t$een 1esus ein* orn a 1e$ and after$ards ein*

reco*ni4ed as odG in re*ard to that od no$n

from the rst as the son of 1ose)h the car)enter and

the rother of 1ames( 'et descended from an em)'8

rean $hich does not eBist( to destro' sin u)on earth

that is sti-- co%ered $ith crimes G in re*ard to that

od( the son of a common artisan and a descendant

of Da%id on the side of his father( $ho $as not in

fact his fatherG et$een the creator of a-- $or-ds(

and the descendant of the adu-terous !athshea( the

)rurient Ruth( the incestuous Tamar( the )rosti8

7? Phi-oso)hica-

tute of 1ericho( the $ife of Araham( so sus)icious-'

attracti%e to a in* of E*')t( and a*ain at the a*e

of ninet' 'ears to a in* of erar"

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3es-ier eB)atiates $ith an im)iet' aso-ute-'

monstrous on these )retended contradictions( as

the' struc him( for $hich( ho$e%er( he mi*ht easi-'

ha%e found an eB)-anation( had he )ossessed on-' a

sma-- )ortion of doci-it'" At -en*th his *-oom so

*re$ u)on him in his so-itude that he actua--' e8

came horror8stricen at that ho-' re-i*ion $hich it

$as his dut' to )reach and -o%e G and( -istenin* on-'

to his seduced and $anderin* reason( he aQured

Christianit' ' a $i-- $ritten in his o$n hand( of

$hich he -eft three co)ies ehind him at his death(

$hich too )-ace in =" The co)' of this $i-- has

een often )rinted( and eBhiits( in truth( a most

crue- stum-in*8-oc" A c-er*'man( $ho at the

)oint of death( ass )ardon of od and his )arish8

ioners for ha%in* tau*ht the doctrines of Christi8

anit'G a charita-e c-er*'man( $ho ho-ds Chris8

tianit' in eBecration ecause man' $ho )rofess it

are de)ra%ed G $ho is shoced at the )om) and )ride

of Rome( and eBas)erated ' the dicu-ties of the

sacred %o-ume G a c-er*'man $ho s)eas of Chris8

tianit' -ie Por)h'r'( 1am-ichus( E)ictetus( 3arcus

Aure-ius( and 1u-ian And this Qust as he is to mae

his a))earance efore od &o$ fata- a case for

him( and for a-- $ho ma' e -ed astra' ' his eB8

am)-e

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In a simi-ar manner the unfortunate )reacher

Dictionar'" 7=

Anton'( mis-ed ' the a))arent contradictions $hich

he ima*ined he sa$ et$een the ne$ and the o-d

-a$( et$een the cu-ti%ated o-i%e and the $i-d o-i%e(

$retched-' aandoned the Christian re-i*ion for the

 1e$ishG and( more coura*eous than 1ohn 3es-ier(

)referred death to recantation"

It is e%ident from the $i-- of 1ohn 3es-ier that

the a))arent contradictions of the *os)e- $ere the

)rinci)a- cause of unsett-in* the mind of that un8

fortunate )astor( $ho $as( in other res)ects( a man

of the strictest %irtue( and $hom it is im)ossi-e to

thin of $ithout com)assion" 3es-ier is dee)-' im8

)ressed ' the t$o *enea-o*ies( $hich seem in direct

o))osition G he had not seen the method of reconci-8

in* them G he fee-s a*itated and )ro%oed to see that

St" 3atthe$ maes the father and mother of the

chi-d tra%e- into E*')t( after ha%in* recei%ed the

homa*e of the three eastern ma*i or in*s( and $hi-e

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o-d Kin* &erod( under the a))rehension of ein*

dethroned ' an infant Qust orn at !eth-ehem(

causes the s-au*hter of a-- the infants in the countr'(

in order to )re%ent such a re%o-ution" &e is aston8

ished that neither St" Lue( nor St" 3ar( nor St"

 1ohn mae an' mention of this massacre" &e is con8

founded at oser%in* that St" Lue maes 1ose)h(

and the -essed Vir*in 3ar'( and 1esus our Sa%iour(

remain at !eth-ehem( after $hich the' $ithdra$ to

Na4areth" &e shou-d ha%e seen that the &o-'

Father mi*ht at rst *o into E*')t( and some time

after$ards to Na4areth( $hich $as their countr'"

7 Phi-oso)hica-

If St" 3atthe$ a-one maes mention of the three

ma*i( and of the star $hich *uided them to !eth-e8

hem from the remote c-imes of the East( and of the

massacre of the chi-drenG if the other e%an*e-ists

tae no notice of these e%ents( the' do not contradict

St" 3atthe$ G si-ence is not contradiction"

If the three rst e%an*e-ists St" 3atthe$( St"

3ar( and St" Lue mae 1esus Christ to ha%e

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-i%ed ut three months from his a)tism in a-i-ee

ti-- his cruciBion at 1erusa-em G and if St" 1ohn eB8

tends that time to three 'ears and three months( it

is eas' to a))roBimate St" 1ohn to the other e%an8

*e-ists( as he does not eB)ress-' state that 1esus

Christ )reached in a-i-ee for three 'ears and three

months( ut on-' -ea%es it to e inferred from his

narrati%e" Shou-d a man renounce his re-i*ion u)on

sim)-e inferences( u)on )oints of contro%ers'( u)on

dicu-ties in chrono-o*'J

It is im)ossi-e( sa's 3es-ier( to harmoni4e St"

3ar and St" Lue G since the rst sa's that 1esus(

$hen he -eft the $i-derness( $ent to Ca)ernaum(

and the second that he $ent to Na4areth" St" 1ohn

sa's that Andre$ $as the rst $ho ecame a fo-8

-o$er of 1esus ChristG the three other e%an*e-ists

sa' that it $as Simon Peter"

&e )retends( a-so( that the' contradict each other

$ith res)ect to the da' $hen 1esus ce-erated the

Passo%er( the hour and )-ace of &is eBecution( the

time of &is a))earance and resurrection" &e

is con%inced that oos $hich contradict each other

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Literature or Art"

I ha%e sometimes heard it said of a *ood Qud*e

on these suQects( and of eBHuisite taste( that man

decides accordin* to mere ca)rice" &e 'esterda'

descried Poussin as an admira-e )ainterG to8da'

he re)resents him as an ordinar' one" The fact is(

that Poussin has merited oth )raise and censure"

 There is no contradiction in ein* enra)tured '

7 Phi-oso)hica-

the de-icious scenes of the &oratii and Curiatii( of

the Cid( of Au*ustus and of Cinna( and after$ards

in seein*( $ith dis*ust and indi*nation( fteen tra*e8

dies in succession( containin* no interest( no eaut'(

and not e%en $ritten in French"

It is the author himse-f $ho is contradictor'" It

is he $ho has the misfortune to diMer entire-' from

himse-f" The critic $ou-d contradict himse-f( if he

eHua--' a))-auded $hat is eBce--ent and detesta-e"

&e $i-- admire in &omer the descri)tion of the

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*ird-e of Venus G the )artin* of &ector and An8

dromacheG the inter%ie$ et$een Achi--es and

Priam" !ut $i-- he eHua--' a))-aud those )assa*es

$hich descrie the *ods as ausin* and *htin* $ith

one anotherG the uniformit' in att-es $hich decide

nothin*G the ruta- ferocit' of the heroes( and th5e

a%arice ' $hich the' are a-most a-- actuated G in

short( a )oem $hich terminates $ith a truce of

e-e%en da's( unHuestiona-' eBcitin* an eB)ectation

of the continuation of the $ar and the tain* of

 Tro'( $hich( ho$e%er( are not re-ated J

A *ood critic $i-- freHuent-' )ass from a))roa8

tion to censure( ho$e%er eBce--ent the $or ma' e

$hich he is )erusin*"

CONTRAST"

CONTRAST( o))osition of *ures( situations( for8

tune( manners( etc" A modest she)herdess forms a

eautifu- contrast in a )aintin* $ith a hau*ht'

)rincess" The )art of the im)ostor and that of

Dictionar'" 7<

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Aristes constitute a %er' admira-e contrast in # Tar8

tuM e"#

 The -itt-e ma' contrast $ith the *reat in )aint8

in*( ut cannot e said to e contrar' to it" O))osi8

tion of co-ors contrastsG ut there are a-so co-ors

contrar' to each otherG that is( $hich )roduce an

i-- eMect ecause the' shoc the e'e $hen rou*ht

%er' near it"

#Contradictor'# is a term to e used on-' in

-o*ic" It is contradictor' for an'thin* to e and not

to e G to e in man' )-aces at once G to e of a cer8

tain numer or si4e( and not to e so" An o)inion(

a discourse( or a decree( $e ma' ca-- contradictor'"

