Alex C Mueller DASIN2P3

muellerin2p3fr

Ecole des Acceacuteleacuterateurs IN2P3La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Utiliteacute des acceacuteleacuterateurs types de machines physique nucleacuteaire et des particules associeacutee

DAS = Directeur Adjoint ScientifiquePortefeuilleAcceacuteleacuterateurs Energie Nucleacuteaire Interdisciplinaire

2Alex C Mueller

LIN2P3 quelques chiffresPlus que 2500 personnes dont 417 Chercheurs CNRS de la section 03

90 Chercheurs CNRS des autres sections

351 Enseignants-chercheurs et chercheurs non CNRS

250 Personnels techniques et administratifs non CNRS

1477 Personnels techniques et administratifs CNRS

Repartition Geacuteographique 1058 Ile de France

504 Rhocircne Alpes

313 Normandie

261 Alsace

111 Provence

99 Centre

97 Bretagne ndash Pays de Loire

78 Aquitaine ndash Limousin

44 Languedoc Roussillon Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

3Alex C Mueller

Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules lacceacuteleacuteration a dune particule de masse m neacutecessite une force F

F = m bull a (Newton)

des 4 forces fondamentales la seule que nous pouvons maicirctriser demaniegravere technologique est la force eacutelectromagneacutetique

des 4 eacutequations de Maxwell qui deacutecrivent les champs eacutelectro-magneacutetiques (eacutelectrique E magneacutetique B) on obtient la force deLorentz qui agit sur une charge q en mouvement avec une vitesse v

F = q (E + v x B)

nota bene seules des particules chargeacuteespeuvent ecirctre acceacuteleacutereacutees

le gain en eacutenergie W de q dans un champeacutelectrique geacuteneacutereacute par un potentiel V

est W = q V

(uniteacute utiliseacutee eacutelectron Volt [eV]Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

4Alex C Mueller

Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles

E = msdotc2bull E = eacutenergie totalebull m = masse bull c = vitesse de la lumiegravere

c = 29979 sdot 108 megravetresseconde 1 Joule = 1 Watt seconde = 1 kilogram metre2seconde2

charge eacuteleacutementaire e = 1021 sdot10-19 Ampegravere seconde 1 Ampegravere seconde = 1 Coulomb1 eV = 16021 sdot10-19 Joule 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV 1 TeV = 1012 eVMasse au repos eacutelectron me = 0511 MeV proton mp = 938272 MeVConstante de Planck h = 66261 sdot10-34 Joule seconde = 41357 sdot10-15 eV seconde

Formules importantesMasse (relativiste) m m = γ sdot m0

Energie cineacutetique Ecin Ecin = E - E0

Energie dun photon E = hsdotν = (hsdotc)λ

Long donde de Broglie λdB = h(p) = h(βγsdotm0sdotc)

E0 = m0sdotc2

γ = (1-β2)-12 β = vc bull v = vitessebull m0 = masse au

reposbull h = constante de Planckbull ν = freacutequence dune ondebull λ = longueur dondeλ = cν

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

5Alex C Mueller

Les acceacuteleacuterateurs sont devenus les outils les plus importants pour la physique dela matiegravere eacuteleacutementaire eacutetude de ses Constituants et de leurs InteractionsUn aspect interdisciplinaire important est lhistoire de lUnivers (Big-BangNucleacuteosynthegravese)

Leacutechelle eacutetudieacutee est correacuteleacutee agrave leacutenergie du faisceau (ou agrave son impulsion p)

λ = hp (longueur donde de de Broglie)nota bene parallegravelement la production des particulessubatomiques et subnucleacuteaires demande de plus en plus E = m c2

deacutenergie en accord avec la loi de Einstein

Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale

Quark 10 -19 m Proton amp Neutron 10 -15 mAtome 10 -10 mCellule 10 -8 -10 ndash3 m Homme 10 0 m

Terre 10 7 mSoleil 10 9 mSystegraveme Solaire 10 13 mVoie Lacteacutee 10 21 mUnivers 10 26 m

Dimensions utiles

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

2Alex C Mueller

LIN2P3 quelques chiffresPlus que 2500 personnes dont 417 Chercheurs CNRS de la section 03

90 Chercheurs CNRS des autres sections

351 Enseignants-chercheurs et chercheurs non CNRS

250 Personnels techniques et administratifs non CNRS

1477 Personnels techniques et administratifs CNRS

Repartition Geacuteographique 1058 Ile de France

504 Rhocircne Alpes

313 Normandie

261 Alsace

111 Provence

99 Centre

97 Bretagne ndash Pays de Loire

78 Aquitaine ndash Limousin

44 Languedoc Roussillon Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

3Alex C Mueller

Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules lacceacuteleacuteration a dune particule de masse m neacutecessite une force F

F = m bull a (Newton)

des 4 forces fondamentales la seule que nous pouvons maicirctriser demaniegravere technologique est la force eacutelectromagneacutetique

des 4 eacutequations de Maxwell qui deacutecrivent les champs eacutelectro-magneacutetiques (eacutelectrique E magneacutetique B) on obtient la force deLorentz qui agit sur une charge q en mouvement avec une vitesse v

F = q (E + v x B)

nota bene seules des particules chargeacuteespeuvent ecirctre acceacuteleacutereacutees

le gain en eacutenergie W de q dans un champeacutelectrique geacuteneacutereacute par un potentiel V

est W = q V

(uniteacute utiliseacutee eacutelectron Volt [eV]Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

4Alex C Mueller

Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles

E = msdotc2bull E = eacutenergie totalebull m = masse bull c = vitesse de la lumiegravere

c = 29979 sdot 108 megravetresseconde 1 Joule = 1 Watt seconde = 1 kilogram metre2seconde2

charge eacuteleacutementaire e = 1021 sdot10-19 Ampegravere seconde 1 Ampegravere seconde = 1 Coulomb1 eV = 16021 sdot10-19 Joule 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV 1 TeV = 1012 eVMasse au repos eacutelectron me = 0511 MeV proton mp = 938272 MeVConstante de Planck h = 66261 sdot10-34 Joule seconde = 41357 sdot10-15 eV seconde

Formules importantesMasse (relativiste) m m = γ sdot m0

Energie cineacutetique Ecin Ecin = E - E0

Energie dun photon E = hsdotν = (hsdotc)λ

Long donde de Broglie λdB = h(p) = h(βγsdotm0sdotc)

E0 = m0sdotc2

γ = (1-β2)-12 β = vc bull v = vitessebull m0 = masse au

reposbull h = constante de Planckbull ν = freacutequence dune ondebull λ = longueur dondeλ = cν

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

5Alex C Mueller

Les acceacuteleacuterateurs sont devenus les outils les plus importants pour la physique dela matiegravere eacuteleacutementaire eacutetude de ses Constituants et de leurs InteractionsUn aspect interdisciplinaire important est lhistoire de lUnivers (Big-BangNucleacuteosynthegravese)

Leacutechelle eacutetudieacutee est correacuteleacutee agrave leacutenergie du faisceau (ou agrave son impulsion p)

