UPKAR PRAKASHAN, AGRA–2

By

Dr. B.B. JainM.A., Ph.D.

(Retd.) Professor and HeadDepartment of English Studies and Research,

Agra College, Agra.

(Further Revised and Enlarged Edition)

© Author

Publishers

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ISBN : 978-81-7482-186-7

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Code No. 448

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Preface

Adding a new book on English Grammar and Usage to the existing flood of bookson the subject sounds rather audacious. But strangely enough, it is this flood of books,some of which are spurious and others too technical and abstruse to be followed by thelearner, that has prompted the present author to write a new book on AppliedGrammar, Usage and Comprehension which could well serve as a practical handbookand guide to the learning of English Language both by the primary as well asadvanced learners.

English is indeed a difficult language to learn, and the rules of Formal and AppliedGrammar and Usage which govern it are equally difficult for the learner to understandand apply correctly. This is more so because there are many exceptions to most of therules. The learner would therefore need not only an explication of the rules but also alarge number of illustrative examples and exercises for practice. This point has beenkept in mind all through the course of writing of this book. The book has, therefore,turned out to be not only a complete Textbook of Grammar, but also a comprehensiveDesk-book for practice.

The book is designed to be all-comprehensive in its range and scope. It has 45Chapters which, as the contents would show, cover practically all aspects of AppliedGrammar, Usage, Word-Formation, Comprehension, and Composition. It represents asynthesis of the traditional and structural methods to teach the learner how to read,write, and speak English correctly, idiomatically and fluently. While dealing with thegrammatical and structural problems under various Chapters, special attention hasbeen paid to the intricate and ticklish problems which even the advanced students haveto face. These problems relate particularly to the correct use of Syntax, Articles,Prepositions, Auxiliaries, Non-Finite Verbs, Position of Adverbs, Tense and Timesense, and Phrasal expressions. Due attention has also been paid to the specialrequirements of the candidates appearing at various competitive examinations at theState and Central levels.

It is confidently hoped that the book would serve as a complete and practicaltextbook and manual of English Grammar, Usage and Comprehension to thecandidates preparing for the various University and competitive examinationsthroughout the country.

—B.B. Jain

Books Consulted

1. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Vols. I & II2. The Universal Dictionary of the English Language : Henry Cecil Wyld

(Wordsworth)3. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language4. A Dictionary of Modern English Usage : H.W. Fowler5. The King's English : H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler6. An A.B.C. of English Usage : H.A. Treble and G.H. Vallins7. Good English : G. H. Vallins8. Better English : G.H. Vallins9. Desk-book of Correct English : Michael West and P.F. Kimber

10. Current English Usage : F.T. Wood11. Contemporary English Grammar, Structure and Composition : David Green12. Living English Structure : W.S. Allen13. Hints on the Study of English : Rowe and Webb14. Notes on Learning English : Ralf Cooke15. A Grammar of English Words : H.E. Palmer16. Get It Right : H. M. Burton17. A Practical English Grammar : A. J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet18. English Grammar, Composition and Usage : J.C. Nesfield19. Modern English Grammar : J. C. Nesfield20. A Manual of Advanced English : Bernard Blackstone21. A Guide to Patterns and Usage in English : A.S. Hornby22. English Grammar and Composition : Wren and Martin23. A Hand-book of English Grammar : R.W. Zandvoort24. A Remedial English Grammar for Foreign Students : F.T. Wood25. A Book of English Idioms : V.H. Collins26. A Second Book of English Idioms : V.H. Collins27. English Idioms : W. McMordie28. English Idioms : J.M. Dixon29. College Composition : H. Martin30. A Senior Course of English Composition : J.C. Nesfield

ContentsChapters Pages

1. Some Basic Concepts 3–4Letters, Syllables, Phrases and Sentences ……………………………………………… 3Kinds of Sentences ……………………………………………………………………… 3Parts of Speech ………………………………………………………..………………… 4