 The diMerent fortunes of Char-es ;II" ha%e een

contrar'( ut not contradictor'G the' form in his8

tor' a eautifu- contrast"

It is a striin* contrast and the t$o thin*s are

)erfect-' contrar' ut it is not contradictor'( that

the )o)e shou-d e $orshi))ed in Rome( and urned

in London on the same da'G that $hi-e he $as

ca--ed od5s %ice*erent in Ita-'( he shou-d e re)re8

sented in the streets of 3osco$ as a ho*( for the

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amusement of Peter the reat"

3ahomet( stationed at the ri*ht hand of od o%er

ha-f the *-oe( and damned o%er the other ha-f( is

the *reatest of contrasts" Tra%e- far from 'our o$n

countr'( and e%er'thin* $i-- e contrast for 'ou"

 The $hite man $ho rst sa$ a ne*ro $as much

astonishedG ut the rst $ho said that the ne*ro

$as the oMs)rin* of a $hite )air astonishes me much

7@ Phi-oso)hica-

more G I do not a*ree $ith him" A )ainter $ho re)8

resents $hite men( ne*roes( and o-i%e8co-ored )eo8

)-e( ma' dis)-a' ne contrasts"

CONV2LSIONARIES"

A!O2T the 'ear = the cemeter' of St" 3edard

aounded in amusement( and man' mirac-es $ere

)erformed there" The fo--o$in* e)i*ram ' the

duchess of 3aine *i%es a to-era-e account of the

character of most of them 0

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2n cttcrotteur a -a Ro'a-e(

Du ta-on *auche estro)it(

Otint( )our *rdce s)ecia-s"

D5etre tortueuB de I5autre )ied"

A Port8Ro'a- shoe8-ac( $ho had one -ame -e*(

 To mae oth a-ie the Lord5s fa%or did e*G

&ea%en -istened( and strai*ht$a' a mirac-e came(

For Huic-' he rose u)( $ith oth his -e*s -ame"

 The mirac-es continued( as is $e-- no$n( unti-

a *uard $as stationed at the cemeter'"

De )ar -e roi( defense a Dieu

De faire mirac-es en ce -ieu"

Louis to od0 To ee) the )eace(

&ere mirac-es must henceforth cease"

It is a-so $e-- no$n that the 1esuits( ein* no

-on*er a-e to )erform simi-ar mirac-es( in conse8

Huence of ;a%ier ha%in* eBhausted their stoc of

*race and miracu-ous )o$er( ' resuscitatin* nine

dead )ersons at one time( reso-%ed in order to coun8

teract the credit of the 1ansenists( to en*ra%e a )rint

of 1esus Christ dressed as a 1esuit" The 1ansenists(

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on the other hand( in order to *i%e a satisfactor'

)roof that 1esus Christ had not assumed the hait of

Dictionar'" 7

a 1esuit( --ed Paris $ith con%u-sions( and attracted

*reat cro$ds of )eo)-e to $itness them" The coun8

se--or of )ar-iament( Carre de 3ont*eron( $ent to

)resent to the in* a Huarto co--ection of a-- these

mirac-es( attested ' a thousand $itnesses" &e $as

%er' )ro)er-' shut u) in a chateau( $here attem)ts

$ere made to restore his senses ' re*imenG ut

truth a-$a's )re%ai-s o%er )ersecution( and the

mirac-es -asted for thirt' 'ears to*ether( $ithout in8

terru)tion" Sister Rose( Sister I--uminee( and the

sisters Promise and Comtte( $ere scour*ed $ith

*reat ener*'( $ithout( ho$e%er( eBhiitin* an' a)8

)earance of the $hi))in* neBt da'" The' $ere

astinadoed on their stomachs $ithout inQur'( and

)-aced efore a -ar*e reG ut( ein* defended '

certain )omades and )re)arations( $ere not urned"

At -en*th( as e%er' art is constant-' ad%ancin* to8

$ards )erfection( their )ersecutors conc-uded $ith

actua--' thrustin* s$ords throu*h their chairs( and

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$ith crucif'in* them" A famous schoo-master had

a-so the enet of cruciBion G a-- $hich $as done to

con%ince the $or-d that a certain u-- $as ridicu-ous(

a fact that mi*ht ha%e een easi-' )ro%ed $ithout

so much trou-e" &o$e%er( 1esuits and 1ansenists

a-- united a*ainst the #S)irit of La$s(# and a*ainst

"""" and a*ainst """" and a*ainst """"

and And after a-- this $e dare to ridi8

cu-e La)-anders( Samo'eds( and ne*roes =

77 Phi-oso)hica-

CORN"

 T&E6 must e se)tics indeed $ho dout that

)ain comes from )anis" !ut to mae read $e must

ha%e corn" The au-s had corn in the time of

CaesarG ut $hence did the' tae the $ord -eJ

It is )retended that it is from -adum( a $ord em8

)-o'ed in the ararous Latin of the midd-e a*e '

the Chance--or Des%i*nes( or De Erneis( $hose e'es(

it is said( $ere torn out ' order of the Em)eror

Frederic II"

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!ut the Latin $ords of these ararous a*es

$ere on-' ancient Ce-tic or Teutonic $ords Latin8

i4ed" !-adum then comes from our -ead( and not

our -ead from -adum" The Ita-ians ca-- it ioda(

and the countries in $hich the ancient Roman

-an*ua*e is )reser%ed( sti-- sa' -ia"

 This no$-ed*e is not innite-' usefu- G ut $e

are curious to no$ $here the au-s and Teutons

found corn to so$J We are to-d that the T'rians

rou*ht it into S)ain( the S)aniards into au-( and

the au-s into erman'" And $here did the

 T'rians *et this cornJ Proa-' from the rees(

in eBchan*e for their a-)haet"

Who made this )resent to the reesJ It $as

the *oddess Ceres( $ithout doutG and ha%in*

ascended to Ceres( $e can scarce-' *o an' hi*her"

Ceres must ha%e descended from hea%en eB)ress-'

to *i%e us $heat( r'e( and ar-e'" &o$e%er( as the

credit of Ceres( $ho *a%e corn to the rees( and

Dictionar'" 7>

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that of Ishet( or Isis( $ho *ratied the E*')tians

$ith it( are at )resent %er' much deca'ed( $e ma'

sti-- e said to remain in uncertaint' as to the ori*in

of corn"

Sanchoniathon te--s us that Da*on or Da*an( one

of the *randsons of Thaut( had the su)erintendence

of the corn in Phoenicia" ;o$ his Thaut $as near

the time of our 1ared G from $hich it a))ears that

corn is %er' ancient( and that it is of the same an8

tiHuit' as *rass" Perha)s this Da*on $as the rst

$ho made read( ut that is not demonstrated"

What a stran*e thin* that $e shou-d no$ )osi8

ti%e-' that $e are o-i*ed to Noah for $ine( and

that $e do not no$ to $hom $e o$e the in%ention

of read" And $hat is sti-- more stran*e( $e are

sti-- so un*ratefu- to Noah that( $hi-e $e ha%e more

than t$o thousand son*s in honor of !acchus( $e

scarce-' sin* one in honor of our enefactor( Noah"

A 1e$ assured me that corn came $ithout cu-ti8

%ation in 3eso)otamia( as a))-es( $i-d )ears( chest8

nuts( and med-ars( in the $est" It is as $e-- to e8

-ie%e him( unti- $e are sure of the contrar'G for it

is necessar' that corn shou-d *ro$ s)ontaneous-'

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some$here" It has ecome the ordinar' and indis8

)ensa-e nourishment in the nest c-imates( and in

a-- the north"

 The *reat )hi-oso)hers $hose ta-ents $e estimate

so hi*h-'( and $hose s'stems $e do not fo--o$(

ha%e )retended( in the natura- histor' of the do*

)a*e =><U( that men created cornG and that our

Vo-" =>

>? Phi-oso)hica-

ancestors( ' means of so$in* tares and co$8*rass

to*ether( chan*ed them into $heat" As these )hi8

-oso)hers are not of our o)inion on she--s( the' $i--

)ermit us to diMer from them on corn" We do not

thin that tu-i)s cou-d e%er ha%e een )roduced

from Qasmine" We nd that the *erm of corn is

Huite diMerent from that of tares( and $e do not

e-ie%e in an' transmutation" When it sha-- e

)ro%ed to us( $e $i-- retract"

We ha%e seen( in the artic-e #!readtree(# that

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in three8Huarters of the earth read is not eaten" It

is )retended that the Ethio)ians -au*hed at the

E*')tians( $ho -i%ed on read" !ut since corn is

our chief nourishment( it has ecome one of the

*reatest oQects of commerce and )o-itics" So much

has een $ritten on this suQect( that if a -aorer

so$ed as man' )ounds of $heat as $e ha%e %o-umes

on this commodit'( he mi*ht eB)ect a more am)-e

har%est( and ecome richer than those $ho( in their

)ainted and *i-ded sa-oons( are i*norant of the eB8

cess of his o))ression and miser'"