λ = hp (longueur donde de de Broglie)nota bene parallegravelement la production des particulessubatomiques et subnucleacuteaires demande de plus en plus E = m c2

deacutenergie en accord avec la loi de Einstein

Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale

Quark 10 -19 m Proton amp Neutron 10 -15 mAtome 10 -10 mCellule 10 -8 -10 ndash3 m Homme 10 0 m

Terre 10 7 mSoleil 10 9 mSystegraveme Solaire 10 13 mVoie Lacteacutee 10 21 mUnivers 10 26 m

Dimensions utiles

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

3Alex C Mueller

Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules lacceacuteleacuteration a dune particule de masse m neacutecessite une force F

F = m bull a (Newton)

des 4 forces fondamentales la seule que nous pouvons maicirctriser demaniegravere technologique est la force eacutelectromagneacutetique

des 4 eacutequations de Maxwell qui deacutecrivent les champs eacutelectro-magneacutetiques (eacutelectrique E magneacutetique B) on obtient la force deLorentz qui agit sur une charge q en mouvement avec une vitesse v

F = q (E + v x B)

nota bene seules des particules chargeacuteespeuvent ecirctre acceacuteleacutereacutees

le gain en eacutenergie W de q dans un champeacutelectrique geacuteneacutereacute par un potentiel V

est W = q V

(uniteacute utiliseacutee eacutelectron Volt [eV]Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

4Alex C Mueller

Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles

E = msdotc2bull E = eacutenergie totalebull m = masse bull c = vitesse de la lumiegravere

c = 29979 sdot 108 megravetresseconde 1 Joule = 1 Watt seconde = 1 kilogram metre2seconde2

charge eacuteleacutementaire e = 1021 sdot10-19 Ampegravere seconde 1 Ampegravere seconde = 1 Coulomb1 eV = 16021 sdot10-19 Joule 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV 1 TeV = 1012 eVMasse au repos eacutelectron me = 0511 MeV proton mp = 938272 MeVConstante de Planck h = 66261 sdot10-34 Joule seconde = 41357 sdot10-15 eV seconde

Formules importantesMasse (relativiste) m m = γ sdot m0

Energie cineacutetique Ecin Ecin = E - E0

Energie dun photon E = hsdotν = (hsdotc)λ

Long donde de Broglie λdB = h(p) = h(βγsdotm0sdotc)

E0 = m0sdotc2

γ = (1-β2)-12 β = vc bull v = vitessebull m0 = masse au

reposbull h = constante de Planckbull ν = freacutequence dune ondebull λ = longueur dondeλ = cν

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

5Alex C Mueller

Les acceacuteleacuterateurs sont devenus les outils les plus importants pour la physique dela matiegravere eacuteleacutementaire eacutetude de ses Constituants et de leurs InteractionsUn aspect interdisciplinaire important est lhistoire de lUnivers (Big-BangNucleacuteosynthegravese)

Leacutechelle eacutetudieacutee est correacuteleacutee agrave leacutenergie du faisceau (ou agrave son impulsion p)

λ = hp (longueur donde de de Broglie)nota bene parallegravelement la production des particulessubatomiques et subnucleacuteaires demande de plus en plus E = m c2

deacutenergie en accord avec la loi de Einstein

Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale

Quark 10 -19 m Proton amp Neutron 10 -15 mAtome 10 -10 mCellule 10 -8 -10 ndash3 m Homme 10 0 m

Terre 10 7 mSoleil 10 9 mSystegraveme Solaire 10 13 mVoie Lacteacutee 10 21 mUnivers 10 26 m

Dimensions utiles

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

4Alex C Mueller

Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles

E = msdotc2bull E = eacutenergie totalebull m = masse bull c = vitesse de la lumiegravere

c = 29979 sdot 108 megravetresseconde 1 Joule = 1 Watt seconde = 1 kilogram metre2seconde2

charge eacuteleacutementaire e = 1021 sdot10-19 Ampegravere seconde 1 Ampegravere seconde = 1 Coulomb1 eV = 16021 sdot10-19 Joule 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV 1 TeV = 1012 eVMasse au repos eacutelectron me = 0511 MeV proton mp = 938272 MeVConstante de Planck h = 66261 sdot10-34 Joule seconde = 41357 sdot10-15 eV seconde

Formules importantesMasse (relativiste) m m = γ sdot m0

Energie cineacutetique Ecin Ecin = E - E0

Energie dun photon E = hsdotν = (hsdotc)λ

Long donde de Broglie λdB = h(p) = h(βγsdotm0sdotc)

E0 = m0sdotc2

γ = (1-β2)-12 β = vc bull v = vitessebull m0 = masse au

reposbull h = constante de Planckbull ν = freacutequence dune ondebull λ = longueur dondeλ = cν

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

5Alex C Mueller

Les acceacuteleacuterateurs sont devenus les outils les plus importants pour la physique dela matiegravere eacuteleacutementaire eacutetude de ses Constituants et de leurs InteractionsUn aspect interdisciplinaire important est lhistoire de lUnivers (Big-BangNucleacuteosynthegravese)

Leacutechelle eacutetudieacutee est correacuteleacutee agrave leacutenergie du faisceau (ou agrave son impulsion p)

λ = hp (longueur donde de de Broglie)nota bene parallegravelement la production des particulessubatomiques et subnucleacuteaires demande de plus en plus E = m c2

deacutenergie en accord avec la loi de Einstein

Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale

Quark 10 -19 m Proton amp Neutron 10 -15 mAtome 10 -10 mCellule 10 -8 -10 ndash3 m Homme 10 0 m

Terre 10 7 mSoleil 10 9 mSystegraveme Solaire 10 13 mVoie Lacteacutee 10 21 mUnivers 10 26 m

Dimensions utiles

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

5Alex C Mueller

Les acceacuteleacuterateurs sont devenus les outils les plus importants pour la physique dela matiegravere eacuteleacutementaire eacutetude de ses Constituants et de leurs InteractionsUn aspect interdisciplinaire important est lhistoire de lUnivers (Big-BangNucleacuteosynthegravese)

Leacutechelle eacutetudieacutee est correacuteleacutee agrave leacutenergie du faisceau (ou agrave son impulsion p)

λ = hp (longueur donde de de Broglie)nota bene parallegravelement la production des particulessubatomiques et subnucleacuteaires demande de plus en plus E = m c2

deacutenergie en accord avec la loi de Einstein

Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale

Quark 10 -19 m Proton amp Neutron 10 -15 mAtome 10 -10 mCellule 10 -8 -10 ndash3 m Homme 10 0 m

Terre 10 7 mSoleil 10 9 mSystegraveme Solaire 10 13 mVoie Lacteacutee 10 21 mUnivers 10 26 m

Dimensions utiles

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

6Alex C Mueller

Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)