2. Syntax 5–19Agreement of the Verb with the Subject………………………………………………… 5Some Exceptions ………………………………………………………………………… 7Collective Noun and the Verb …………………………………………..……………… 10Some Typical Nouns and the Verb ……………………………………………………… 10Relative Pronoun and the Verb ………………………………………….……………… 11Numeral Expressions and the Verb……………………………………………………… 13Quantitative Expressions and the Verb …………………………………..……………… 13Verb 'to be' and the Complement………………………………………………………… 15Nouns, Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives……………………………..……………… 17

3. Articles 20–30Kinds of Articles ………………………………………………………………………… 20Forms of Indefinite Article : 'a' or 'an'…………………………………………………… 20Uses of Indefinite Article………………………………………………………………… 21Uses of Definite Article …………………………………………………………………. 23Omission of Articles……………………………………………………………………… 26Position of Articles ……………………………………………………………………… 28

4. Nouns 31–41Formation of Genders …………………………………………………………………… 31Conversion of Numbers ………………………………………………………………… 32Formation of Possessive Case …………………………………………………………… 33Correct Use of Nouns : Rules …………………………………………………………… 35

5. Pronouns 42–54Forms of Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 42Correct Use of Pronouns : Personal Pronouns …………..……………………………… 42Pronoun 'It'/'This'………………………………………………………………………… 46Relative Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 47Compound Relative Pronouns…………………………………………………………… 49Omission of Relative Pronouns ………………………….……………………………… 50Reflexive Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………… 51Interrogative Pronouns …………………………………..……………………………… 52

6. Adjectives 55–72Kinds of Adjectives……………………………………………………………………… 55Position of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 57Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 58Correct Use of Adjectives : Positive Degree Adjectives………………………………… 60Comparative Degree Adjectives ………………………………………………………… 61Superlative Degree Adjectives ………………………..………………………………… 65Some Other Typical Adjectives ……………………….………………………………… 67

7. Adverbs 73–85Kinds of Adverbs………………………………………………………………………… 73Degrees of Adverbs……………………………………………………………………… 73

( vi )

Position of Adverbs……………………………………………………………………… 74Some Typical Adverbs…………………………………………...……………………… 77Some Common Rules …………………………………………………………………… 83

8. Prepositions 86–112Forms of Preposition …………………………………………….……………………… 86Functional Types of Prepositions ………………………………..……………………… 86Use of Prepositions : Their Place ………………………………..……………………… 87Omission of Preposition ………………………………………………………………… 88Wrong Use of Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89Some Typical Prepositions ……………………………………………………………… 89Preposition Gerund ……………………………………………………………………… 91The Same Words followed by Different Prepositions…………………………………… 93Different Forms of Words followed by Different Prepositions ….……………………… 94List of Appropriate Prepositions (a) Nouns followed by Prepositions ………………………….……………………… 96 (b) Adjectives and Participles followed by Prepositions ……..……………………… 101 (c) Verbs followed by Prepositions …………………………..……………………… 105

9. Conjunctions 113–122Correlative Conjunctions ………………………………………...……………………… 113Uses of Conjunctions …………………………………………….……………………… 114Functional Conjunctions ………………………………………………………………… 119

10. Verbs 123–144Kinds of Verbs…………………………………………………………………………… 123Auxiliary/Modal Verbs : Their Functions ……………………….……………………… 125Verbs 'To be' : Am, Is, Are, Was, Were ………………………………………………… 125Have/Has/Had …………………………………………………………………………… 127May/Might …………………………………………………………….………………… 132Can/Could …………………………………………………………….………………… 133Shall/Should, Will/Would ……………………………………………..………………… 135Must/Ought…………………………………………………………….………………… 138Need/Needn't ………………………………………………………….………………… 138Dare/Daren't……………………………………………………………………………… 139Used to…………………………………………………………………………………… 140Two Auxiliaries and Principal Verb ………………………………….………………… 141Position of Subject, Verb, Object and Complement …………………..………………… 141Question–Tags/Tail Questions…………………………………….......………………… 143