E*')t ecame the est countr' in the $or-d for

$heat $hen( after se%era- a*es( $hich it is dicu-t

to recon eBact-'( the inhaitants found the secret

of renderin* a destructi%e ri%er $hich had a-$a's

inundated the countr'( and $as on-' usefu- to the

rats( insects( re)ti-es( and crocodi-es of E*')t ser%8

icea-e to the fecundit' of the soi-" Its $aters(

miBed $ith a -ac mud( $ere neither usefu- to

Huench the thirst of the inhaitants( nor for a-u8

Dictionar'" >=

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tion" It must ha%e reHuired a -on* time and )ro8

di*ious -aor to sudue the ri%er( to di%ide it into

cana-s( to found to$ns on -ands former-' mo%a-e(

and to chan*e the ca%erns of the rocs into %ast

ui-din*s"

A-- this is more astonishin* than the )'ramidsG

for ein* accom)-ished( eho-d a )eo)-e sure of the

est corn in the $or-d( $ithout the necessit' of

-aor It is the inhaitant of this countr' $ho

raises and fattens )ou-tr' su)erior to that of CauB(

$ho is haited in the nest -inen in the most tem8

)erate c-imate( and $ho has none of the rea- $ants

of other )eo)-e"

 To$ards the 'ear =<?( the French nation( sur8

feited $ith tra*edies( comedies( o)eras( romances(

and romantic histories $ith mora- reections sti--

more romantic( and $ith theo-o*ica- dis)utes on

*race and on con%u-sionaries( e*an to reason u)on

corn" The' e%en for*ot the %ine( in treatin* of

$heat and r'e" 2sefu- thin*s $ere $ritten on a*ri8

cu-ture( and e%er'od' read them eBce)t the -aor8

ers" The *ood )eo)-e ima*ined( as the' $a-ed out

of the comic o)era( that France had a )rodi*ious

Huantit' of corn to se--( and the cr' of the nation

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at -ast otained of the *o%ernment( in =@( the -i8

ert' of eB)ortation"

Accordin*-' the' eB)orted" The resu-t $as eB8

act-' $hat it had een in the time of &enr' IV"(

the' so-d a -itt-e too much( and a arren 'ear suc8

ceedin*( 3ademoise--e !ernard $as o-i*ed( for the

> Phi-oso)hica-

second time( to se-- her nec-ace to *et -inen and

chemises" No$ the com)-ainants )assed from one

eBtreme to the other( and com)-ained a*ainst the

eB)ortation that the' had so recent-' demanded(

$hich sho$s ho$ dicu-t it is to )-ease a-- the $or-d

and his $ife"

A-e and $e--8meanin* )eo)-e( $ithout interest(

ha%e $ritten( $ith as much sa*acit' as coura*e( in

fa%or of the un-imited -iert' of the commerce in

*rain" Others( of as much mind( and $ith eHua--'

)ure %ie$s( ha%e $ritten in the idea of -imitin* this

-iert' G and the Nea)o-itan Ae a*-iana amused

the French nation on the eB)ortation of corn( '

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ndin* out the secret of main*( e%en in French(

dia-o*ues as amusin* as our est romances( and X

instructi%e as our *ood serious oos" If this $or

did not diminish the )rice of read( it *a%e *reat

)-easure to the nation( $hich $as $hat it %a-ued

most" The )artisans of un-imited eB)ortation an8

s$ered him smart-'" The resu-t $as that the

readers no -on*er ne$ $here the' $ere( and the

*reater )art too to readin* romances( eB)ectin*

that the three or four fo--o$in* 'ears of aundance#

$ou-d ena-e them to Qud*e" The -adies $ere no

-on*er a-e to distin*uish $heat from r'e( $hi-e

honest de%otees continued to e-ie%e that *rain must

-ie and rot in the *round in order to s)rin* u)

a*ain"

Dictionar'" >

CO2NCILS"

3eetin*s of Ecc-esiastics( Ca--ed To*ether to Re8

so-%e Douts or :uestions on Points of Faith or

Disci)-ine"

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 T&E 2SE of counci-s $as not unno$n to the fo-8

-o$ers of the ancient re-i*ion of 9erdusht( $hom $e

ca-- 9oroaster" Aout the 'ear ?? of our era(

Ardeshir !aecan( in* of Persia( ca--ed to*ether

fort' thousand )riests( to consu-t them touchin*

some of his douts aout )aradise and he--( $hich

the' ca-- the *ehen a term ado)ted ' the 1e$s

durin* their ca)ti%it' at !a'-on( as the' did the

names of the an*e-s and of the months" Erdo%ira)h(

the most ce-erated of the ma*i( ha%in* drun three

*-asses of a so)oric $ine( had an ecstas' $hich

-asted se%en da's and se%en ni*hts( durin* $hich his

sou- $as trans)orted to od" When the )aroB'sm

$as o%er( he reassured the faith of the in*( '

re-atin* to him the *reat man' $onderfu- thin*s

he had seen in the other $or-d( and ha%in* them

$ritten do$n"

We no$ that 1esus $as ca--ed Christ( a ree

$ord si*nif'in* anointedG and his doctrine Chris8

tianit'( or *os)e-( i" e"( *ood ne$s( ecause ha%in*(

as $as his custom( entered one Saath da' the

s'na*o*ue of Na4areth( $here he $as rou*ht u)(

&e a))-ied to &imse-f this )assa*e of Isaiah( $hich

&e had Qust read0 #The s)irit of the Lord is on

me( ecause &e hath anointed me to )reach the

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> Phi-oso)hica-

*os)e- to the )oor"# The' of the s'na*o*ue did(

to e sure( dri%e &im out of their to$n( and carr'

&im to a )oint of the hi--( on $hich it $as ui-t( in

order to thro$ &im head-on* from itG and &is

re-ati%es #$ent out to -a' ho-d on &im(# for the'

$ere to-d( and the' said( #that &e $as eside &im8

se-f"# Nor is it -ess certain that 1esus constant-'

dec-ared &e had come not to destro' the -a$ or the

)ro)hecies( ut to fu-- them"

!ut( as &e -eft nothin* $ritten( &is rst disci)-es

$ere di%ided on the famous Huestion( $hether the

enti-es $ere to e circumcised and ordered to ee)

the 3osaic -a$" The a)ost-es and the )riests( there8

fore( assem-ed at 1erusa-em to eBamine this )oint(

and( after man' conferences( the' $rote to the

rethren amon* the enti-es( at Antioch( in S'ria(

and in Ci-icia( a -etter of $hich $e *i%e the su8

stance 0 #It has seemed *ood to the &o-' host

and to us( not to im)ose u)on 'ou an' o-i*ations

ut those $hich are necessar'( %i4"( to astain from

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meats oMered u) to ido-s( from -ood( from the

esh of choed anima-s( and from fornication"#

 The decision of this counci- did not )re%ent

Peter( $hen at Antioch( from continuin* to eat $ith

the enti-es( efore some of the circumcised( $ho

came from 1ames( had arri%ed" !ut Pau-( seein*

that he did not $a- strai*ht in the )ath of *os)e-

truth( resisted him to the face( sa'in* to him efore

them a--( #If thou( ein* a 1e$( -i%est after the

manner of enti-es( and not as do the 1e$s( $h'

Dictionar'" ><

com)e--est thou the enti-es to -i%e as do the 1e$sJ#

Indeed Peter had -i%ed -ie the enti-es e%er since

he had seen( in a trance( #hea%en o)ened( and a cer8

tain %esse- descendin* unto him( as it had een a

*reat sheet( nit at the four corners( and -et do$n to

the earthG $herein $ere a-- manner of four8footed

easts of the earth( and $i-d easts( and cree)in*

thin*s( and fo$-s of the air" And there came a %oice

to him( Rise( Peter( i-- and eat"#

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Pau-( $ho so -oud-' re)ro%ed Peter for usin*

this dissimu-ation to mae them e-ie%e that he

sti-- oser%ed the -a$( had himse-f recourse to a

simi-ar feint at 1erusa-em" !ein* accused of teach8

in* the 1e$s $ho $ere amon* the enti-es to re8

nounce 3oses( he $ent and )uried himse-f in the

tem)-e for se%en da's( in order that a-- mi*ht no$

that $hat the' had heard of him $as fa-se( and that

he continued to oser%e the -a$ G this( too( $as done

' the ad%ice of a-- the )riests( assem-ed at the

house of 1ames $hich )riests $ere the same $ho

had decided $ith the &o-' host( that these oser8

%ations $ere unnecessar'"