Source UtilisateurAcceacuteleacuterateurScheacutema

Un acceacuteleacuterateur possegravede les composants principaux suivants

une source de particules chargeacuteeseacutelectrons protons ions lourds cas particulier positrons amp anti-protons

eacuteleacutements dacceacuteleacuterationcolonnes ou caviteacutes de radiofreacutequence creacuteant le champ eacutelectrique qui confegravereleacutenergie aux particules qui constituent le faisceau

eacuteleacutements de guidage du faisceausurtout magneacutetiques pour maintenir (focaliser) le faisceau sur la trajectoire voulueet pour deacutefinir lorbite (fermeacutee pour un synchrotron) dans les machines circulaires

systegravemes auxiliaires en particulier vide et diagnosticsun vide de bonne qualiteacute est neacutecessaire afin deacuteviter les collisions faisceau - gazreacutesiduel les diagnostics assurent la surveillance des trajectoires du faisceau

linstallation utilisateurdispositifs expeacuterimentaux (souvent complexes) qui incluent notamment les ciblesspectromegravetres deacutetecteurscas particulier faisceaux secondaires produits par une reacuteaction nucleacuteaire (exemple neutrons) ou par un processus eacutelectromagneacutetique (exemple photons creacutees parBremsstrahlung ou par le Rayonnement Synchrotron)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

7Alex C Mueller

Elements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (II)

quadrupolemagneacutetique de focalisation

caviteacutes acceacuteleacuteratrices

dipole magneacutetiquede deacuteviation

Photos LEP (CERN)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

8Alex C Mueller

Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience

Faisceau departicules acceacuteleacutereacutees

Cible dinteraction

Spectromegravetre

D

D

D

DD = Deacutetecteur

D

Basede tempsde vol

Φ

Particules creacuteeacutees dans linteraction faisceau-cibleen fait les interactions des particulesdu faisceau avec celles de la cible(noyau nucleacuteons eacutelectronshellip)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

9Alex C Mueller

Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur

Collisionneurcirculaire

ri

ri

Collisionneur lineacuteaire

ri

ri reacutegion dinteraction ce qui inteacuteresse lutilisateur cestleacutenergie disponible dans le centrede masse projectile noyau cibleen mode cible fixe une partie deleacutenergie est gaspilleacutee en eacutenergiecineacutetique des produits de reacuteaction

de maniegravere eacutevidente leacutenergieutile est plus grande en modecollisionneur dautant plus si les projectiles ont la mecircme masse et la mecircme eacutenergie(collisionneur symeacutetrique)

Cible fixe

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

10Alex C Mueller

2) Force de CoulombF = 1(4πε0) times q qrsquor2

mise en mouvement de lrsquoeacutelectron rArr ionisation

ralentissement du projectile

notion de parcours dEdx

La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere

3) Formule de Bethe

-dEdx = Z2 mE f(E)

1) RemarqueMatiegravere = noyau + eacutelectrons

tout petit rArr en traversant la matiegravere on ne voit quasiment que les eacutelectrons

p

e-

entre charges q et qdistantes de r

ε0 = 9 x 10-12 [AsVm]

Deacutetermination dunombre Z de protons par mesure de perte deacutenergie

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

11Alex C Mueller

La Deacutetection (II) lIonisationRemarque essentielleLrsquoionisation est un pheacutenomegravene lineacuteairen = nombre drsquoeacuteleacutectrons arracheacutes

eacutenergie perdue n = constante const = 30 eV (gaz)= 3 eV (Si)

exemples1) arrecirct total dans le deacutetecteur

n = Ecin const

2) ralentissementn = ΔEcin const

ordres de grandeurarrecirct drsquoune particule α de 5MeV

gaz n = 5times10630 cong 17 times 105

Si n = 5times106 3 cong 17 times 106

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

12Alex C Mueller

Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees

Cas des particules chargeacutees trivial

Cas des particules neutres mise en mouvement drsquoun noyauchargeacute (du deacutetecteur)par collisionexemple neutrons rapidesou par reacuteaction avec les noyauxdu deacutetecteurexemple neutrons lents(meilleure efficaciteacute si mprojectile gt mnoyau )

Cas des photons mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons(par trois effets)

La Deacutetection (III) Comment deacutetecterdiffeacuterents types de particules

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

13Alex C Mueller

γγγγγ

mise en mouvement drsquoeacutelectrons par 3 effets

La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons

e-

Interaction Rayonnement-Matiegravere

creacuteation de paires

effet photoeacutelectrique

effet Compton

e-

e+

e-

γ

γ

γγ

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

14Alex C Mueller

1) Deacutetecteurs drsquoionisationobjectif collecter les n eacutelectrons

(et eacuteventuellement les n charges positives) libeacutereacutees parle processus dionisation

charge collecteacutee q = nbull eordre de grandeur pour une particule ldquoα de 5 MeV

gaz q = 17 times 105 times 16 times 10-19 C1 C (Coulomb) = 1 Abulls = 27 times 10-14 C

Si q = 27 times 10-13 C

2) ScintillateursPrincipe le retour agrave lrsquoeacutequilibre du milieu peut se faire par

eacutemission de lumiegravere- on collecte cette lumiegravere- on la transforme en signal eacutelectrique(typiquement avec un photomultiplicateur )

La Deacutetection (V) Principes de deacutetecteurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

15Alex C Mueller

si B perp v Bρ = mvq Bρ rigiditeacute magneacutetique

rarr

q

vBrarr

ρ

La Deacutetection (VI)Trajectoire dune particule dans un champ magneacutetique

rarr rarr

Particule de masse met de charge q traversant un champ Bavec une vitesse vrarr

rarr

rarrF = q v times B = m v2 ρ

rarrrarr

Force de Lorentz= Force centrifuge

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

16Alex C Mueller

vitesse typique des ions lourds du GANIL vc = 03 rArr v = 108 ms = 10 cmnspour ΔAA = 1200 rArr Δvv = 1400 preacutecision prise de temps Δt = 200 ps

t = 400 times 200 ps = 80 ns rArr l= longueur = 8 megravetres

Ecin = 12 m v2 rArr m = 2 Ecinv2

m = A mnucleacuteon v = lt

rArr A = 2mnucleacuteon Ecin t2l2

longueur l

ldquoSTARTrdquo ldquoSTOPrdquo etmesure drsquoeacutenergie

1) par Energie et Temps de Vol 2) par Temps de Vol etRigiditeacute Magneacutetique Bρ

rarr

Deacutetermination du nombre de masse A dun ion lourdcomposeacute de Z protons et N neutrons avec A = Z + N

q vBrarr

ρSTART

STOP

Bρ = mq bull v = mq bull ltsi q = Z e (ions eacuteplucheacutes)rArr AZ = t e B (l bull mnucleacuteon)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

17Alex C Mueller

Matrice bi-dimensionnelle didentification apregraves un spectromegravetre (ici LISEGANIL)

