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Educational Psychology in Practice:theory, research and practice ineducational psychologyPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscriptioninformation:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cepp20

Views of aspiring entrantsNorah Frederickson & Ruth CollinsPublished online: 19 Oct 2007.

To cite this article: Norah Frederickson & Ruth Collins (1997) Views of aspiring entrants, EducationalPsychology in Practice: theory, research and practice in educational psychology, 13:3, 147-154, DOI:10.1080/0266736970130301

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The Future of ProfessionalTraining

Views of aspiring entrants

Norah Frederickson and Ruth Collins

SummaryThe aim of this research was to ascertain the viewsof applicants to educational psychology trainingcourses regarding the prospect of changing theexisting 1-year Masters course to a 3-year Doctorate.To date a number of groups within the profession,including principal educational psychologists andcourse tutors, have been surveyed. However,applicants to educational psychology training courseshad not been consulted. An anonymousquestionnaire was sent to the 219 individuals whoapplied for a place on the MSc course in EducationalPsychology at University College Londoncommencing in September 1997. Of these applicants131 responded and their completed questionnaireswere analysed using both quantitative and qualitativemethodologies. Implications for the introduction of3-year courses and for the funding of training arediscussed.

IntroductionOn 9 May 1997 the Membership and QualificationsBoard of the British Psychological Society accepteda proposal from the Training Committee of theDivision of Educational and Child Psychology to theeffect that 1-year professional training courses ineducational psychology should be extended to 3years of full time study, 1-year courses ceasing to berecognised from 1 September 2001. Many haveargued that this change is long overdue (Maliphant,1994; Lunt and Farrell, 1994; Farrell and Lunt,1995; Gersch, 1997; Lunt and Carroll, 1996). Thisis hardly surprising given that 1-year postgraduatetraining courses for educational psychologists (EPs)have been in place since 1946, while the duties and

responsibilities of members of the profession havechanged dramatically over the last 50 years. Morethan 10 years ago a working party withrepresentatives from the Department of Educationand Science (DES), the University GrantsCommission, the Association of County Councils andMetropolitan Authorities, the Association ofEducational Psychologists and the BritishPsychological Society recommended that educationalpsychology training should be increased to 2 yearsin length (DES, 1984). Since then the Children Act1989 (HMSO, 1990), the Education Act 1993(HMSO, 1994) and the Code of Practice (DfE, 1994)have added further to the range of professionaldemands placed on EPs.

While extensive consultation has indicatedwidespread support for increasing the length oftraining, many questions remain about practicalfeasibility and optimal organisation (Portsmouth et al,1995; Frederickson et al, 1996; Morris, 1997). Aconsultative symposium of principal educationalpsychologists (PEPs) held at Birmingham University inNovember 1996, expressed support for the proposedextension to the training period. There was consensusthat it would result in a greater knowledge and skillbase leading to greater competence, effectiveness andquality in practice. However, a number of concernswere also raised - four of which were widely shared.These were: funding; the possibility of staff shortagesduring the transition period; the loss of teachingexperience as a requirement; and the possibility thatpotential recruits to the profession (especially thosewith extensive experience) may be deterred by thelength of training. It was with the aim of investigatingsome of these that the research described in this paperwas conducted.

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An anonymous questionnaire was constructed withtwo objectives in mind. First, to ascertain whetherapplicants to existing 1-year courses of professionaltraining in educational psychology would indeed bedeterred if the training was extended to 3 years.Second, it was hoped that data collected fromapplicants regarding other areas of debate (egfunding) could be used to inform the work which hasnow to be done by the various groups concerned(the DECP Training Committee, the LocalGovernment Management Board Steering Group foreducational psychology training, the Association ofEducational Psychologists, PEPs and localgovernment associations) in planning for the feasibleimplementation of the new training requirements.

MethodA copy of the questionnaire along with anexplanatory covering letter was sent to all 219applicants (188 female and 31 male) who applied toUCL for a place on the MSc course in EducationalPsychology commencing in September 1997.