Counci-s $ere after$ards distin*uished into *en8

era- and )articu-ar" Particu-ar counci-s are of three

inds nationa-( con%oed ' the )rince( the )atri8

arch( or the )rimateG )ro%incia-( assem-ed ' the

metro)o-itan or archisho) G and diocesan( or s'nods

he-d ' each isho)" The fo--o$in* is a decree of

one of the counci-s he-d at 3acon 0

#Whene%er a -a'man meet a )riest or a deacon

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>@ Phi-oso)hica-

on the road( he sha-- oMer him his arm G if the )riest

and the -a'man are oth on horseac( the -a'man

sha-- sto) and sa-ute the )riest re%erent-' G and if

the )riest e on foot( and the -a'man on horseac(

the -a'man sha-- dismount( and sha-- not mount

a*ain unti- the ecc-esiastic e at a certain distance G

a-- on )ain of interdiction for as -on* a time as it

sha-- )-ease the metro)o-itan"#

 The -ist of the counci-s( in 3oreri5s #Dictionar'(#

occu)ies more than siBteen )a*es( ut as authors are

not a*reed concernin* the numer of *enera- coun8

ci-s( $e sha-- here conne ourse-%es to the resu-ts

of the rst ei*ht that $ere assem-ed ' order of the

em)erors"

 T$o )riests of A-eBandria( seein* to no$

$hether 1esus $as od or creature( not on-' did

the isho)s and )riests dis)ute ut the $ho-e )eo)-e

$ere di%ided( and the disorder arri%ed at such a

)itch that the Pa*ans ridicu-ed Christianit' on the

sta*e" The em)eror Constantine rst $rote in

these terms to !isho) A-eBander and the )riest

Arms( the authors of the dissension0 #These Hues8

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tions( $hich are unnecessar'( and s)rin* on-' from

un)rota-e id-eness( ma' e discussed in order to

eBercise the inte--ectG ut the' shou-d not e re8

)eated in the hearin* of the )eo)-e" !ein* di%ided

on so sma-- a matter( it is not Qust that 'ou shou-d

*o%ern( accordin* to 'our thou*hts( so *reat a mu-ti8

tude of od5s )eo)-e" Such conduct is mean and

)ueri-e( un$orth' of the )riest-' oce( and of men

Dictionar'" >

of sense" I do not sa' this to com)e- 'ou entire-'

to a*ree on this fri%o-ous Huestion( $hate%er it is"

 6ou ma'( $ith a )ri%ate diMerence( )reser%e unit'(

)ro%ided these sut-eties and diMerent o)inions re8

main secret in 'our inmost thou*hts"#

 The em)eror( ha%in* -earned that his -etter $as

$ithout eMect( reso-%ed( ' the ad%ice of the isho)s(

to con%oe an ecumenica- counci- i" e"( a counci- of

the $ho-e haita-e earth( and chose for the )-ace of

meetin* the to$n of Nicaea( in !ith'nia" There

came thither t$o thousand and fort'8ei*ht isho)s(

$ho( as Eut'chius re-ates( $ere a-- of diMerent sen8

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timents and o)inions" This )rince( ha%in* had the

)atience to hear them dis)ute on this )oint( $as

much sur)rised at ndin* amon* them so -itt-e

unanimit' G and the author of the Araic )reface to

this counci- sa's that the records of these dis)utes

amounted to fort' %o-umes"

 This )rodi*ious numer of isho)s $i-- not a)8

)ear incredi-e $hen it is reco--ected that 2sher(

Huoted ' Se-den( re-ates that St" Patric( $ho -i%ed

in the fth centur'( founded three hundred and

siBt'8%e churches( and ordained the -ie numer of

isho)s G $hich )ro%es that then each church had its

isho)( that is( its o%er-ooer"

In the Counci- of Nice there $as read a -etter

from Euseius of Nicomedia( containin* manifest

heres'( and disco%erin* the caa- of Arius5s )art'"

In it $as said( amon* other thin*s( that if 1esus

$ere acno$-ed*ed to e the Son of od uncreated(

>7 Phi-oso)hica-

&e must a-so e acno$-ed*ed to e consustantia-

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$ith tne Father" Therefore it $as that Athanasius(

a deacon of A-eBandria( )ersuaded the fathers to

d$e-- on the $ord consustantia-( $hich had een

reQected as im)ro)er ' the Counci- of Antioch( he-d

a*ainst Pau- of Samosata G ut he too it in a *ross

sense( marin* di%isionG as $e sa'( that se%era-

)ieces of mone' are of the same meta-0 $hereas

the orthodoB eB)-ained the term consustantia- so

$e--( that the em)eror himse-f com)rehended that

it in%o-%ed no cor)orea- idea si*nied no di%ision

of the aso-ute-' immateria- and s)iritua- sustance

of the Father ut $as to e understood in a

di%ine and ineMa-e sense" The' moreo%er sho$ed

the inQustice of the Arians in reQectin* this $ord

on )retence that it $as not in the Scri)tures the'

$ho em)-o' so man' $ords $hich are not there

to e found G and $ho sa' that the Son of od $as

rou*ht out of nothin*( and had not eBisted from

a-- eternit'"

Constantine then $rote t$o -etters at the same

time( to *i%e )u-icit' to the ordinances of the coun8

ci-( and mae them no$n to such as had not at8

tended it" The rst( addressed to the churches in

*enera-( sa's( in so man' $ords( that the Huestion

of the faith has een eBamined( and so $e-- c-eared

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u)( that no dicu-t' remains" In the second( amon*

others( the church of A-eBandria is thus addressed 0

#What three hundred isho)s ha%e ordained is no

other than the seed of the on-' Son of odG the

Dictionar'" >>

&o-' host has dec-ared the $i-- of od throu*h

these *reat men( $hom he ins)ired" No$( then( -et

none dout -et none dis)ute( ut each one return

$ith a-- his heart into the $a' of truth"#

 The ecc-esiastica- $riters are not a*reed as to

the numer of isho)s $ho suscried to the ordi8

nances of this counci-" Euseius recons on-' t$o

hundred and ft' G Eustathius of Antioch( cited '

 Theodoret( t$o hundred and se%ent'G St" Athan8

asius( in his e)ist-e to the So-itaries( three hundred(

-ie Constantine G $hi-e( in his -etter to the Africans(

he s)eas of three hundred and ei*hteen" 6et these

four authors $ere e'e8$itnesses( and $orth' of

*reat faith"

 This numer =7( $hich Po)e St" Leo ca--s m's8

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terious( has een ado)ted ' most of the fathers of

the church" St" Amrose assures us that the numer

of =7 isho)s $as a )roof of the )resence of our

Lord 1esus Christ in his Counci- of Nicaea( ecause

the cross desi*nates three hundred( and the name of

 1esus ei*hteen" St" &i-ar'( in his defence of the

$ord consustantia-( a))ro%ed in the Counci- of

Nice( thou*h condemned ft'8%e 'ears efore in

the Counci- of Antioch( reasons thus0 #Ei*ht'

isho)s reQected the $ord consustantia-( ut three

hundred and ei*hteen ha%e recei%ed it" No$ this

-atter numer seems to me a sacred numer( for it

is that of the men $ho accom)anied Araham(

$hen( after his %ictor' o%er the im)ious in*s( he

$as -essed ' him $ho is the t')e of the eterna-

?? Phi-oso)hica-

)riesthood"# And Se-den re-ates that Dorotheus(

metro)o-itan of 3onemasis( said there $ere )re8

cise-' three hundred and ei*hteen fathers at this

counci-( ecause three hundred and ei*hteen 'ears

had e-a)sed since the incarnation" A-- chrono-o*ists

)-ace this counci- in the 'ear < of our modern era G

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ut Dorotheus deducts se%en 'ears( to mae his com8

)arison com)-eteG this( ho$e%er( is a mere trie"

!esides( it $as not unti- the Counci- of Lestines( in

( that the 'ears e*an to e counted from the

incarnation of 1esus" Dion'sius the Less had im8

a*ined this e)och in his so-ar c'c-e of the 'ear <@(

and !ede had made use of it in his #Ecc-esiastica-

&istor'"#

It $i-- not e a suQect of astonishment that Con8

stantine ado)ted the o)inion of the three hundred

or three hundred and ei*hteen isho)s $ho he-d the

di%init' of 1esus( $hen it is orne in mind that

Euseius of Nicomedia( one of the )rinci)a- -eaders

of the Arian )art'( had een an accom)-ice in the

crue-t' of Licinius( in the massacres of the isho)s(

and the )ersecutions of the Christians" Of this the

em)eror himse-f accuses him( in the )ri%ate -etter

$hich he $rote to the church of Nicomedia 0

#&e sent s)ies aout me(# sa's he( #in the

trou-es( and did e%er'thin* ut tae u) arms for

the t'rant" I ha%e )roofs of this from the )riests

and deacons of his train( $hom I too" Durin* the

Counci- of Nicsea( $ith $hat ea*erness and $hat

im)udence he maintained( a*ainst the testimon' of

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Dictionar'"

his conscience( the error eB)-oded on e%er' side

re)eated-' im)-orin* m' )rotection( -est( ein* con8

%icted of so *reat a crime( he shou-d -ose his di*nit'"