Ci-contre une matriceΔE-TdV

selon la formule de Bethele ΔE est proportionel au Z(au carreacute) des particulesdeacutetecteacuteesselon le transparent preacuteceacutedantpour un Bρ choisi ou mesureacute(par le spectromegravetre)le temps de vol estproportionel au AZles diffeacuterents isotopes (ZA)sont donc trieacutes dans cettematrice et identifiablesRemarque si les ions ne sontpas complegravetement eacuteplucheacutes(q ne Z bull e) il faut construiredes matrices un peu plus com-plexes agrave laide de ΔE E TdV Bρ

Deacutecouverte de nouveaux isotopesau GANIL avec le spectromegravetre LISE

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

18Alex C Mueller

Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL

Le Deacutetecteur EXOGAMSpectromegravetre 4πminusγ agrave haute reacutesolution(emploi de deacutetecteurs GeHP) et agrave largecouverture angulaire (4π)

VAMOS (VARiable MOde Spectrometer) Spectromegravetre magneacutetique pouvantopeacutereacuter en diffeacuterents modes(filtre de vitesse associeacute)

nB VAMOS et EXOGAM peuvent ecirctre combineacutes Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

19Alex C Mueller

Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC

ATLASCMSALICELHC-B

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

20Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)

On pense que le monde daujourdhuia eu son origine dans le Big BangAu tout deacutebut lunivers eacutetait si petitquil tenait agrave linteacuterieur dune main

Toutes les particules qui constituent la matiegravere du monde preacutesent neacutetaient pas encore formeacuteesmais depuis lunivers a connu une expansion correspondant agrave des millards danneacutees lumiegraveres Les Quarks et Gluons aujourdhui enfermeacutes dans les protons et neutrons eacutetaitent trop chauds agravecette eacutepoque pour coller ensemble On appelle la matiegravere dans cet eacutetat le Plasma Quark GluonAfin de creacuteer le Plasma Quark Gluon en laboratoire les physiciens doivent collisionner des ionslourds entre eux agrave tregraves haute eacutenergie en comprimant les protons et neutrons jusquagrave fusionLe but de lexpeacuterience ALICE aupregraves du LHC sera de recreacuteer ces conditions et de les eacutetudier

Gas

Quark-Gluon Plasma

Deconfinement

Nucleus Density

Tem

pera

ture

70 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

30

00 0

00 0

00 0

00deg

ρ 0= 25 0 000 000 Tcm 3

T critical

Liquid

Coexistence

Big Bang

GANIL

Neutron Stars

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

21Alex C Mueller

les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)

lastrophysique nucleaire eacutetudie les reacuteactions nucleacuteairesqui ont lieu dans les eacutetoilesces reacuteactions produisent de leacutenergie et syntheacutetisent leseacuteleacutements chimiques (abondance isotopique) dont notremonde est constitueacuteagrave titre dexemple la figure ci-contre montre les abon-dances produites dans le processus r dont on pense que les lieus soient les explosions de supernovae(noir = abondance mesureacutee)

la capture rapide proton (rp) et neutron produit des noyaux de tregraves courte vieles proprieacuteteacutes de ces noyaux exotiquessont largement inconnuespourtant leur masse deacutecroissance sec-tion efficace de reacuteaction determinent defaccedilon critique les abondances (on notedans la figure la diffeacuterence entre struc-ture en couches normale et quencheacuteecette physique motive des acceacuteleacuterateurscomme GANIL-SPIRALGSIou les projets futurs comme EURISOLlacceacuteleacuterateur de haute intensiteacutedEURISOL possegravede des speacutecificationstregraves similaires que celles du XADS

supernova 1987A

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

22Alex C Mueller

Physique Nucleacuteaire et ChimieLa synthegravese des eacuteleacutements les plus lourds

Les Acceacuteleacuterateurs dions lourdsont permis dans des reacuteactionsde fusion la synthegravese des nouveaux eacuteleacutements qui ont eacuteteacutebaptiseacutes reacutecemment

ces expeacuteriences se font agraveGSI Dubna et BerkeleyReacutecemment on a pu pousserjusquau Z=112 (GSI Dubna)voire Z=118 (Dubna)

RutherfordiumDubniumSeaborgiumBohrium

HassiumMeitneriumDarmstadtiumRoentgenium

helliphellipet le futurSelon les preacutedictions theacuteoriques on devraittrouver un icirclot de stabiliteacute pour des Z en-core plus eacuteleacuteveacutesLa figure ci-contre montre de tels calculsougrave la force des couleurs correspond auxeacutenergies de liaison donc aussi aux temps de vieHeacutelas les sections efficaces de fusion seacutecroulenten mecircme temps il faudrait donc des futursacceacuteleacuterateurs dion lourds de forte intensiteacuteles faisceaux radioactifs riches en neutronscomme le 132Sn pourraient donner accegraves agrave cettereacutegion et eacutegalement aux isotopes de plus longuedureacutee de vie des autres eacuteleacutements

La classification des eacuteleacutementschimiques selon

Mendelejev

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

23Alex C Mueller

effectiveeffectiveNN forceNN force

quarks amp gluonsquarks amp gluons

free NNfree NNforceforce

nucleonnucleon

light nucleilight nuclei

medium-massmedium-massand heavy nucleiand heavy nuclei

Derivation of the effective NN forcein nuclear medium Derivation of the

bare NN forcefrom QCD

Point de vue du theacuteoricien nucleacuteaire (US-Pologne) Witold Nazarewicz

CERN RHIC DESY

TJNAF

GANIL GSI

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

Lien entre Physique Nucleacuteaire et Physique des Particuleset principales machines associeacutees (pour les physiciens de lIN2P3)

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

24Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

1er quart du Preacutehistoire deacutecouvertes fondamentales avec faisceaux de sources20egraveme siegravecle radioactives (Rutherford) deacuteclenchent la demande pour plus deacutenergie from 1928 CockcroftampWalton deacuteveloppent lacceacuteleacuterateur eacutelectrostatique de 700KVto 1932 (multiplicateur de tension) la couroie de Van de Graaff fait 12MV1928 1er Linac par Wideroe sur le concept de Ising dacceacuteleacuteration reacutesonante 1929 Lawrence invente le cyclotron 1944 MacMillan Oliphant amp Veksler deacuteveloppent le synchrotron1946 Alvarez construit un linac agrave protons avec structures Alvarez (mode 2π )1950 Christofilos brevette le concept de la focalisation forte1951 Alvarez deacuteveloppe le tandem1954 Courant Livingston et Snyder implantent la focalisation forte aupregraves du

Cosmotron Synchrotron de Brookhaven (et apprennent avec deacuteceptionlexistence du brevet de Christofilos)

1956 Kerst propose dans une publication lideacutee du collisionneur mais lobten-tion de taux deacutevegravenements utiles plus tardif (cf anneacutees 80 avec le SppS)

1970 Kapchinski amp Telyakov inventent le quadrupole agrave radio-freacutequence (RFQ)deacutebut 80 les aimants supraconducteurs augmentent consideacuterablement la perfor-

mance (eacutenergie vs taille) de cyclotronssynchrotrons et collisionneursmi 80 les sources ECR de Geller sont installeacutees aupregraves des machines agrave ions ougrave

ils augmentent fortement leacutenergie (q eacuteleveacute) et disponibiliteacuteaujourdhui la RampD sur les caviteacutes supraconductrices aboutit agrave des grands gradients

dacceacuteleacuteration possibiliteacute de mode CW et efficaciteacute eacutelectrique

Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

25Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le Diagramme de Livingston

future

Vers 1950 Livingston fait uneobservation tregraves remarquableSi on porte leacutenergie dunacceacuteleacuterateur en fonction de sonanneacutee de construction sur uneeacutechelle semi-logarithmique onobtient une croissance lineacuteaire50 ans plus tard ceci restetoujours vrai Autrement dit les concepteursacceacuteleacuterateurs ont reacuteussi unecroissance exponentielletous les dix ans on gagneenviron un facteur de 33

On note par ailleurs une satura-tion de leacutenergie maximale pourune famille donneacutee dacceacuteleacutera-teurs apregraves une certainepeacuteriode de maturation

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

26

Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

27

Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

28Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (I)Starting from the elementary cell of acceleration(recalled left) anelectrostaticaccelerator is aninsulating column

At its entry side an ion source injects thecharged particlesBetween the entry and the exit (here target B) a continuous high voltage is applied mediatedby intermediate electrodes for a smooth andregular increase of the electric fieldIn a CockroftampWalton Accelerator a rectifier-multiplier produces the high-voltage applied tothe column see upper right figureThis allows to reach high beam currents ofinterest for many applications but the voltageis practically limited to somewhat above 1 MVbecause of breakdown of insulation Such highvoltage is quite a matter of technologyknowledge see lower right figure

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

29Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (II)

how to increase the voltage for electro-static accelerationthe concept of charge transport (see left)has been introduced by R J van de Graaff a comb-like electrode (1) sprays charges on aninsulating conveyor belt (the high-voltage generatortypically being again a rectifier multiplier)The conveyor transports the charges inside thesphere-shaped terminal (3) which forms in fact aFaraday cageThe charges are collected by a second comb likeelectrode (2) which is connected to the sphereconsequently the charges accumulate on the outsideof the sphere and the inside get charge free readyto accept further chargingIn practice one can reach up to 25 MV provided one uses (expensive) SF6 gas for limiting breakdowns

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

30Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Electrostatic Accelerators (III)

the TANDEMconsecutive to the HV ter-minal a second acceleratorcolumn is installed leadingback to ground potentiala stripper is installed atthe terminal through whichthe beam particles have topassthis principle works only for the injection ofnegative ions because of the stripping processhowever at typical terminal voltages severalelectrons can be stripped off considerably aug-menting the energy gain of the second sectionSuch a Tandem (see right the SF6 pressurevessel of the machine at IPN Orsay containingconveyor and accelerating column) can contin-uously accelerate any charge-to-mass ratiowith an excellent beam energy spread but itis limited in intensity The Orsay Tandem is presently much used for measuring fission and capture cross sections of actinides for Reactor Physics in the context of GEDEON activities

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

31Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF

π mode

consider an element of an accelerating co-lumn of an electrostatic acceleratorat any moment the electric field is in thesame direction allowing continuosacceleration

consider now such a column but driven withan alternating voltage in such way that con-secutive electrodes are connected to oppositepolarity of the RF generatorsuppose now that the RF frequency is suchthat it accelerates the particle betweenelectrodes 1amp2 (and also 3amp4) whereas thefield is opposite at that moment betweenaccelerating gaps 2amp3 and 4amp5 respectivelyif this particle arrives now at the gap bet-ween 2amp3 precisely when the RF has chan-ged to opposite phase acceleration occursagain and so onnote that while the polarity change occursthe particle is in the field-free space of thedrift tube of such a Wideroe linac Furtherto stay in phase with the RF as the speedof the particle increases the lenght of thedrift tubes has to increase

R RR R -HVGND

1 42 3 5

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

32Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Le concept du LINAC

on the preceeding slide the Wideroelinac operating in the π mode was intro-duced but it is also possible to run athigher harmonic eg in the 2π mode

π mode

2π mode

in order to minimise the RF power deposited in the structures thegaps and drift tubes form cavities resonant to the RF frequency

in the 2π mode the currents circulating in the wall separatingtwo subsequent cavities cancel hence one can suppress thiswall This gives the Alvarez-structure of the classical DTL

Historical examples a Wideroe type structure a drift tube linac (DTL)(ALICE heavy ion injector IPN Orsay) (Saturne Saclay)

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

33

Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

34Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (I)

ν = 1T = v2πρ = vmc22πρmc2 = (c2πρ) (pcWtotal )

= cqcBmρ2πρm0c2 = qBm 2πm0

(Intrinsically) linacs and cyclotrons both are CW machinesThe classical 2 Dee cyclotron can be imagined by analogyas a linac with 2 drift-tubes (hence two accelerating gaps)leaving the second gap the beam being bend back into thefirst drift tube by the overlying magnetic fieldNote that there actually exist recirculating linacs whereone actually does exactly that eg the 6 GeV electronaccelerator of the Jefferson Laboratory (USA) has 4 arcsin smaller versions the 180deg arc may be within the samemagnet (microtron) Recirculating machines work with thecondition that the velocity does stay constant (ie β = c)The frequency of revolution the so-called cyclotron frequencyhas to be constant so that the particle always sees thesame RF phase with (Wtotal asymp W0 = m0c2) it can be expressedas

linac

arc

reflecting magnet(Microtron)

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

35Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)

F = q (E + v x B) = dpdt (pc)2 = W2total - W2

0 with W20 = m0 c2

a circular accelerator is a machinewhich has a median planethe median plane is a plane inwhich the magnetic field is per-pendicular in all pointsthe so-called reference particleevolves in this plane

Lorentz force (relativistic) Kinetic Energy Wkin = (pc)2

BN

S

Cyclotron

B

Synchrotron

Examples electron rest mass m0 = 511 KeVc2 proton rest mass m0 = 0938 GeVc2

p ρNeglecting the comparatively small accelerating term dpdt = qE for amoment a reference particle with mass m in a given orbit ρ will have|p| asymp constant in each point The Lorentz force will be in equilibriumwith the centrifugal force mv2ρ = dpdt = qvB

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

36

Principe du Cyclotron

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

37Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Synchrotrons (I)

δW = 2π R2 q Bm

R

Injector accelerator

Synchrotron =Ring-Accelerator with radius R δW = 2π ρ q ρ Bm

δW = q VRF sin ΦS

Binj

Bexit

timecycling time(typically 1 - 10 sec)

that means that we have a constant energy gain per turn which is equivalent to a linear increase in time of theaverage magnetic field Bm

VRFVRF = V0 sin ωt

the accelerating RFis applied to one (ormore) cavities

that means also that this energy has to be provided by the acceleratingradiofrequency cavities hence

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

38Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

synchrotrons accelerate up to the highest energies determined by the bendingfields (today superconducting magnets approach B = 10T) and radius of themachine recall W [MeV] = 300 Q B ρ [Tm] and it can be used as a collidera synchrotron is a pulsed machine