ParticipantsOf the 219 questionnaires sent, 131 applicantsresponded (59.81 per cent) - 107 females and 24males (56.91 and 77.41 per cent of the originalsample population respectively). Of theserespondents, 32.1 per cent were aged 30 and under,32.8 per cent were aged between 31 and 40, and theremainder — 35.1 per cent — were aged 41 and over.The vast majority, 79.9 per cent, of all respondentswere white, 7.4 per cent were black, 3.7 per centwere Indian or Pakistani, 0.7 per cent were Chineseand 8.2 per cent described themselves as other (egIrish, Iranian, Turkish). Respondents who had beenteaching for less than 2 years formed 8.2 per cent ofthe total, 38.8 per cent had between 2 and 5 yearsexperience, 23.1 per cent had been teaching forbetween 6 and 10 years, and 27.6 per cent had beenteaching for 10 years or more.

Questionnaire designThe questionnaire was developed by the first authorin consultation with the UCL Course AdvisoryCommittee. The following groups are represented onthe Course Advisory Committee: PEPs, EPs who havetrained in recent years at UCL, headteachers,voluntary groups, advocates for children with specialneeds and their families, and UCL course tutors. The

questionnaire consisted of four sections each ofwhich sought to establish opinion about differentaspects of the potential changes, as outlined below.Each section invited both 'tick-box' answers andwritten comment from the respondents.

Section 1 was concerned with determiningrespondents' feelings about the benefits or otherwiseof changing the existing 1-year training course,leading to the award of an MSc, to a 3-year trainingcourse, leading to the award of a Doctorate.Applicants were asked whether they would be moreor less likely to train as a result of the proposedchange and to identify associated advantages anddisadvantages.

Section 2 probed opinion about changing theexisting pre-requisites for training, if the course wereto become a 3-year doctoral programme, from 2years qualified teaching experience to 2 yearsrelevant experience. Respondents were asked whetherthey would be more or less likely to train given theabove and to give reasons for their answers.

Section 3 outlined some alternative funding optionswhich have been proposed to increase the number offunded places and asked applicants a number ofquestions relating to funding under those options.

Section 4 was concerned with assessing the reasonswhy the applicants had chosen to apply to UCL andwith identifying any perceived disadvantages of thecourse. These data are not reported here Althoughthe questionnaire was sent anonymously it was feltimportant to collect basic demographic data in orderto determine whether factors such as age, ethnicityor teaching experience had a significant influence onthe types of answers given by the respondents. Thesedata were requested at the end of Section 4.

Questionnaire analysisBoth quantitative and qualitative analysis were carriedout. Tick boxes in all cases were given a numericalrating. Content analysis was undertaken on thewritten responses, categories being derived using arandom selection of 40 of the completedquestionnaires. All responses that were judged to havesimilar content were grouped together and a numberof headings, which were felt to be representative of theclass of answer given, were drawn up. The headings,along with a random selection of questionnaires, werethen passed to a second rater for cross-validation. Thefinal set of headings under which the responses weregrouped, as well as examples of typical responsesassigned to a particular category, are discussed belowfor each question individually.

148 Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 13, No 3, October 1997

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Results

Section 1Respondents were asked to indicate on a six-pointrating whether they would be more or less likely totrain if the existing Masters course were changed toa 3-year Doctorate.

Question: If all the professional training courses ineducational psychology became 3-year doctorates,would that make you want to train more or less thanat present?

Table 1. Advantages of a 3-year Doctorate

Category % of respondents

much more CDa little less •

more CDless •

a little more EHmuch less CD

In order to facilitate statistical analysis andinterpretation the six categories .were collapsed intothree. These were: less (including 'much less' and'less'), about the same (including 'slightly less' and'slightly more') and more (including 'more' and 'muchmore'). Of those who responded, 29.1 per cent saidthat they would be less likely to train as a result ofthe proposed change, 44.1 per cent indicated that theywould feel about the same as at present, and 26.8 percent said that they would be more likely to train.

Respondents were also asked to identify thepossible advantages and disadvantages of havingcompleted a 3-year Doctorate in EducationalPsychology instead of a 1-year Masters.

Question: Think ahead to the end of a 3-year course.(a) What would be the advantages of having

completed a 3-year Doctorate in EducationalPsychology instead of a 1-year Masters?

(b) What would be the disadvantages of havingcompleted a 3-year Doctorate in EducationalPsychology instead of a 1-year Masters?

AdvantagesThe advantages identified by participants wereassigned to one of the four category headings shownin Table 1. Also shown are the percentages of the131 respondents who provided a response in each ofthese categories.