&e shamefu--' circum%ented and too me ' sur8

)rise( and carried e%er'thin* as he chose" A*ain(

see $hat has een done ut -ate-' ' him and Theo8

*enes"#

Constantine here a--udes to the fraud $hich Eu8

seius of Nicomedia and Theo*enes of Nicaea re8

sorted to in suscriin*" In the $ord #omoousios(#

the' inserted an iota( main* it #omoiousios(# mean8

in* of -ie sustance G $hereas the rst means of the

same sustance" We here' see that these isho)s

'ie-ded to the fear of ein* dis)-aced or anishedG

for the em)eror had threatened $ith eBi-e such as

shou-d not suscrie" The other Euseius( too(

isho) of Csesarea( a))ro%ed the $ord consustan8

tia-( after condemnin* it the da' efore"

&o$e%er( Theonas of 3armarica( and Secundus

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of Pto-emais continued ostinate-' attached to

Arius G and( the counci-( ha%in* condemned them

$ith him( Constantine anished them( and dec-ared

' an edict that $hosoe%er shou-d e con%icted of

concea-in* an' of the $ritin*s of Arius instead of

urnin* them( shou-d e )unished $ith death"

 Three months after( Euseius of Nicomedia and

 Theo*enes $ere -ie$ise eBi-ed into au-" It is

said that( ha%in* *ained o%er the indi%idua- $ho(

' the em)eror5s order( e)t the acts of the counci-(

the' had erased their si*natures( and e*un to teach

? Phi-oso)hica-

in )u-ic that the Son must not e e-ie%ed to e

consustantia- $ith the Father"

&a))i-'( to re)-ace their si*natures and )reser%e

entire the m'sterious numer three hundred and

ei*hteen( the eB)edient $as tried of -a'in* the oo(

in $hich the acts $ere di%ided into sessions( on the

tom of Chr'santhus and 3'sonius( $ho had died

$hi-e the counci- $as in sessionG the ni*ht $as

)assed in )ra'er and the neBt mornin* it $as found

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that these t$o isho)s had si*ned"

It $as ' an eB)edient near-' simi-ar( that the

fathers of the same counci- distin*uished the au8

thentic from the a)ocr')ha- oos of Scri)ture"

&a%in* )-aced them a-to*ether u)on the a-tar( the

a)ocr')ha- oos fe-- to the *round of themse-%es"

 T$o other counci-s( assem-ed ' the em)eror

Constantine( in the 'ear <>( the one( of u)$ards

of four hundred isho)s( at Rimini( the other( of

more than a hundred and ft'( at Se-eucia G after

-on* deates( reQected the $ord consustantia-( a-8

read' condemned( as $e ha%e efore said( ' a

Counci- of Antioch" !ut these counci-s are reco*8

ni4ed on-' ' the Socinians"

 The Nicene fathers had een so much occu)ied

$ith the consustantia-it' of the Son( that the' had

made no mention of the church in their s'mo-( ut

contented themse-%es $ith sa'in*( #We a-so e-ie%e

in the &o-' host"# This omission $as su))-ied in

the second *enera- counci-( con%oed at Constanti8

no)-e( in 7=( ' Theodosius" The &o-' host $as

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Dictionar'" ?

there dec-ared to e the Lord and *i%er of -ife( )ro8

ceedin* from the Father( $ho $ith the Father and

Son is $orshi))ed and *-oried( $ho s)ae ' the

)ro)hets" After$ards the Latin church $ou-d ha%e

the &o-' host )roceed from the Son a-soG and

the #-ioHue# $as added to the s'mo-0 rst in

S)ain( in G then in France( at the Counci- of

L'ons( in =G and -ast-' at Rome( not$ithstand8

in* the com)-aints made ' the rees a*ainst this

inno%ation"

 The di%init' of 1esus ein* once esta-ished( it

$as natura- to *i%e to his mother the tit-e of 3other

of od" &o$e%er( Nestorius( )atriarch of Constan8

tino)-e( maintained in his sermons that this $ou-d

e Qustif'in* the fo--' of the Pa*ans( $ho *a%e

mothers to their *ods" Theodosius the 'oun*er(

to ha%e this *reat Huestion decided( assem-ed the

third *enera- counci- at E)hesus( in the 'ear =(

and in it 3ar' $as acno$-ed*ed to e the mother

of od"

Another heres' of Nestorius( -ie$ise condemned

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at E)hesus( $as that of admittin* t$o )ersons in

 1esus" Ne%erthe-ess( the )atriarch Photius su8

seHuent-' acno$-ed*ed t$o natures in 1esus" A

mon named Eut'ches( $ho had a-read' eB8

c-aimed -oud-' a*ainst Nestorius( armed( the

etter to contradict them oth( that 1esus had a-so

ut one nature" !ut this time the mon $as $ron* G

a-thou*h( in >( his o)inion had een maintained '

-o$s in a numerous counci- at E)hesus" Eut'ches

? Phi-oso)hica-

$as ne%erthe-ess anathemati4ed( t$o 'ears after8

$ards( ' the fourth *enera- counci-( he-d under the

em)eror 3arcian at Cha-cedon( in $hich t$o na8

tures $ere assi*ned to 1esus"

It $as sti-- to e determined( $ith one )erson and

t$o natures( ho$ man' $i--s 1esus $as to ha%e"

 The fth *enera- counci-( $hich in the 'ear <<

Hue--ed( ' 1ustinian5s order( the contentions aout

the doctrine of three isho)s( had no -eisure to set8

t-e this im)ortant )oint" It $as not unti- the 'ear

@7? that the siBth *enera- counci-( a-so con%ened at

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Constantino)-e ' Constantine Po*onatus( informed

us that 1esus had )recise-' t$o $i--s" This counci-(

in condemnin* the 3onothe-ites( $ho admitted on-'

one( made no eBce)tion from the anathema in fa%or

of Po)e &onorius I"( $ho( in a -etter *i%en ' !aro8

nius( had said to the )atriarch of Constantino)-e 0

#We confess in 1esus Christ one on-' $i--" We

do not see that either the counci-s or the Scri)tures

authori4e us to thin other$ise" !ut $hether( from

the $ors of di%init' and of humanit' $hich are in

him( $e are to -oo for t$o o)erations( is a )oint of

-itt-e im)ortance( and one $hich I -ea%e it to fehe

*rammarians to decide"#

 Thus( in this instance( $ith od5s )ermission(

the account et$een the ree and Latin churches

$as a-anced" As the )atriarch Nestorius had een

condemned for acno$-ed*in* t$o )ersons in 1e8

sus( so Po)e &onorius $as no$ condemned for

admittin* ut one $i-- in 1esus"

Dictionar'" ?<

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 The se%enth *enera- counci-( or the second of

Nice( $as assem-ed in 7( ' Constantine( son

of Leo and Irene( to re8esta-ish the $orshi) of

ima*es" The reader must no$ that t$o Counci-s

of Constantino)-e( the rst in ?( under the em8

)eror Leo( the other t$ent'8four 'ears after( under

Constantine Co)ron'mus( had thou*ht )ro)er to

)roscrie ima*es( conforma-' to the 3osaic -a$

and to the usa*e of the ear-' a*es of Christianit'"

So( a-so( the Nicene decree( in $hich it is said that

#$hosoe%er sha-- not render ser%ice and adoration

to the ima*es of the saints as to the Trinit'( sha--

e deemed anathemati4ed(# at rst encountered some

o))osition" The isho)s $ho introduced it( in a

Counci- of Constantino)-e( he-d in 7>( $ere turned

out ' so-diers" The same decree $as a-so reQected

$ith scorn ' the Counci- of Franfort in >( and

' the Caro-ine oos( )u-ished ' order of

Char-ema*ne" !ut the second Counci- of Nice $as

at -en*th conrmed at Constantino)-e under the em8

)eror 3ichae- and his mother Theodora( in the 'ear

7( ' a numerous counci-( $hich anathemati4ed

the enemies of ho-' ima*es" !e it here oser%ed( it

$as ' t$o $omen( the em)resses Irene and Theo8

dora( that the ima*es $ere )rotected"

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We )ass on to the ei*hth *enera- counci-" 2nder

the em)eror !asi-ius( Photius( ordained )atriarch

of Constantino)-e in )-ace of I*natius( had the Latin

church condemned for the #-ioHue# and other )rac8

tices( ' a counci- of the 'ear 7@@0 ut I*natius

Vo-" ?