Properties of Synchrotrons (II)

typical repetition rates are about 1 Hzthe implantation of the principle of strong focusing (see preceding lecture) insynchrotrons allows the acceleration of quite strong beams in fact up to about1014 charges can be extracted corresponding to internal beams circulating in theAmpegravere-regimeThe low-duty factor however makes that the time averaged intensitiesare in the μA range and therefore a synchrotron is not considered for ADS

the major components of asynchrotron(photo MIMAS SATURNE)

the bending elements magnetic dipoles

the focusing elementsmagnetic quadrupoles

the accelerating elementsRF cavities

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

39Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (II)

this actually confirms our initial assumptions of a closed turn with |p| asymp constantfor the derivation of the equations but it also hints that efficient extraction ofthe beam is a major challengeWith Wkin ltlt Wtotal one also derives the for-mulas where the energy is in MeV and A themass-number of the accelerated particle egA=1 for the proton The factor K is oftenused to describe a cyclotrons characteristics

WkinA = 48 (Bm ρ)2 (QA)or

WkinA = K (QA)2

which shows that the pitch of the spiral formed by thebeam in the cyclotron is indeed small just twice theratio of the energy changea cyclotron typically has 1-4 accelerating cavities withan energy gain of up to a few hundred keVthus the beam typically makes hundreds of turns in theaccelerator and the turn separation is rather small

Cyclotrons ( δBm = 0 ) are intrinsically low-energy machines ( Wkin ltlt Wtotal ) thus

from 2 δW W = 2 q c ( q c Bm ρ ) ( r δBm + Bm δρ)one obtains

δWkin Wkin = 2 δρρ

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

40Cours Introduction Acceacuteleacuterateur Orsay 16 feacutevrier 2007 Alex C Mueller

Properties of Cyclotrons (III)

ν = qBm 2πm0

the preceeding slide derived the expressionfor the cyclotron frequency ν

showing the link between mass field and frequency note that this can be used for high-precision nuclear mass measurementsbut the formula even more importantly also suggests how to overcome the initialrelativistic effects in a cyclotron (starting around 20 MeV for a proton)the relativistic mass increase with increasing β=vc of m=γ sdot m0 γ=(1-β2)-12 canbe compensatedby correspondingly increasing the magnetic field in order tomaintain the frequency ν constant this can be done by shaping the poles (seefigure) and adding trim coils such an accelerator is called an isochroneouscyclotron varying ν however is technically challenging and the correspondingaccelerator the synchrocyclotron is necessarily a pulsed weak current machine

unfortunately a cyclotron can not have anydirect focusing elements inside and that forflight paths which exceed kilometersThe way to overcome partially the absence ofvertical focusing is to use alternate gradientfocusing (see 2nd lecture) by passing in suc-cessively in sectors of strong and weak (orzero fields A radially decreasing field has alsobeen shown to work but of course this is incontradiction to the relativistic effect correction

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

41Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateursmicroscopes dun pouvoir de reacutesolution ultime gracircce aux acceacuteleacuterateurs

les photons et les neutrons sont extrecircmement utiles pour la rechercheen physique des solides physique atomique nouveaux mateacuteriauxchimie biologie pharmacologie etcgracircce agrave la spectromeacutetrie de masse par acceacuteleacuterateur il est possible de faire de la datation de surveiller lenvironnementhelliples acceacuteleacuterateurs dions de basse eacutenergie permettent une panoplie danalyses dans des domaines tregraves varieacutes (cf lacceacuteleacuterateur du Louvre)

sources de radiation pour applications nombreusesmicro-lithographie steacuterilisation de nourriture et dautres objetsmateacuteriaux deacuteclencheurs de reacuteactions chimiques

en meacutedecine nucleacuteaireproduction de radio-isotopestheacuterapie de cancers des milliers de sources de rayons-x et deacutelectronsdans les hocircpitaux puis voir plus loin la proton (hadron-) theacuterapie

et puis pour laval du cycle du combustible nucleacuteaire

Nombre approximatif de diffeacuterents acceacuteleacuterateursPhysique ν etΦ 150 Radiotheacuterapie 4000 Radioisotopes mediacales 200Recherche 800 Appl Industr 1500 Machines Ray Synchr 50Modifications de Surface (RampD + Industr) 1000 Implanteurs dions 2000

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

42Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

La Spallation produit des particules secondairespour de tregraves nombreux domaines

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

43Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Extrait du rapport Neutrons in Biology Workshop Juillet 2001 School of Bio-chemistry and Molecular Biology Universiteacute de Melbourne Australie

Analyses Structurelles de Macromoleacutecules Compleacutementariteacute du Rayonnement Synchrotron et des Neutrons

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

44Alex C Mueller

world populat ion

6

10

0

5

10

15

2000 2050

billi

ons

per-capita energy use

67

100

0

50

100

150

2000 2050

GJ

pers

on

world energy demand

400

1000

0

500

1000

1500

2000 2050EJ

Growth in World Energy Demand(typical predictions)

also typical electricity = 13 of primary energyelectricity = 40 of worlds CO2 emissions

Nuclear share of electricity17 world-wide35 Europe78 France

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

45

Common but not knowledge based opinionsmisconceptions(alas often voiced by political ecologists)

Urgency of knowledge-based approach

bull We have just to replace fossile energy (nuclear)sources by renewable energies

bull Sufficient initial public subsidizing will be a quick meansto reach economic competitiveness for any renewable energy through mass-production

bull It is impossible to solve the nuclear waste issue(gegen Kernmuumlll kan man bekanntlich nichts tun)

Alex C Mueller

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

46Alex C Mueller

We must consider our planet to be on loan from our children rather than being a gift from our ancestors () As caretakers of ourcommon future we have the responsibility to seek scientifically sound policies nationally as well as internationally If the long-term viability of humanity is to be ensured we have no other choice

(Gro Harlem Brundtland)

Definitions from the Brundtland CommissionSustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Itrsquos a process of change in which the exploitation of resources the direction of investments the orientation of technological development and institutional change are made consistent withfuture as well as present needs

What is Sustainability

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

47

Equivalences de diffeacuterentes eacutenergies primaires

1 tonne de peacutetrole

17 tonnes de charbon

33 tonnes de bois05 gramme de matiegravere fissile

48

900

400

6 4

0 ou 1500

1003-20

Autres eacutenergies fossilesFioul 800 gkWhGaz 570 gkWh

950

340

49

peacutetrole41

charbon38

gaz20

autre1

Total de CO2 eacutemis24 milliards de tonnes par an

Les Eacutenergies primaires responsables de leacutemission du CO2

Leacutemission de CO quelques statistiques

50Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

France Allemagne GB Italie Danemark Pays Bas Espagne

Tonnes de CO2 par tecircte(2006)

597 10 886 761 1015 1091 744

Objectif Kyoto(2008-2012) 1990

0 -21 -125 -65 -21 -6 15

Reacutealisation 2007 1990

-58 -224 -18 69 -39 -26 526

Depuis Kyoto La veacuteriteacute pour quelques pays

51Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Iron [kg GWhel]