Practical competenceOver half the respondents (56.5 per cent) felt thathaving completed a 3-year Doctorate in EducationalPsychology they would be better equipped to carryout the job of an EP. Typical comments included:

1. Practical competence 56.52. Theoretical knowledge 50.03. Status 42.74. Research potential 29.8

'The grounding of knowledge would be far greateras well as the hands-on experience throughpractical work. Potentially this may lead to araising of standards within the practice ofeducational psychology.'

'Greater in-depth training and experience in thefield, thus broadening expertise and knowledge.'

Theoretical knowledgeAs well as feeling more competent practically, manyrespondents felt that a 3-year training would alsogive them the time to cover theoretical material ingreater depth. Fifty per cent of the respondentsthought that this would be a direct benefit of alonger course.

'Having a better academic base to work from, i.ea familiarity with new and ongoing research intolearning theories.'

'Studying for 3 years would presumably give youthe opportunity to attain a more detailed andwider theoretical knowledge in educationalpsychology - you would subsequently be a moreconfident and proficient practitioner.'

StatusThe award of a Doctorate as opposed to an Masterswas seen by many respondents (42.7 per cent) as apath to gaining deserved status and recognition - bothfrom the viewpoint of other professionals and alsofrom clients.

'Status and respect - not just from clients but inmulti-referral situations.'

'A more internationally recognised award.'

Research potentialFor some respondents (29.8 per cent) the opportunityfor more in-depth study could be taken one step fur-ther and provide an opening for them to carry outtheir own research into an area of special interest.

'Time to research areas of interest in much moredetail.'

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'The opportunity to conduct research of a higherstandard whilst training, no pressure toimmediately begin studying for a doctorate uponqualifying, simply beginning to practise anddevelop personal research in fields of interest.'

DisadvantagesAlthough respondents could see that there would bemany advantages to having completed a 1-yearDoctorate as opposed to a one-year Masters,reservations were also expressed. These were groupedunder three category headings as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Disadvantages of a 3-year Doctorate

Category % of respondents

1 . Time Length 54.02. Finance 51.13. Overly Academic 39.5

Time lengthFifty-four per cent of respondents were concernedabout the commitment that would be required to trainas an EP having already completed a degree, secureda teaching qualification and gained work experience.Many applicants thought that having to train for afurther 3 years may be too great a burden in terms oftime.

'Time factor, commitments make 3 years of studydifficult.'

'On top of degree and teaching experience thiswould mean a very long training.'

'Being tied to a student title, as opposed to an EP,for an extra 2 years.'

FinanceThe extra time that would be involved would alsomean a change in financial circumstances for EPsin training - 51.1 per cent cited this as an area ofconcern.

'Three years of extensive study would place agreat strain on a family in terms of time, energyand finance.'

'Depending on funding many individuals, whowould otherwise make excellent EPs, may be putoff applying for financial reasons.'

'Finance - especially for mature students. Moremature applicants could be viewed as a poorinvestment.'

Overly academicFinally, just over a third of respondents (35.9 per cent)thought that spending 3 years studying may detractfrom the practical realities of the job of the EP andplace too much emphasis on academic achievement.

'Too many years spent in education and notenough in the real world. A main criticism of EPsis that they go to school, teach in school and thenbecome EPs without experience of the real worldand real working situations.'

'One might end up being too academic,imprisoned in lofty academic towers, less practicaland down-to-earth.'

'Could be more out of touch with "developmentsin the classroom" and teacher colleagues.'

Section 2At present 2 years qualified teaching experience is anecessary requirement for access to training. The newcriteria for the accreditation of 3-year training allowthat two years relevant experience (such as experienceof a school setting or other work with children) couldbe an appropriate substitute. Respondents were askedfor their views on this proposed change.

Question: It may be proposed that applicants for 3-year courses should be asked to have a minimum of

i 2 years relevant experience (which may be teachingas at present, but which would not have to be).

Would you support or oppose this proposal? Pleasegive reasons for your answer.

Table 3 indicates that candidates were quite evenlydivided between those supporting and opposing theproposal. Reasons given for opposing the proposalwere very similar while those given for supporting itfell into one of two categories.

Table 3. Responses to the proposal that qualifiedteaching experience should no longer be an essen-tial requirement.

Category

1.

2.

3.

Anti-proposal: Teachingexperience valuablePro-proposal: Providedexperience of a schoolsetting is obtainedPro-proposal: Otherwisetime length is too long

% of respondents

42.4

34.8

22.8

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Anti-proposal: Teaching experience valuableOf the respondents, all of whom of course are qualifiedteachers, 42.4 per cent thought that teachingexperience was a necessary and valuable requirementfor training in educational psychology.