?@ Phi-oso)hica-

ein* reca--ed the fo--o$in* 'ear( another counci-

remo%ed Photius G and in the 'ear 7@> the Latins( in

their turn( condemned the ree church in $hat

the' ca--ed the ei*hth *enera- counci- $hi-e those

in the East *a%e this name to another counci-( $hich(

ten 'ears after( annu--ed $hat the )recedin* one

had done( and restored Photius"

 These four counci-s $ere he-d at Constantino)-e G

the others( ca--ed *enera- ' the Latins( ha%in* een

com)osed of the isho)s of the West on-'( the )o)es(

$ith the aid of fa-se decreta-s( *radua--' arro*ated

the ri*ht of con%oin* them" The -ast of these

$hich assem-ed at Trent( from =<< to =<@( neither

ser%ed to con%ert the enemies of )a)ac' nor to su8

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due them" Its decrees( in disci)-ine( ha%e een

scarce-' admitted into an' one Catho-ic nation0 its

on-' eMect has een to %erif' these $ords of St"

re*or' Na4ian4en0 #I ha%e not seen one counci-

that has acted $ith *ood faith( or that has not au*8

mented the e%i-s com)-ained of rather than cured

them" Amition and the -o%e of dis)utation( e'ond

the )o$er of $ords to eB)ress( rei*n in e%er' as8

sem-' of isho)s"#

&o$e%er( the Counci- of Constance( in ==<( ha%8

in* decided that a counci-8*enera- recei%es its au8

thorit' immediate-' from 1esus Christ( $hich au8

thorit' e%er' )erson( of $hate%er ran or di*nit'(

is ound to oe' in a-- that concerns the faith G and

the Counci- of !ase- ha%in* after$ards conrmed

this decree( $hich it ho-ds to e an artic-e of faith

Dictionar'" ?

$hich cannot e ne*-ected $ithout renouncin* sa-8

%ation( it is c-ear ho$ dee)-' e%er' one is interested

in )a'in* sumission to counci-s"

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SECTION II"

Notice of the enera- Counci-s"

Assem-'( counci- of state( )ar-iament( states8

*enera-( former-' si*nied the same thin*" In the

)rimiti%e a*es nothin* $as $ritten in Ce-tic( nor in

erman( nor in S)anish" The -itt-e that $as $rit8

ten $as concei%ed in the Latin ton*ue ' a fe$

c-ers( $ho eB)ressed e%er' meetin* of -endes( her8

ren( or ricohomres( ' the $ord conci-ium" &ence

it is that $e nd in the siBth( se%enth( and ei*hth

centuries so man' counci-s $hich $ere nothin* more

than counci-s of state"

We sha-- here s)ea on-' of the *reat counci-s

ca--ed *enera-( $hether ' the ree or ' the

Latin church" At Rome the' $ere ca--ed s'nods(

as the' $ere in the East in the )rimiti%e a*es for

the Latins orro$ed names as $e-- as thin*s from

the rees"

In < there $as a *reat counci- in the cit' of

Nic*ea( con%oed ' Constantine" The form of its

decision $as this 0 #We e-ie%e that 1esus is of one

sustance $ith the Father( od of od( -i*ht of

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-i*ht( e*otten( not made" We a-so e-ie%e in the

&o-' host"#

Nice)horus arms that t$o isho)s( Chr'san8

thus and 3'sonius( $ho had died durin* the rst

?7 Phi-oso)hica-

sittin*s( rose a*ain to si*n the condemnation of

Arius( and incontinent-' died a*ain( as I ha%e a-8

read' oser%ed" !aronius maintains this fact( ut

F-eur' sa's nothin* of it"

In <> the em)eror Constantius assem-ed the

*reat counci-s of Rimini and of Se-eucia( consistin*

of siB hundred isho)s( $ith a )rodi*ious numer

of )riests" These t$o counci-s( corres)ondin* to8

*ether( undo a-- that the Counci- of Nice did( and

)roscrie the consustantia-it'" !ut this $as after8

$ards re*arded as a fa-se counci-"

In 7= $as he-d( ' order of the em)eror The8

odosius( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( of one

hundred and ft' isho)s( $ho anathemati4e the

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Counci- of Rimini" St" re*or' ;a4ian4en )re8

sides( and the isho) of Rome sends de)uties to it"

No$ is added to the Nicene s'mo- 0 #1 esus Christ

$as incarnate( ' the &o-' host( of the Vir*in

3ar'" &e $as crucied for us under Pontius Pi8

-ate" &e $as uried( and on the third da' he rose

a*ain( accordin* to the Scri)tures" &e sits at the

ri*ht hand of the Father" We a-so e-ie%e in the

&o-' host( the Lord and *i%er of -ife( $ho )ro8

ceeds from the Father"#

In = a *reat counci- $as con%oed at E)hesus(

' the em)eror Theodosius II" Nestorius( isho) of

Constantino)-e( ha%in* %io-ent-' )ersecuted a-- $ho

$ere not of his o)inion on theo-o*ica- )oints( un8

der*oes )ersecution in his turn( for ha%in* main8

tained that the &o-' Vir*in 3ar'( mother of 1e8

Dictionar'" ?>

sus Christ( $as not mother of odG ecause

said he( 1esus Christ ein* the $ord( the Son of

od( consustantia- $ith &is Father( 3ar' cou-d

not" at the same time( e mother of od the Father

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and of od the Son" St" C'ri- eBc-aims -oud-'

a*ainst him" ;estorius demands an ecumenica-

counci-( and otains it" ;estorius is condemned G

ut C'ri- is a-so dis)-aced ' a committee of the

counci-" The em)eror re%erses a-- that has een

done in this counci-( then )ermits it to re8assem-e"

 The de)uties from Rome arri%e %er' -ate" The

trou-es increasin*( the em)eror has Nestorius and

C'ri- arrested" At -ast he orders a-- the isho)s

to return( each to his church( and after a-- no con8

c-usion is reached" Such $as the famous Counci- of

E)hesus"

In > another *reat counci-( after$ard ca--ed

#the anditti(# met at E)hesus" The numer of

isho)s assem-ed is a hundred and thirt'G and

Dioscorus( isho) of A-eBandria( )resided" There

are t$o de)uties from the church of Rome( and se%8

era- aots" The Huestion is( $hether 1esus Christ

has t$o natures" The isho)s and a-- the mons of

E*')t eBc-aim that #a-- $ho $ou-d di%ide 1esus

Christ ou*ht themse-%es to e torn in t$o"# The

t$o natures are anathemati4ed G and there is a *ht

in fu-- counci-( as at the -itt-e Counci- of Cirta in

<<( and at the minor Counci- of Cartha*e"

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In <( the *reat Counci- of Cha-cedon $as con8

%oed ' Pu-cheria( $ho married 3arcian on con8

=? Phi-oso)hica-

dition that he shou-d e on-' the hi*hest of her su8

 Qects" St" Leo( isho) of Rome( ha%in* *reat in8

uence( taes ad%anta*e of the trou-es $hich the

Huarre- aout the t$o natures has occasioned in the

em)ire( and )resides at the counci- ' his -e*ates

of $hich $e ha%e no former eBam)-e" !ut the

fathers of the counci-( a))rehendin* that the church

of the West $i--( from this )recedent( )retend to the

su)eriorit' o%er that of the East( decide ' their

t$ent'8ei*hth canon( that the see of Constantino)-e(

and that of Rome( sha-- enQo' a-ie the same ad8

%anta*es and the same )ri%i-e*es" This $as the

ori*in of the -on* enmit' $hich )re%ai-ed( and sti--

)re%ai-s( et$een the t$o churches" This Counci-

of Cha-cedon esta-ished the t$o natures in one

on-' )erson"

Nice)horus re-ates that( at this same counci-(

the isho)s( after a -on* dis)ute on the suQect of

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ima*es( -aid each his o)inion in $ritin* on the tom

of St" Eu)hemia( and )assed the ni*ht in )ra'er"

 The neBt mornin* the orthodoB $ritin*s $ere found

in the saint5s hand( and the others at her feet"

In <<( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e $as

con%oed ' 1ustinian( $ho $as an amateur theo8

-o*ian( to discuss three sma-- $ritin*s( ca--ed the

three cha)ters( of $hich nothin* is no$ no$n"

 There $ere a-so dis)utes on some )assa*es of

Ori*en"

Vi*i-ius( isho) of Rome( $ou-d ha%e *one thither

in )erson G ut 1ustinian had him )ut in )rison(

Dictionar'" = =

and the Patriarch of Constantino)-e )resided" No

memer of the Latin church attendedG for at that

time ree $as no -on*er understood in the West(

$hich had ecome entire-' ararous"

