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More About Polynomials Syllabus
1. Perform division of polynomials 2. Understand the remainder theorem 3. Understand the factor theorem 4. Understand the concepts of the greatest common divisor and the least common multiple of polynomials
5. Perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of rational function
Polynomial 多項式
Definition: The sum or difference of terms which has variables raised to positive integer powers and which have coefficients that may be real or complex.
Standard Form: anxn + an–1xn–1 + ··· + a2x2 + a1x + a0 • ak are the coefficients • akxk are called terms of the polynomial • a0 is the constant in the polynomial
Example: 5x3 – 2x2 + x – 13, x2y3 + xy, (1 + i)a2 +ib2 Polynomials with 1, 2 and 3 terms are called monomials, binomials and trinomials respectively.
Which of the followings is/are not polynomial(s)?
12 !!! + !"!!
!!!! + !!! + !
! !! log !
Long Division of polynomial Long division of polynomial is one method to simplify the polynomial. The divider is usually a monomial or polynomial whose degree is less then that of the dividend. Long division of polynomial is very similar to long numeric division we study in primary school. Actually, the latter can be regarded as one specific case of long division of polynomial.
Example Divide !! + 9! + 8 by ! + 1 Divide 198 by 11
Division of integer by integer can be regarded as division of polynomial with the variable x substituted by 10!
Exercise 1. Divide (x2 + 2x -15) by (x + 5) 2. Divide (2x5 - 5x4 + 7x3 +4x2 - 10x + 11) by (x3 + 2) 3. Divide the polynomial (3x3 - 11x2y + 11xy2 - 2y3)
by the binomial (x - 2y) 4. Divide (6x2 - 17x + 12) by (3x - 4) 5. Divide (10x5 + x3 + 5x2 - 2x - 2) by (5x2 - 2) 6. What is the remainder when (2y3 - y2 - 13y + 9) is divided by (y - 2)?
Remainder Theorem
Recall your memory What is the remainder of 15÷ 7? What is the remainder of 14÷ 7? How do you find the remainders of the two above operations?
Proof Consider f(x) = (x - r)q(x) + R Note that if we let x = r, the expression becomes f(r) = (r - r) q(r) + R Simplifying gives: f(r) = R This leads us to the Remainder Theorem, which states: If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x − r) and a remainder R is obtained, then f(r) = R.
Example ! ! = !! + 26! + 170 ! ! = !! + 26! + 169
Exercise 1. Find the remainder of f(x) = 3x2+ 5x − 8 divided by (x − 2) 2. Find the remainder of 3x3 − x2 − 20x + 5 divided by (x+4)
Factor and Factor Theorem
Definition of factor One of two or more expressions that are multiplied together to get a product. i.e. factors of 16 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 factors of ! + 3 ! + 4 are ! + 3 and (! + 4)
Proof When f(x) is divided by g(x), by Division Algorithms,
f(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x)
If f(x) is divisible by g(x), we have !(!) ≡ 0, then f(x) = g(x) q(x) --- (*)
f(x) may have more than 1 factors, it equal to the difference between degree f(x) and degree g(x) +1,
i.e. deg(f(x))-deg(g(x))=1
Suppose that 1 factor of f(x) is (x – a), where a is constant, ! ! = ! − ! !!(!)
deg !! ! = deg ! ! − 1 Substitute x = a and q ! = ! − ! !! ! in (*)
! ! = ! − ! !! ! ! ! = 0 Hence, the Factor Theorem follows. (x – a) is a factor of polynomials f(x) whose degree ≥ 1, if and only if f(a) = 0
Example ! ! = !! + 26! + 170 ! ! = !! + 26! + 169
Conclusion If f(r) = 0, then (x-‐r) is a factor of the polynomial f(x). If f(r) ≠ 0, then f(r) = R is the remainder of division of polynomial f(x) by (x-‐r).