'I could not have imagined what is like to teach.The actual experience gives one an understandingof the challenges. EPs have more credibility withteachers because they have been teachers.'

'An EP must have experience of teaching in orderto have any idea at all of what goes on in school.In my opinion 2 years experience in teaching is theabsolute minimum and even then if it has only beenin secondary or only in primary - it is not adequate.'

Pro-proposal: Provided experience of school settingis obtainedJust over a third of respondents (34.8 per cent) feltthat other relevant experience in schools could be aviable alternative to a teaching background.

'You do not need to be a good classroom teacherto be a good EP, but an informed understandingof classroom/education constraints and pressuresis essential to an EP.'

'It would be possible to seek relevant experiencethat would both prepare applicants for the uniquepsychological contribution to education and allowfor changes of direction into other areas ofapplied psychology.'

Pro-proposal: Otherwise, time length is too longA smaller group of the respondents (22.8 per cent)were in favour of the proposal because, otherwise,the necessity of having 2 years qualified teaching ex-perience in order to gain access to a 3-year trainingcourse would just be too great a time commitment.

'Time span - 3 year degree (BSc), 1 year PGCE,2 years (at least) teaching, 3 year doctorate = 9years. 9 years is a very long time!'

'Too long a training period before being able toearn a living.'

Section 3Funding is a major issue for individuals consideringtraining in educational psychology. There is ashortage of funded places and consequently a seriousrisk of a future shortage of qualified EPs. Thissection used a series of rating scales to determineapplicants views about funding of training. Theywere asked to consider three funding options:

• Option A (the present system)Trainees receive salary, have pension and Na-tional Insurance contributions paid by a hostLEA which provides continuity of service andhave their fees paid. Number of funded places:89. (This was the number anticipated when thequestionnaire was sent out in December 1996,in fact 96 funded places have been made avail-able for 1997/8.)

• Option BTrainees receive a fixed salary (eg £15,000), havepension and National Insurance contributionspaid by a host LEA which provides continuityof service and have their fees paid. Estimatednumber of funded places given the currentbudget: 104.

• Option CTrainees receive a training bursary (eg £12,000)and have their fees paid, but are not employedby an LEA during the training year. Estimatednumber of funded places given the currentbudget: 119.

Respondents were requested to indicate on a three-point scale whether they would or would not trainif a particular funding option was in operation. Theresults of the analysis are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Percentage of respondents willing to trainunder each funding option

Yes(%) No(%) Not sure (%)

Option AOption BOption C

98.474.238.6

08.6

32.1

1.617.228.3

Applicants were further asked if there was aminimum amount that they would accept under optionsB and C. The minimum figures suggested as beingacceptable for the two options are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Minimum funding acceptable under optionsB and C

Minimumamount (£)

10,000 and below10,500-14,50015,00015,500-18,50019,000 and aboveNo figure given

Option B(%)

5.214.833.612.78.5

24.6

Option C(%)

3.719.317.29.69.5

40.3

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Further analysisThe significance of associations betweendemographic variables (age, sex, ethnicity and yearsof teaching experience) and questionnaire responseswere investigated using a series of chi-square tests.Initial analysis established that willingness to train ona 3-year Doctorate, as opposed to a 1-year Mastersprogramme, is not significantly associated with age,sex, ethnicity or years of teaching experience. It hassometimes been suggested that applicants with manyyears of teaching experience would be lost toeducational psychology if the length of trainingincreased; this suggestion, however, is not supportedby the data - as can be seen in Table 6.

Table 6. Willingness to train on a 3-year rather thana 1-year programme

Years of Less About Moreteaching willing the same willingexperience (%) (%) (%)