11. Non-Finite Verbs 145–153Kinds of Non-Finite Verbs…………………………………………….………………… 145The Infinitive…………………………………………………………..………………… 145

(a) Infinitive with or without ‘to’…………………………………………………… 145(b) Noun—Infinitives …………………………………………….………………… 146(c) Gerundial Infinitives ………………………………………….………………… 147(d) Other Uses of Infinitives………………………………………………………… 147

The Gerund ……………………………………………………………………………… 148(a) Functions of Gerund ………………………………………….………………… 149(b) Uses of Gerund ……………………………………………….………………… 149

The Participle ………………………………………………………….………………… 150(a) Kinds of Participles……………………………………………………………… 150(b) Uses of Participles…………………………………………….………………… 150(c) Rules of Use of Participles ……………………………………………………… 151

( vii )

12. Time and Tense 154–170Distinction between Time and Tense …………………………………………………… 154Three Forms of Verbs : A List ………………………………………..………………… 154Structures of Sentences : ………………………………………………………………… 156

Structures in the Present Tense……………………………………………………… 156Structures in the Past Tense ……………………………………...………………… 159Structures in the Future Tense……………………………………………………… 162

Uses of Tenses ………………………………………………………..………………… 164Tenses and Time ………………………………………………………………………… 169Structures of ‘It is time’, ‘If were’ and ‘Wish’ Sentences ……………………………… 170

13. Active and Passive Voice 171–176Interchange between Subject and Object ……………………………..………………… 171Changes in the Verb …………………………………………………..………………… 172Imperative Sentences…………………………………………………..………………… 174Negative Sentences …………………………………………………...………………… 174Interrogative Sentences ……………………………………………….………………… 174Some Other Sentence Structures ………………………………………………………… 175

14. Direct and Indirect Narration 177–191Some General Terms ………………………………………………….………………… 177Rules for Connectives …………………………………………………………………… 177Rules for Change in Tenses……………………………………………………………… 178Rules for Change in Persons …………………………………………..………………… 181Miscellaneous Changes ……………………………………………….………………… 182Conversion of Interrogative Sentences ……………………………….………………… 183Conversion of Imperative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 184Conversion of Exclamatory Sentences ………………………………..………………… 186Question-Tags …………………………………………………………………………… 186Sentences Beginning with 'Let' ……………………………………….………………… 187Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 187

15. Analysis 192–200Some General Observations……………………………………………………………… 192Analysis of Complex Sentences ………………………………………………………… 193

Subordinate Noun Clause…………………………………………………………… 193Subordinate Adjective Clause ……………………………………………………… 194Subordinate Adverb Clause ………………………………………………………… 195

Analysis of Compound Sentences …………………………………….………………… 198

16. Synthesis 201–210Combining into a Simple Sentence ……………………………………………………… 201Combining into a Complex Sentence …………………………………………………… 205Combining into a Compound Sentence ……………………………….………………… 207

17. Transformation 211–225Interchange between 'too' and 'so' ……………………………………..………………… 211Conditional Sentences …………………………………………………………………… 212Concession or Contrast ………………………………………………………………… 212Degrees of Adjectives …………………………………………………………………… 213Active and Passive Voice………………………………………………………………… 213Affirmative and Negative Sentences ………………………………….………………… 214Exclamatory and Assertive Sentences…………………………………………………… 215

( viii )

Changes in Parts of Speech ……………………………………………………………… 215Interchange between Simple and Compound Sentences………………………………… 217Interchange between Simple and Complex Sentences ………………..………………… 218Interchange between Compound and Complex Sentences ……………………………… 221Interchange between Principal and Subordinate Clauses ……………..………………… 222

18. Formation of Words 226–230Suffixes………………………………………………………………...………………… 226Words Converted into Different Parts of Speech ……………………..………………… 227Prefixes ………………………………………………………………..………………… 229Antonyms Formed by Negative Prefixes………………………………………………… 229