In @7?( another *enera- counci- at Constantino8

)-e $as con%oed ' Constantine the earded" This

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$as the rst counci- ca--ed ' the Latins in tru--o(

ecause it $as he-d in an a)artment of the im)eria-

)a-ace" The em)eror( himse-f( )residedG on his

ri*ht hand $ere the )atriarchs of Constantino)-e

and Antioch G on his -eft( the de)uties from Rome

and 1erusa-em" It $as there decided that 1esus

Christ had t$o $i--s G and Po)e &onorius I"( $as

condemned as a 3onothe-ite( i" e"( as $ishin* 1esus

Christ to ha%e ut one $i--

In 7( the second Counci- of Nice $as con%oed

' Irene( in the name of the em)eror Constantine(

her son( $hom she had de)ri%ed of his e'es" &er

husand( Leo( had ao-ished the $orshi) of im8

a*es( as contrar' to the sim)-icit' of the )rimiti%e

a*es( and -eadin* to ido-atr'" Irene re8esta-ish5ed

this $orshi)G she herse-f s)oe in the counci-(

$hich $as the on-' one he-d ' a $oman" T$o

-e*ates from Po)e Adrian V"( attended( ut did not

s)ea( for the' did not understand ree0 the )a8

triarch did a--"

Se%en 'ears after( the Frans( ha%in* heard that

a counci- at Constantino)-e had ordained the adora8

tion of ima*es( assem-e( ' order of Char-es( son

of Pe)in( after$ards named Char-ema*ne( a %er'

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= Phi-oso)hica-

numerous counci- at Franfort" &ere the second

Counci- of Nice is s)oen of as #an im)ertinent

and arro*ant s'nod( he-d in reece for the $orshi)8

)in* of )ictures"#

In 7( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e $as

con%oed ' the em)ress Theodora" The $orshi)

of ima*es $as so-emn-' esta-ished" The rees

ha%e sti-- a feast in honor of this counci-( ca--ed

the orthodoBia" Theodora did not )reside" In 7@=(

a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( consistin* of

three hundred and ei*hteen isho)s( $as con%oed

' the em)eror 3ichae-" St" I*natius( )atriarch of

Constantino)-e( is de)osed( and Photius e-ected"

In 7@@( another *reat counci- $as he-d at Con8

stantino)-e( in $hich Po)e Nicho-as III" is de)osed

for contumac'( and eBcommunicated" In 7@> $as

another *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( in $hich

Photius( in turn( is de)osed and eBcommunicated(

and St" I*natius restored"

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In 7>( another *reat counci- assem-ed at Con8

stantino)-e( in $hich Photius( a-read' restored( is

acno$-ed*ed as true )atriarch ' the -e*ates of

Po)e 1ohn VIII" &ere the *reat ecumenica- coun8

ci-( in $hich Photius $as de)osed( recei%es the a)8

)e--ation of #conci-iau-um"# Po)e 1ohn VIII" de8

c-ares a-- those to e 1udases $ho sa' that the &o-'

host )roceeds from the Father and the Son"

In ==8( a *reat counci- at Rome $as he-d in

the church of St" 1ohn of Lateran ' Po)e Ca-iBtus

II" This $as the rst *enera- counci- con%oed '

Dictionar'" " =

the )o)es" The em)erors of the West had no$

scarce-' an' authorit'G and the em)erors of the

East( )ressed ' the 3ahometans and ' the Crusa8

ders( he-d none ut $retched -itt-e counci-s"

It is not )recise-' no$n $hat this Lateran $as"

Some sma-- counci-s had efore een assem-ed in

the Lateran" Some sa' that it $as a house ui-t '

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one Lateran in Nero5s time G others( that it $as St"

 1ohn5s church itse-f( ui-t ' !isho) S'-%ester" In

this counci-( the isho)s com)-ained hea%i-' of the

mons" #The' )ossess(# said the'( #the churches(

the -ands( the cast-es( the tithes( the oMerin*s of the

-i%in* and the deadG the' ha%e on-' to tae from

us the rin* and the crosier"# The mons remained

in )ossession"

In ==> $as another *reat Counci- of Lateran( '

Po)e Innocent II" It is said there $ere )resent a

thousand isho)s" A *reat man'( certain-'" &ere

the ecc-esiastica- tithes are dec-ared to e of di%ine

ri*ht( and a-- -a'men )ossessin* an' of them are

eBcommunicated" In ==> $as another *reat Coun8

ci- of Lateran( ' Po)e A-eBander III" There $ere

three hundred isho)s and one ree aot" The

decrees are a-- on disci)-ine" The )-ura-it' of ene8

ces is foridden"

In ==< $as the -ast *enera- Counci- of Lateran(

' Po)e Innocent III"( com)osed of four hundred

and t$e-%e isho)s( and ei*ht hundred aots" At

this time( $hich is that of the Crusades( the )o)es

ha%e esta-ished a Latin )atriarch at 1erusa-em( and

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= Phi-oso)hica-

one at Constantino)-e" These )atriarchs attend the

counci-" This *reat counci- sa's that( #od ha%8

in* *i%en the doctrine of sa-%ation to men ' 3oses(

at -en*th caused &is son to e orn of a %ir*in( to

sho$ the $a' more c-ear-'(# and that #no one can

e sa%ed out of the Catho-ic church"#

 The transustantiation $as not no$n unti- aftei

this counci-" It forade the esta-ishment of ne$

re-i*ious ordersG ut( since that time( no -ess than

ei*ht' ha%e een instituted" It $as in this counci-

that Ra'mond( count of Tou-ouse( $as stri))ed of

a-- his -ands" In =< a *reat counci- assem-ed at

the im)eria- cit' of L'ons" Innocent IV" rin*s

thither the em)eror of Constantino)-e( 1ohn Pa-seo-8

o*us( and maes him sit eside him" &e de)oses

the em)eror Frederic as a fe-on( and *i%es the car8

dina-s red hats( as a si*n of hosti-it' to Frederic"

 This $as the source of thirt' 'ears of ci%i- $ar"

In = another *enera- counci- $as he-d at L'8

ons" Fi%e hundred isho)s( se%ent' *reat and a

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thousand -esser aots" The ree em)eror( 3i8

chae- Pa-aeo-o*us( that he ma' ha%e the )rotection of

the )o)e( sends his ree )atriarch( Theo)hanes( to

unite( in his name( $ith the Latin church" !ut the

ree church diso$ns these isho)s"

In ===( Po)e C-ement V" assem-ed a *enera-

counci- in the sma-- to$n of Vienne( in Dau)hin'( in

$hich he ao-ishes the Order of the Tem)-ars" It

is here ordained that the !e*ares( !e*uins( and !e8

*uines sha-- e urned" These $ere a s)ecies of

Dictionar'" Q i r

heretics( to $hom $as im)uted a-- that had former-'

een im)uted to the )rimiti%e Christians" In ==(

the *reat Counci- of Constance $as con%oed ' an

em)eror $ho resumes his ri*hts( %i4"0 ' Si*is8

mund" &ere Po)e 1ohn ;;III"( con%icted of nu8

merous crimes( is de)osed G and 1ohn &uss and 1e8

rome of Pra*ue( con%icted of ostinac'( are urned"

In ==( a *reat counci- $as he-d at !ase-( $here

the' in %ain de)ose Po)e Eu*ene IV"( $ho is too

c-e%er for the counci-"

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In =7( a *reat counci- assem-ed at Ferrara(

transferred to F-orence( $here the eBcommunicated

)o)e eBcommunicates the counci-( and dec-ares it

*ui-t' of hi*h treason" &ere a fei*ned union is

made $ith the ree church( crushed ' the Tur8

ish s'nods he-d s$ord in hand" Po)e 1u-ius II"

$ou-d ha%e had his Counci- of Lateran( in =<=(

)ass for an ecumenica- counci-" In it that )o)e so-8

emn-' eBcommunicated Louis ;IL( in* of France(

-aid France under an interdict( summoned the $ho-e

)ar-iament of Pro%ence to a))ear efore him( and

eBcommunicated a-- the )hi-oso)hers( ecause most

of them had taen )art $ith Louis ;II" 6et this

counci- $as not( -ie that of E)hesus( ca--ed the

Counci- of Roers"

In =<( the Counci- of Trent $as con%oed(

rst at 3antua( ' Pau- III"( after$ards at Trent

in =<( and terminated in Decemer( =<@=( under

Pius VI" Catho-ic )rinces sumitted to it on )oints

of doctrine( and t$o or three of them in matters of

=@ Phi-oso)hica-

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disci)-ine" It is thou*ht that hencefor$ard there