Less than 5 years 31.7 45.0 23.3

5 to 9 years 27.6 48.3 24.1

10 years or more 27.8 38.9 33.3

Another concern that is occasionally raised is thatoffering a spot salary, particularly one below theSoulbury Assistant EP scale, would disproportion-ately deter more experienced applicants. The datadid provide some support for this view. While ap-plicants of different ages, sex, ethnicity and yearsof teaching experience were equally willing to trainunder Option A and unwilling to train under OptionC, younger applicants and those with less teach-ing experience were more willing to train underOption B {x2 =10.2, p<.05 for age, and x2 = 12.1,p<.05 for years of teaching experience). As canbe seen from Table 7, it is applicants in the mid-dle age band who appeared least happy with theadoption of Option B. However, when applicantswere asked to nominate a minimum acceptable salarylevel, should Option B be implemented, 55 per centof respondents nominated a figure of £15,000 orless, and a further 12.7 per cent nominated a figureof between £15,000 and £19,000, and 24.4 percent did not specify a minimum figure. Hence atleast two-thirds of applicants would be preparedto accept a spot salary at the lowest point of theSoulbury Assistant EP scale and only 8.5 per centspecified that they required a salary above this level.Here there was no significant association between

the minimum salary level identified and the appli-cants' age, sex, ethnicity or number of years teachingexperience.

Table 7. Willingness to train under option B

Age-Range

30 and under31-4041 and over

Discussion

No (%)

2.413.99.3

Not sure (%)

7.125.618.6

yes (%)

90.560.572.1

Before discussing the results of this study, it isimportant to give consideration to the weight thatshould be attached to them. The high response rate(60 per cent of the questionnaires distributed werereturned) meant that the sample represented 30 percent of the total number of applicants to the LGMBclearing house for EP training commencing inSeptember 1997. Such a sample would provide agood basis for generalisation provided that it isrepresentative of applicants as a whole. However, theonly characteristic on which it is currently possibleto make this comparison is sex, as data from theLGMB on age and ethnicity will not be availableuntil September 1997. A comparison of the data onthe basis of sex suggests that the sample is indeedclosely representative of applicants nationally - 18.3per cent of our sample being male compared to 17.4per cent of applicants nationally. However, it will beimportant to check the representativeness of thesample on other bases also, particularly as it is drawnfrom applicants to one course, located in London.

The responses to Section 1 indicate that the changein professional training courses from a 1-yearMasters to a 3-year Doctorate will not significantlydeter applicants even in the short term. Twenty-nineper cent say that they would be less willing to trainwhile 27 per cent would be more willing, with theremaining 44 per cent feeling much the same as theydo now. The LGMB clearing house for EP trainingreceived 436 applications for 1997/8, more thanthree applicants for every available training place andmore than four applicants for every funded place. Itis therefore unlikely that there will be a shortage ofsuitable applicants even if all those who felt lesswilling to train were deterred. The 11 per cent whoreported feeling 'much less willing' may provide abetter indication of the likely decrease amongst thosecurrently applying. It must be acknowledged that thisdiscussion is underpinned by the assumption that

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what individuals say they will do in response to aproposed change provides a valid indication of whatthey will actually do when the change isimplemented. A further limitation of the presentresearch is that it is, of course, not possible toestimate how many additional applications might beattracted by the change.

The concern that applicants who have extensiveexperience may be particularly deterred was notsupported by the data. Neither length of teachingexperience nor age was associated with willingnessto train on a 3-year rather than a 1-year course.There were some differences in the frequency withwhich particular advantages and disadvantages of themove to 3-year training were identified by applicantsin different age groups. Hence the potential increasein practical competence was considered moreimportant by younger applicants and those with lessteaching experience - possibly because they feel lessconfident in their existing skills. In considering thedevelopment of practical competence, it is ofrelevance that the new criteria for 3-year coursesrequire that 50 per cent of total course time is spenton placement. Older applicants, on the other hand,were more likely to be attracted by the researchpotential of the doctoral course. This requirementwould also be satisfied by the criteria for 3-yeartraining which require the production of a substantialpiece of professionally relevant empirical researchwhich makes an original contribution to knowledge.

With regard to the disadvantages identified,duration and finance were the most common.Although one might anticipate that these would beof particular concern to older applicants, or thosewith longer teaching experience, neither of thesegroups were more likely to identify thesedisadvantages. The results of this survey suggest thatconsideration should be given to the implementationof Option B, involving the payment of a spot salarv.This would allow substantially more funded placesto be provided, bringing the total closer to thatrequired by LEAs. Three-quarters of currentapplicants would find that proposal acceptable, andfewer than 9 per cent rejected it out of hand.Respondents' comments endorsed the value ofOption B as: 'enabling the greatest number ofapplicants to train while retaining continuity ofservice'. Some appeared motivated by concern forothers: 'I would rather receive a little less in orderfor more applicants to be given some funding'.However, others thought that 'an inadequate budgetshould not be spread even more thinly', and argued,'if EPs are needed by the government, the

government should pay'. Most of the small numberof respondents who rejected Option B said that allof their existing salary is committed. Other applicantspointed out that their answers were based onpersonal circumstances and did not necessarilycoincide with what they thought would be best forthe profession. This finding suggests that, were theLGMB Steering Group to move from funding OptionA to Option B, even the minority of applicants whowould lose out as a result would, for the most part,be able to appreciate the reasonableness of such achange.