19. Antonyms 231–23520. Synonyms 236–24121. Homonyms 242–24922. Paronyms 250–25523. Same Word Used as Different Parts of Speech 256–26024. One-Word Substitution 261–26625. Idioms 267–27926. Idiomatic Phrases 280–285

Noun Phrases …………………………………………………………………………… 280Adjective Phrases………………………………………………………………………… 280Adverb Phrases ………………………………………………………..………………… 281Prepositional Phrases ………………………………………………….………………… 282Verbal Phrases…………………………………………………………………………… 283Phrases in Pairs ………………………………………………………………………….. 285

27. Distinction between Similar Expressions 286–28728. Proverbs 288–29129. Expansion : Paragraph-Writing 292–29730. Spellings 298–29931. Punctuation and Capitals 300–30532. Figures of Speech 306–30933. Foreign Words and Phrases 310–31234. The Courtesy Words ‘Please’ and ‘Thank You’ 313–31435. Greetings and Salutations 315–31636. Dates and Time 317–31937. Comprehension 320–32938. Precis-Writing 330–33639. Paraphrasing 337–34240. Report-Writing 343–34441. Messages 345–34942. Notices 350–35443. Diary-Writing 355–35644. Telegram 357–35945. Letter-Writing 360–384

Format of Personal Letters…………………………………………………………...……… 360Format of Official Letters …………………………………………………………………… 363Format of Business Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 365Models of Personal Letters ………………………………………………………….……… 367Models of Matrimonial Letters ……………………………………………………………… 373Models of Business Letters and Applications ……………………………………….……… 378

111 Some Basic ConceptsSome Basic ConceptsSome Basic ConceptsLetters and Syllables

Letters—There are 26 Letters in English.They can be classified into two groups :

(i) Vowels

(ii) Consonants

Vowels—The Letters that can be pronouncedwithout the help of any other Letter are calledVowels. They are five—a, e, i, o, u.

Consonants—The remaining 21 Letters arecalled consonants. They cannot be pronouncedwithout the help of a Vowel.

Note—W and Y are the two Letters that canbe used both as Vowels and Consonants.

Words—Any sound produced by the mouth,which has a meaning, is called a word. A word isformed by one or more Letters.

Syllables—The part of a word pronounced inone instance is called a syllable. A word can haveone or more syllables.

As :

(i) Words of one syllable : you, me, go,run, sit, etc.

(ii) Words of two syllables : Fa-ther, Wa-ter, mon-key, beau-ty, etc.

(iii) Words of more than two syllables :Beau-ti-ful, de-mo-cra-cy; po-ssi-bi-li-ty, etc.

Sentence—“A combination of words thatmakes complete sense is called a sentence.”

—(J. C. Nesfield)

“A group of words which makes completesense is called a sentence.”

—(Wren and Martin)

Phrase—“A combination of words thatmakes sense, but not complete sense, is called aphrase”. —(Nesfield)

“A group of words which makes sense but notcomplete sense, is called a phrase.”

—(Wren and Martin)

As—of great courage, at the door, sands oftime, etc.

Clause—“A group of words which forms partof a sentence, and contains a subject and apredicate, is called a clause.” —(Nesfield)

He said that he was not well.

Do you know the man who came hereyesterday ?

Kinds of SentencesSentences are of Four kinds :

1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence— Asentence that makes a statement or assertion iscalled an Assertive or Declarative sentence.

As—India is a great country.

He is a noble man..

2. Interrogative Sentence—A sentence thatasks a question is called an Interrogative sen-tence.

As—What is your name ?

Is he a dependable man ?

3. Imperative Sentence—A sentence thatexpresses a command, a request or an entreatyis called an Imperative sentence.

As—Be quiet.

Go away from here.

Forgive us.

Correct English How to Write It (Eng.-Eng.)

Publisher : Upkar Prakashan ISBN : 9788174821867 Author : Dr. B. B. Jain

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