$i-- e no more *enera- counci-s than there $i-- e

states8*enera- in France or S)ain" In the Vatican

there is a ne )icture( containin* a -ist of the *en8

era- counci-s( in $hich are inscried such on-' as

are a))ro%ed ' the court of Rome" E%er' one

)uts $hat he chooses in his o$n archi%es"

SECTION III"

Infa--ii-it' of Counci-s"

A-- counci-s are( dout-ess( infa--i-e( ein* com8

)osed of men" It is not )ossi-e that the )assions(

that intri*ues( that the s)irit of contention( that ha8

tred or Qea-ous'( that )reQudice or i*norance( shou-d

e%er inuence these assem-ies" !ut $h'( it $i--

e said( ha%e so man' counci-s een o))osed to one

anotherJ To eBercise our faith" The' $ere a--

ri*ht( each in its time" At this da'( the Roman

Catho-ics e-ie%e in such counci-s on-' as are a)8

)ro%ed in the Vatican G the ree Catho-ics e-ie%e

on-' in those a))ro%ed at Constantino)-e G and the

Protestants mae a Qest of oth the one and the

other 0 so that e%er' one ou*ht to e content"

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We sha-- here eBamine on-' the *reat counci-s0

the -esser ones are not $orth the trou-e" The rst

$as that of Nice( assem-ed in the 'ear < of the

modern era( after Constantine had $ritten and sent

' Osius his no-e -etter to the rather turu-ent

c-er*' of A-eBandria" It $as deated $hether 1e8

sus $as created or uncreated" This in no $a' con8

cerned mora-it'( $hich is the on-' thin* essentia-"

Dictionar'" =

Whether 1esus $as in time or efore time( it is not

the -ess our dut' to e honest" After much a-ter8

cation( it $as at -ast decided that the Son $as as

o-d as the Father( and consustantia- $ith the

Father" This decision is not %er' eas' of com)re8

hension( $hich maes it ut the more su-ime" Se%8

enteen isho)s )rotested a*ainst the decreeG and

an o-d A-eBandrian chronic-e( )reser%ed at OBford(

sa's that t$o thousand )riests -ie$ise )rotested"

!ut )re-ates mae not much account of mere )riests(

$ho are in *enera- )oor" &o$e%er( there $as noth8

in* said of the Trinit' in this rst counci-" The

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formu-a runs thus 0 #We e-ie%e 1esus to e con8

sustantia- $ith the Father( od of od( -i*ht of

-i*ht( e*otten( not madeG $e a-so e-ie%e in the

&o-' host"# It must e acno$-ed*ed that the

&o-' host $as treated %er' ca%a-ier-'"

We ha%e a-read' said( that in the su))-ement to

the Counci- of Nice it is re-ated that the fathers(

ein* much )er)-eBed to nd out $hich $ere the

authentic and $hich the a)ocr')ha- oos of the

O-d and the Ne$ Testament( -aid them a-- u)on an

a-tar( and the oos $hich the' $ere to reQect fe--

to the *round" What a )it' that so ne an ordea-

has een -ost

After the rst Counci- of Nice( com)osed of three

hundred and se%enteen infa--i-e isho)s( another

counci- $as he-d at Rimini G on $hich occasion the

numer of the infa--i-e $as f)ur hundred( $ith8

out reconin* a stron* detachment( at Se-eucia(

= 7 Phi-oso)hica-

of aout t$o hundred" These siB hundred isho)s(

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after four months of contention( unanimous-' too

from 1esus his consustantia-it'" It has since een

restored to him( eBce)t ' the Socinians0 so noth8

in* is amiss"

One of the *reat counci-s $as that of E)hesus(

in =" There( as a-read' stated( Nestorius( isho)

of Constantino)-e( a *reat )ersecutor of heretics(

$as himse-f condemned as a heretic( for ha%in*

maintained that( a-thou*h 1esus $as rea--' od(

'et &is mother $as not aso-ute-' mother of od(

ut mother of 1esus" St" C'ri- )rocured the con8

demnation of Nestorius G ut the )artisans of Nes8

torius a-so )rocured the de)osition of St" C'ri-( in

the same counci- G $hich )ut the &o-' host in

considera-e )er)-eBit'"

&ere( *ent-e reader( carefu--' oser%e( that the

os)e- sa's not one s'--a-e of the consustantia-it'

of the Word( nor of 3ar'5s ha%in* had the honor

of ein* mother of od( no more than of the

other dis)uted )oints $hich rou*ht to*ether so

man' infa--i-e counci-s"

Eut'ches $as a mon( $ho had cried out sturdi-'

a*ainst Nestorius( $hose heres' $as nothin* -ess

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than su))osin* t$o )ersons in 1esus G $hich is Huite

fri*htfu-" The mon( the etter to contradict his

ad%ersar'( armed that 1esus had ut one nature"

One F-a%ian( isho) of Constantino)-e( maintained

a*ainst him( that there must aso-ute-' e t$o na8

tures in 1esus" Thereu)on( a numerous counci- $as

Dictionar'"

he-d at E)hesus in >( and the ar*ument made use

of $as the cud*e-( as in the -esser counci- of Cirta(

in <<( and in a certain conference he-d at Cartha*e"

F-a%ian5s nature $as $e-- thrashed( and t$o natures

$ere assi*ned to 1esus" At the Counci- of Cha-ce8

don( in <=( 1esus $as a*ain reduced to one nature"

I )ass ' counci-s he-d on -ess $ei*ht' Huestions(

and come to the siBth *enera- Counci- of Constanti8

no)-e( assem-ed to ascertain )recise-' $hether 1e8

sus $ho( after ha%in* for a -on* )eriod had ut

one nature( $as then )ossessed of t$o had a-so t$o

$i--s" It is o%ious ho$ im)ortant this no$-ed*e

is to doin* the $i-- of od"

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 This counci- $as con%oed ' Constantine the

!earded( as a-- the others had een ' the )recedin*

em)erors" The -e*ates from the isho) of Rome

$ere on the -eft hand( and the )atriarchs of Con8

stantino)-e and Antioch on the ri*ht" The train8

earers at Rome ma'( for au*ht I no$( assert that

the -eft hand is the )-ace of honor" &o$e%er( the

resu-t $as that 1esus otained t$o $i--s"

 The 3osaic -a$ forade ima*es" Painters and

scu-)tors had ne%er made their fortunes amon* the

 1e$s" We do not nd that 1esus e%er had an' )ic8

tures( eBce)tin* )erha)s that of 3ar'( )ainted '

Lue" It is( ho$e%er( certain that 1esus Christ no8

$here recommends the $orshi) of ima*es" Ne%er8

the-ess the )rimiti%e Christians e*an to $orshi)

them aout the end of the fourth centur'( $hen the'

had ecome fami-iar $ith the ne arts" In the

Phi-oso)hica-

ei*hth centur' this ause had arri%ed at such a )itch

that Constantine Co)ron'mus assem-ed( at Con8

stantino)-e( a counci- of three hundred and t$ent'

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isho)s( $ho anathemati4ed ima*e8$orshi)( and de8

c-ared it to e ido-atr'"

 The em)ress Irene( the same $ho after$ards

had her son5s e'es torn out( con%oed the second

Counci- of Nice in 7( $hen the adoration of ima*es

$as re8esta-ished" !ut in > Char-ema*ne had

another counci- he-d at Franfort( $hich dec-ared

the second of Nice ido-atrous" Po)e Adrian IV"

sent t$o -e*ates to it( ut he did not con%oe it"

 The rst *reat counci- con%oed ' a )o)e $as

the rst of Lateran( in ==>G there $ere aout a

thousand isho)s assem-ed G ut scarce-' an'thin*

$as done( eBce)t that a-- those $ere anathemat8

i4ed $ho said that the Church $as too rich" In = =>(

another *reat counci- of Lateran $as he-d ' A-eB8

ander III"( in $hich the cardina-s( for the rst time(

too )recedence of the isho)s" The discussions

$ere conned to matters of disci)-ine" In another

*reat counci- of Lateran( in ==<( Po)e Innocent

III" stri))ed the count of Tou-ouse of a-- his )os8

sessions( ' %irtue of his eBcommunication" It

$as then that the rst mention $as made of tran8

sustantiation"

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In =<( $as he-d a *enera- counci- at L'ons(

then an im)eria- cit'( in $hich Po)e Innocent IV"

eBcommunicated the em)eror Frederic II"( and

conseHuent-' de)osed him( and forade him the use

Dictionar' =

of re and $ater" On this occasion( a red hat $as

*i%en to the cardina-s( to remind them that the'

must imrue their hands in the -ood of the em8

)eror5s )artisans" This counci- $as the cause of

the destruction of the house of Suaia( and of thirt'

'ears of anarch' in Ita-' and erman'"