The new 3-year admission requirements specify: '...at least two-years teaching experience or otherrelevant work with children'. Forty-two per cent ofrespondents made comments opposing the proposalthat qualified teaching experience should no longerbe an essential entry requirement, arguing for thevalue of teaching experience. Of the 58 per cent whomade comments supporting it, 23 per cent did so onthe basis of a pragmatic need to restrict the lengthof time needed to qualify. The remaining 35 per centargued that experience of school settings is necessarybut that it can be obtained in other ways. On thisissue the views expressed by experienced EPs likewiseare, and have long been, divided (Wedell andLambourne, 1980; Farrell, in preparation). Farrelland Lunt (1995) point out the mounting practicaldifficulties in maintaining a mandatory requirementfor teacher training and experience since theintroduction of the National Curriculum, and it isinteresting to observe the rising number of applicantsin recent years from the further education sector.Farrell and Lunt also suggest ways in whichnecessary experience of all phases of education, andof a fuller range of contexts in which children liveand learn, could be built into the early stages of a3-year training course. Perhaps if the professioncould agree on the knowledge, skills and attitudeswhich teacher training and experience is supposed todevelop, the hypothesis that they could be developedthough alternative programmes of experience couldbe empirically tested. It would also be interesting toinvestigate further the often expressed view thatknowledge of EPs' experience as teachers accountsfor a significant proportion of the variance in theircredibility in schools.

Conclusions

This article has attempted to make an informedcontribution to the debate on the future ofprofessional training in educational psychology by

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identifying and investigating a number of the keyconcerns which have been expressed. The hypothesesthat the change to 3-year training would significantlydeter applicants, in particular older and moreexperienced applicants, were not supported by thedata. The introduction of a spot salary should beconsidered as it would discourage less than 9 percent of current applicants and would createsubstantially more funded places. Finally, it is ofinterest to note that, by a narrow majority,respondents, most of whom are currently working asteachers, did not consider it essential to retainmandatory teaching experience as a prerequisite. Ourresulting proposal - that the profession should definethe prerequisite knowledge, skills and attitudesobtained at present from teaching experience - couldwell be extended in developing national criteria forselection to all training courses.

Gersch (1997) has argued that 'the outcome ofwhat we do now will have the most profound effecton our profession, being the biggest change since1946, and setting the scene for the next 50 years'.Failure to make the change to 3-year training couldpotentially jeopardise our continuing recognition asapplied psychologists in Europe (Lunt, 1993) and ourcontinuing eligibility, with the introduction ofstatutory registration, for chartered status in Britain(Lunt and Carroll, 1996). The question is no longerwhether to change, but how? Many of the issueswhich need to be resolved, some of which have beendiscussed in this paper, are ones on which strongopinions are held. It will take all of our professionalskills as consultants, problem solvers and appliedscientists to resolve them. Strident assertion ofpersonal opinions is unlikely to be helpful in thisregard. Rather we need to use our analytic andresearch skills to investigate perceived obstacles anddiscover innovative ways of overcoming them.

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Portsmouth, R., O'Riordan, S., Morris, S. and Gersch, I.S. (1995) 'Training matters: doctoral training ineducational psychology', DECP Newsletter, 70, 16-17.

Wedell, K. and Lambourne, R. (1980) 'PsychologicalServices for Children in England and Wales', DECPOccasional Papers, 4, (1 and 2), 1-84.

Norah Frederickson is Director for ProfessionalTraining in Educational Psychology at UniversityCollege London and Senior Educational Psychologistwith Buckinghamshire County Psychological Service.Ruth Collins, formerly Research Assistant with theUCL Educational Psychology Group, is ResearchPsychologist, Clinical and Health Psychology,University College London. The address forcorrespondence: Dr Norah Frederickson,Educational Psychology Group, Department ofPsychology, University College London, 26 BedfordWay, London WC1E 0AP.

This article was accepted for publication in June1997.

See also the letter in this issue from Irvine Gersch.

154 Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 13, No 3, October 1997

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