Exercise 1. Determine whether x-‐2 is a factor of x2-‐7x+10. 2. Determine whether x-‐3 is a factor of x3-‐3x2+4x-‐12. 3. Show that x+1 is a factor of 2x3+5x2-‐9x-‐12. 4. Find a so that x4+2x3-‐ax2+x-‐2 has (x+2) as its factor. 5. If (x-‐2) and (x-‐3) are factors of x3+ax2+bx+12, find a and b. 6. Factorize the following polynomials using factor theorem.
a) 2x2+x-‐3 b) 5x2+6x-‐8
Greatest Common divider of Polynomial
Definition [Numeric] The highest common factor of two positive integers is the largest integer, which is a factor of both. [Polynomial] The highest common factor of two polynomials p(x) and q(x) is that common divisor which has highest degree among all common divisors and in which the coefficient of highest degree term is positive. PS. Greatest Common Divider and Highest Common Factor describe the same thing!
Recall your memory What is the HCF of 63 and 14? How do you derive it?
Example Find the HCF of 36x2 -‐ 49 and 6x2 -‐ 25x + 21
If (x + k) is the HCF of (x2 + ax + b) and (x2 + cx + d), then find the value of k.
Find the HCF of !! + 2! + 1 and !! + 3!! + 3! + 1 Explain why !! + 2! + 1is the HCF instead of monomial (! + 1)
Exercise Find the HCF of the following polynomial pairs.
1. 2! − 3 !"# ! − 2 ! 2! − 3 ! 2. !! − 4 !"# ! + 2 ! 3. ! + 1 !!"# ! + 1 ! ! − 1 4. ! + 1 ! ! + 5 !!"# !! + 10! + 25
Least Common Multiple of Polynomial
Definition [Numeric] The least common multiple of two positive integers a and b is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of both a and b. [Polynomial] The least common multiple of two or more polynomials is defined as the polynomial of the least degree, which is a multiple of all the given polynomials.
Recall your memory What is the LCM of 14 and 42? How do you derive it?
Example Find the LCM of the pair of polynomials: ! + 2 ! ! + 3 !"# ! + 2 ! + 3 !
Find the LCM of the pair of polynomials: ! 2! + 5 !"# ! + 1 ! + 2 ! + 3
Exercise Find the LCM of the following pairs of polynomials
1. ! + 2 ! !"# !! + 8 2. ! + 1 !!"# ! + 1 !(! − 1) 3. !! + 4! + 4 !"# ! + 2 4. ! + 1 ! ! + 5 !!"# !! + 10! + 25
Relationship of HCF and LCM What is the H.C.F. of 6 and 4? What is their L.C.M.? You know very well that the H.C.F.of 6 and 4 is 2, and their L.C.M. is 12. Now, what is 2 × 12? Is it not the product 6 × 4? Yes! The product of the H.C.F. and the L.C.M. is the same as the product of the numbers. The same result is true even for polynomials.
Product of two given polynomials = Product of their H.C.F. and L.C.M.
Proof For !! − 1 and !! − 1
Rational Expression
Definition An algebraic expression, which is the quotient of two polynomials, is called a rational expression. i.e. !(!)
!(!) where ! ! and ! ! are polynomials.
Examples: !!!!!!
, !!!!!!!!!!!
, !!!!!!!!!!
, !!!!!
!!!!!
Reduction of Rational expressions Reduce the rational expression into the lowest form
!! + 1!! + 3! + 2
Reduce the rational expression into the lowest form
!! − 1(! − 1)(!! + 1)
Exercise
1. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2. (!!!!)(!!!)
(!!!!!!!)(!!!)
Operations on Rational expressions
Addition and Subtraction Why are we grouping addition and subtraction together? It is because subtraction can be regarded as addition of negative operands. Add !!!!
!!! and !!!
!!! Subtract !!!
!!! from !!!!
!!!! Consider addition or
subtraction of fractions: 27±
34
Multiplication and Division Why are we grouping multiplication and division together? It is because division can be regarded as multiplication of inversed operands. Multiply !!!!
!!!! !"#ℎ !!!!
!!! Multiply !!!!
!!! !"#ℎ !!!
!!! Consider multiplication
of fractions: 314 ×
521
Divide !!!!!!!
!" !!!!!!!
Divide !!!!!!!
!" !!!!!!
Consider division of fractions:
109 ÷
53
Exercise