Copper [kg GWhel]

Bauxite [kg GWhel]

Coal (43 )

2308

2

20

Lignite (40 )

2104

8

19

Gas CC (576 )

969

3

15

Nuclear (PWR ult waste dispo)

445

6

27

PV (5 kW)

poly amorph

6708 8153

251 338

2100 2818

Wind (1 MW)

55 ms 45 ms

5405 10659

66 141

54 110

Hydro (31 MW)

2430

5

10

Source Marheineke 2002

Besoins en Mateacuteriaux

52Alex C Mueller

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

Health Risk in YOLL GWh

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

49

peacutetrole41

charbon38

gaz20

autre1

Total de CO2 eacutemis24 milliards de tonnes par an

Les Eacutenergies primaires responsables de leacutemission du CO2

Leacutemission de CO quelques statistiques

50Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

France Allemagne GB Italie Danemark Pays Bas Espagne

Tonnes de CO2 par tecircte(2006)

597 10 886 761 1015 1091 744

Objectif Kyoto(2008-2012) 1990

0 -21 -125 -65 -21 -6 15

Reacutealisation 2007 1990

-58 -224 -18 69 -39 -26 526

Depuis Kyoto La veacuteriteacute pour quelques pays

51Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Iron [kg GWhel]

Copper [kg GWhel]

Bauxite [kg GWhel]

Coal (43 )

2308

2

20

Lignite (40 )

2104

8

19

Gas CC (576 )

969

3

15

Nuclear (PWR ult waste dispo)

445

6

27

PV (5 kW)

poly amorph

6708 8153

251 338

2100 2818

Wind (1 MW)

55 ms 45 ms

5405 10659

66 141

54 110

Hydro (31 MW)

2430

5

10

Source Marheineke 2002

Besoins en Mateacuteriaux

52Alex C Mueller

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

Health Risk in YOLL GWh

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

50Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

France Allemagne GB Italie Danemark Pays Bas Espagne

Tonnes de CO2 par tecircte(2006)

597 10 886 761 1015 1091 744

Objectif Kyoto(2008-2012) 1990

0 -21 -125 -65 -21 -6 15

Reacutealisation 2007 1990

-58 -224 -18 69 -39 -26 526

Depuis Kyoto La veacuteriteacute pour quelques pays

51Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Iron [kg GWhel]

Copper [kg GWhel]

Bauxite [kg GWhel]

Coal (43 )

2308

2

20

Lignite (40 )

2104

8

19

Gas CC (576 )

969

3

15

Nuclear (PWR ult waste dispo)

445

6

27

PV (5 kW)

poly amorph

6708 8153

251 338

2100 2818

Wind (1 MW)

55 ms 45 ms

5405 10659

66 141

54 110

Hydro (31 MW)

2430

5

10

Source Marheineke 2002

Besoins en Mateacuteriaux

52Alex C Mueller

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

Health Risk in YOLL GWh

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

51Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Iron [kg GWhel]

Copper [kg GWhel]

Bauxite [kg GWhel]

Coal (43 )

2308

2

20

Lignite (40 )

2104

8

19

Gas CC (576 )

969

3

15

Nuclear (PWR ult waste dispo)

445

6

27

PV (5 kW)

poly amorph

6708 8153

251 338

2100 2818

Wind (1 MW)

55 ms 45 ms

5405 10659

66 141

54 110

Hydro (31 MW)

2430

5

10

Source Marheineke 2002

Besoins en Mateacuteriaux

52Alex C Mueller

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

Health Risk in YOLL GWh

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

52Alex C Mueller

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

Health Risk in YOLL GWh

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

53Alex C Mueller

Costs including externalities

Source Hirschberg PSI (2004)

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

54

Les hypothegraveses pour 2050La consommation drsquoeacutenergie nrsquoaugmentera que drsquoun facteur 2 (eacuteconomie drsquoeacutenergie )Lrsquoeacutemission de CO2 sera reacuteduite drsquoun facteur 2

2005 2050 Consommation ~10 Gtep ( de 10 Gtep) 20 Gtep ( de 20 Gtep)

Fossiles 79 78 2 41 20Bois+deacutechets 10 10 x 3 33 17Hydraulique 06 6 x 2 12 6Autre renouvelables 005 05 x 100 54 27Nucleacuteaire 06 6 x 10 60 30

Solaire thermique et photovoltaique eacuteolien geacuteothermie biomasse

Le casse-tecircte eacutenergeacutetique

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

55Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Generations of nuclear power plants

- Early prototypedemo reactors

- Shippingport- Dresden Fermi I- Magnox

Generation I

- First demo of nuclear power on commercial scale

- Close relationship with DOD

- LWR dominates

- LWR-PWR BWR- CANDU- HTGRAGR- VVERRBMK

Generation II

- Multiple vendors- Custom designs- Size costs licensing times driven up

- ABWR System 80+ AP600 EPR

Generation III

- Passive safety features- Standardized designs- Combined license

Generation IV

- Highly economical- Proliferation resistant- Enhanced safety- Minimize waste

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Atoms forPeace TMI-2 Chernobyl

from van HeekGroningen Energy Convention 2005

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

56

Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE

Industriels 25 tonnes dont 100 kg toxiques

Meacutenagers 08 tonne

Dioxyde de carbone CO2 6 tonnes

Nucleacuteaires 1 kg dont 100 g de moyenne et forte activiteacutes

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

57Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

lEacutenergie Nucleacuteaire est (agrave preacutesent) importante en Europe (cf UE Green Paper)egrave 145 reacuteacteurs (127 GWel) produisent 850 TWhy = 35 de leacutelectriciteacute de lUE egrave Un reacuteacteur de 1 Gwel produit 1000 tonnes de deacutechets en 30 ansegrave nb dans le monde entier 330 (1 GW eacutequivalent) reacuteacteurs produisent 6 de leacutelectriciteacute

LrsquoEurope possegravede la maicirctrise de lentier du cycle du combustible agrave lexception dumanagement des deacutechets

egrave for this reason focusing on waste management has to be continued (EuropeanCommissions Green Paper)

Les deacutechets de la geacuteneacuteration actuelle des reacuteacteurs (LWR) egrave ils sont hautement radiotoxiques (108 Svton)egrave agrave la fin du deacuteploiement actuel on aura accumuleacute 3x1013Sv (03 Meacutegatonnes) agrave comparer

agrave la dose limite annuelle pour une personne exposeacute (Directive UE lt 20 mSv)egrave la radiotoxiciteacute initiale (de luranium) sera reacute-atteinte apregraves plus drsquoun Million danneacutees

Le stockage geacuteologique est sujet agrave controverseegrave fuites dans la biosphegravere egrave Cest cher (1000 eurokg) et ougrave (le fameux Yucca Mountain aux US possegravede une

capaciteacute maximale de 007 Meacutegatonnes) egrave opposition du publique

Preacuteoccupations sur le long terme egrave disponibiliteacute des ressources peacutetrole gaz charbon (et uranium)egrave reacutechauffement global induit par les combustibles fossiles

Quelques faits relatifs agrave leacutenergie nucleacuteaire

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

58Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Transmutation des deacutechets nucleacuteaires Pourquoi et Comment

neutron mullerjpg

Thermal neutrons

Fast neutronsFigure from CRubbiaOECD seminar ParisSeptember 25 2000

bull 99995 des isotopes radio-toxiques agrave dureacutee de vie londue sont concentreacutes dans seulementquelques eacuteleacutements chimiques

bull ils repreacutesentent en masse 1 du combustible useacute(300 kgy 1GWel reacteur)

bull quasiment tous ces isotopessont reacutesistants agrave une com-bustion suppleacutementaire dans unPWR traditionel

rarr la transmutation complegraveteneacutecessite des neutronsrapides

bull donc des reacuteacteurs agrave neutrons rapidescomme Superpheacutenix

Surgeacuteneacuterateurs

Alternative neutrons (tregraves) rapides produits par un acceacuteleacuterateur encombinaison avec un reacuteacteur sous-critique Ce systegraveme ditADS (Accelerator Driven System) est flexible sucircr et efficace

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

59Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Proton Beam

Spallation Target

accelerator

Fermeture du cycle du combustible par ADSIncineacuteration des deacutechets radioctifs

Lrsquoincineacuteration des deacutechets donc de combustible hautement enrichi enactinides mineurs par un systegraveme sous critique nrsquoest pas vertu mais neacutecessiteacute

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

60Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

Recycling inThermal reactors

Burndown usingfast spectrum

burners Generation IVEquilibrium

Once-through cycle

LWR

SeparationsSeparations

LWRLWR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

LWR

FR

ADS

SeparationsSeparations

Am

ount

of T

rans

uran

ics

Time

Figure M Capiello

amp G Imel (ANL)(ICRS-10RPS2004)

2020 2030 2040 2050 2060

(only certain countrieseg US)

A possible Scenario using ADS to supportGeneration-III(and even Gen-IV ) reactors

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

61Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

les cibles de spallation sontbien connues aupregraves des sources de spallationcomme SIN-Q RAL centaine de kW au MW(PSI 590 MeV 16mA)

leurs utilisateurs demandentdavantage de puissance

next generationSpallation SourcesSNS (2 MW)ESS (5 MW)

dans le contexte de la RampDpour les ADS lexpeacuterienceMEGAPIE (voir agrave gauche)il sagit dun meacutelangeeutectique meacutetal fonduplomb-bismuth en Installation aupregraves deSIN-Q

Data from CERN exptSBuono TwG rept

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 05 1 15 2 25

yiel

d E

p (n

eutro

nsG

eV)

proton energy E_p (GeV)

rendement neutronique raisonnable 600 MeV(petits systegravemes)meilleur eacuteconomie neutronique gt 1 GeV (systegravemes industriels)

Production de Neutrons de Spallation et deacutependance de leacutenergie du faisceau incident

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

62Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

cette puissance deacutepend duniveau de sous-criticiteacute choisi un deacutemonstrateur XADSdoit acceacuteleacuterer un courant de5-10 mA de protons 600 MeVun ADS industriel utilisant desprotons de 1GeV demande desintensiteacutes dans la plage20 - 50 mA

egrave Dimportants efforts de RampDdoivent ecirctre entrepris dansle domaine des HPPA (HighPower Proton Accelerator)ceci inteacuteresse eacutegalement

egrave les faisceaux radioactifsegrave les usines ν et μegrave sources agrave neutrons

Abaques CourantEnergieSous-Criticiteacutepour un deacutemonstrateur de 80 MWtherm

(simulation par ANSALDO)

NB NB (X)ADS(X)ADS = e= eXXperimental perimental AAccelerator ccelerator DDriven riven SSystemystem

Quelle puissance est demandeacutee agrave lacceacuteleacuterateur

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

63Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout

Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs Strong RampD amp construction programs for LINACs underway worldwide for many applications underway worldwide for many applications

(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neut(Spallation Sources for Neutron Science Radioactive Ions amp Neutrino Beam rino Beam Facilities Irradiation Facilities)Facilities Irradiation Facilities)

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

64Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

2006 Succes of the Megapie experiment at PSI

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

65

GUINEVERE = GENEPI-3C coupled to VENUS-F

GENEPI-3C

Dipole

VENUS-Fcore

Acceleratorcontrol room

Reactorcontrol room

Ventilationroom

Alex C MuellerEcole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

66

GENEPI 3C avant le deacutemontage au LPSC

IN2P3-LPSC March 2009

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

67Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 11-17 Novembre 2007 Alex C Mueller

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS

68

MOX-fueled Pb-Bi cooledMYRRHA Draft-2 served as inputAccelerator

600 MeV x 25 mASpallation target

WindowlessSubcritical

keff asymp095Power

50-100 MWth

Le SCK-CEN Mol (Belgique)est candidat pour linstallationle gouvernement Belge est actuellement tregraves actif

Le XT-ADS

Ecole IN2P3 sur les Acceacuteleacuterateurs La Londe Les Maures (Var) 14-18 Septembre 2009 Alex C Mueller

• LIN2P3 quelques chiffres
• Acceacuteleacuteration de Particules
• Masse et Energie quelques relations utiles
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs amp Physique Fondamentale
• Eleacutements dun Acceacuteleacuterateur (I)
• Scheacutema typique dune expeacuterience
• Deux grandes classes dexpeacuteriencesle mode cible fixe et le mode collisionneur
• La Deacuteteacutection (I) Interaction Particule Matiegravere
• La Deacutetection (II) lIonisation
• Une particule ne peut ecirctre deacutetecteacutee que si elle est chargeacutee ou met en mouvement des particules chargeacutees
• La Deacutetection (IV) Cas des Photons
• Deacutetection en cible fixeagrave titre dexemple Instruments pour GANIL-SPIRAL
• Les quatre deacutetecteurs du LHC
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (1)
• les Acceacuteleacuterateurs et lUnivers (II)
• Acceacuteleacuterateurs Dates Marquantes
• Le Diagramme de Livingston
• Arbre geacuteneacutealogique des acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Le concept de base acceacuteleacuteration par haute tension statique (voir deacutefinition au deacutebut)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (I)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (II)
• Electrostatic Accelerators (III)
• Des eacutelectrostatiques vers lacceacuteleacuteration RF
• Le concept du LINAC
• Des acceacuteleacuterateurs lineacuteaires vers les circulaires
• Properties of Cyclotrons (I)
• Circular AcceleratorsUseful Definitions amp Formulas (I)
• Principe du Cyclotron
• Properties of Synchrotrons (I)
• Properties of Synchrotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (II)
• Properties of Cyclotrons (III)
• Applications des Acceacuteleacuterateurs
• Urgency of knowledge-based approach
• Generations of nuclear power plants
• Rejets par an et par habitant en FRANCE
• PDS-XADS Reference Accelerator Layout
• Le XT-ADS