Towards Unified Data and Lifecycle Managementfor Deep Learning

Hui Miao, Ang Li, Larry S. Davis, Amol DeshpandeDepartment of Computer Science

University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742{hui, angli, lsd, amol}@cs.umd.edu

Abstract—Deep learning has improved state-of-the-art resultsin many important fields, and has been the subject of muchresearch in recent years, leading to the development of severalsystems for facilitating deep learning. Current systems, however,mainly focus on model building and training phases, whilethe issues of data management, model sharing, and lifecyclemanagement are largely ignored. Deep learning modeling lifecyclegenerates a rich set of data artifacts, such as learned parametersand training logs, and comprises of several frequently conductedtasks, e.g., to understand the model behaviors and to try out newmodels. Dealing with such artifacts and tasks is cumbersomeand largely left to the users. This paper describes our visionand implementation of a data and lifecycle management systemfor deep learning. First, we generalize model exploration andmodel enumeration queries from commonly conducted tasksby deep learning modelers, and propose a high-level domainspecific language (DSL), inspired by SQL, to raise the abstractionlevel and accelerate the modeling process. To manage thedata artifacts, especially the large amount of checkpointed floatparameters, we design a novel model versioning system (dlv),and a read-optimized parameter archival storage system (PAS)that minimizes storage footprint and accelerates query workloadswithout losing accuracy. PAS archives versioned models usingdeltas in a multi-resolution fashion by separately storing the lesssignificant bits, and features a novel progressive query (inference)evaluation algorithm. Third, we show that archiving versionedmodels using deltas poses a new dataset versioning problemand we develop efficient algorithms for solving it. We conductextensive experiments over several real datasets from computervision domain to show the efficiency of the proposed techniques.

I. Introduction

Deep learning models, also called deep neural networks(DNN), have dramatically improved the state-of-the-art resultsfor many important reasoning and learning tasks includingspeech recognition, object recognition, and natural languageprocessing in recent years [1]. Learned using massive amountsof training data, DNN models have superior generalizationcapabilities, and the intermediate layers in many deep learningmodels have been proven useful in providing effective semanticfeatures that can be used with other learning techniques andare applicable to other problems. However, there are manycritical large-scale data management issues in learning, storing,sharing, and using deep learning models, which are largelyignored by researchers today, but are coming to the forefrontwith the increased use of deep learning in a variety of domains.In this paper, we discuss some of those challenges in the con-text of the modeling lifecycle, and propose a comprehensivesystem to address them. Given the large scale of data involved(both training data and the learned models themselves) and

Create/Update Model

ReferenceModels

Train/Test

Model

Evaluate Model

Data & Labels

if accuracy is unsatisfactory, repeat

ServeModel

Fig. 1. Deep Learning Modeling Lifecycle

the increasing need for high-level declarative abstractions, weargue that database researchers should play a much larger rolein this area. Although this paper primarily focuses on deepneural networks, similar data management challenges are seenin lifecycle management of others types of ML models likelogistic regression, matrix factorization, etc.

DNN Modeling Lifecycle and Challenges: Compared withthe traditional approach of feature engineering followed bymodel training [2], deep learning is an end-to-end learningapproach, i.e., the features are not given by a human butare learned in an automatic manner from the input data.Moreover, the features are complex and have a hierarchy alongwith the network representation. This requires less domainexpertise and experience from the modeler, but understandingand explaining the learned models is difficult; why even well-studied models work so well is still a mystery and underactive research. Thus, when developing new models, changingthe learned model (especially its network structure and hyper-parameters) becomes an empirical search task.

In Fig. 1, we show a typical deep learning modelinglifecycle (we present an overview of deep neural networks inthe next section). Given a prediction task, a modeler oftenstarts from well-known models that have been successful insimilar task domains; she then specifies input training dataand output loss functions, and repeatedly adjusts the DNN onoperators and connections like Lego bricks, tunes model hyper-parameters, trains and evaluates the model, and repeats thisloop until prediction accuracy does not improve. Due to a lackof understanding about why models work, the adjustments andtuning inside the loop are driven by heuristics, e.g., adjustinghyper-parameters that appear to have a significant impact onthe learned weights, applying novel layers or tricks seen inrecent empirical studies, and so on. Thus, many similar modelsare trained and compared, and a series of model variantsneeds to be explored and developed. Due to the expensivelearning/training phase, each iteration of the modeling looptakes a long period of time and produces many (checkpointed)snapshots of the model. As we noted above, this is a common

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Current systems (Caffe [3], Theano, Torch, TensorFlow [4],etc.) mainly focus on model building and training phases, whilethe issues of data management, model sharing, and lifecyclemanagement are largely ignored. Modelers are required towrite external imperative scripts, edit configurations by handand manually maintain a manifest of model variations thathave been tried out; not only are these tasks irrelevant to themodeling objective, but they are also challenging and nontrivialdue to the complexity of the model as well as large footprintsof the learned models. More specifically, the tasks and dataartifacts in the modeling lifecycle expose several systems anddata management challenges, which include:

• Understanding & Comparing Models: It is difficult tokeep track of the many models developed and/or understandthe differences amongst them. Differences among both themetadata about the model (training sample, hyperparameters,network structure, etc.), as well as the actual learned param-eters, are of interest. It is common to see a modeler write allconfigurations in a spreadsheet to keep track of temporaryfolders of input, setup scripts, snapshots and logs, which isnot only a cumbersome but also an error-prone process.• Repetitive Adjusting of Models: The development life-cycle itself has time-consuming repetitive sub-steps, such asadding a layer at different places to adjust a model, searchingthrough a set of hyper-parameters for the different variations,reusing learned weights to train models, etc., which currentlyhave to be performed manually.• Model Versioning: Similar models are possibly trained andrun multiple times, reusing others’ weights as initialization,either because of a changed input or discovery of an error.There is thus a need to keep track of multiple model versionsand their relationships over time, although the utilities ofdifferent models are very different.• Parameter Archiving: The storage footprint of deep learn-ing models tends to be very large. Recent top-ranked modelsin the ImageNet task have billions of floating-point param-eters and require hundreds of MBs to store one snapshotduring training. Due to resource constraints, the modeler hasto limit the number of snapshots, even drop all snapshots ofa model at the cost of retraining when needed.• Reasoning about Model Results: Another key data artifact

that often needs to be reasoned about is the results ofrunning a learned model on the training or testing dataset. Bycomparing the results across different models, a modeler canget insights into difficult training examples or understand cor-relations between specific adjustments and the performance.

In addition, although not a focus of this paper, sharing andreusing models is not easy, especially because of the largemodel sizes and specialized tools used for learning and mod-eler generated scripts in the lifecycle.

ModelHub: In this paper, we propose the ModelHub system toaddress these challenges. The ModelHub system is not meantto replace popular training-focused DNN systems, but ratherdesigned to be used with them to accelerate modeling tasks andmanage the rich set of lifecycle artifacts. It consists of threekey components: (a) a model versioning system (DLV) to store,query and aid in understanding the models and their versions,(b) a model network adjustment and hyper-parameter tuningdomain specific language (DQL) to serve as an abstraction layer

to help modelers focus on the creation of the models, (c) ahosted deep learning model sharing system (ModelHub) toexchange DLV repositories and enable publishing, discoveringand reusing models from others.

The key features and innovative design highlights ofModelHub are: (a) We use a git-like VCS interface as afamiliar user interface to let the modeler manage and explorethe created models in a repository, and an SQL-like modelenumeration DSL to aid modelers in making and examiningmultiple model adjustments easily. (b) Behind the declarativeconstructs, ModelHub manages different artifacts in a splitback-end storage: structured data, such as network structure,training logs of a model, lineages of different model versions,output results, are stored in a relational database, whilelearned float-point parameters of a model are viewed as a setof float matrices and managed in a read-optimized archivalstorage (PAS). (c) Parameters dominate the storage footprintand floats are well-known at being difficult to compress. Westudy PAS implementation thoroughly under the context ofDNN query workload and advocate a segmented approach tostore the learned parameters, where the low-order bytes arestored independently of the high-order bytes. We also developnovel model evaluation schemes to use high order bytes solelyand progressively uncompress less-significant chunks if neededto ensure the correctness of an inference query. (d) Due to thedifferent utility of developed models, archiving versioned mod-els using parameter matrix deltas exhibits a new type of datasetversioning problem which not only optimizes between storageand access tradeoff but also has model-level constraints. (e)Finally, the VCS model repository design extends naturally toa collaborative format and online system which contain richmodel lineages and enables sharing, reusing, reproducing DNNmodels which are compatible across training systems.

Contributions: Our key research contributions are:

• We propose the first comprehensive DNN lifecycle man-agement system, study its design requirements, and proposedeclarative constructs (DLV and DQL) to provide high-levelabstractions.• We develop PAS, a read-optimized archival storage system

for dealing with a large collection of versioned float matrices.• We formulate a new dataset versioning problem with co-

usage constraints, analyze its complexity, and design efficientalgorithms for solving it.• We develop a progressive, approximate query evaluation

scheme that avoids reading low-order bytes of the parametermatrices unless necessary.• We present a comprehensive evaluation of ModelHub that

shows the proposed techniques are useful in real life models,and scale well on synthetic models.

Outline: In Section II, we provide background on relatedtopics in DNN modeling lifecycle. In Section III, we present anoverview of ModelHub, and discuss the declarative interfaces.We describe the parameter archival store (PAS) in Section IV,present an experimental evaluation in Section V, and closelyrelated work in Section VI.

II. Background

To support our design decisions, we overview the artifactsand common task practices in DNN modeling lifecycle.

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Deep Neural Networks: A deep learning model is a deepneural network (DNN) consisting of many layers havingnonlinear activation functions that are capable of represent-ing complex transformations between input data and desiredoutput. Let D denote a data domain and O denote a predictionlabel domain (e.g., D may be a set of images; O may be thenames of the set of objects we wish to recognize, i.e, labels).As with any prediction model, a DNN is a mapping functionf : D→ O that minimizes a certain loss function L, and is ofthe following form:

f0 = σ0(W0d + b0) d ∈ Dfi = σi(Wifi−1 + bi) 0 < i ≤ n

L(fn, ld) ld ∈ O

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f1

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Here i denotes the layer number, (Wi, bi) are learnable weightsand bias parameters in layer i, and σi is an activation functionthat non-linearly transforms the result of the previous layer(common activation functions include sigmoid, ReLU, etc.).Given a learned model and an input d, applying f0, f1, ..., fnin order gives us the prediction label for that input data.In the training phase, the model parameters are learned byminimizing L( fn, ld), typically done through iterative methods,such as stochastic gradient descent.

Fig. 2 shows a classic convolutional DNN, LeNet. LeNet isproposed to solve a prediction task from handwritten imagesto digit labels {0 · · · 9}. In the figure, a cube represents an inter-mediate tensor, while the dotted lines are unit transformationsbetween tensors. More formally, a layer, Li : (W,H, X) 7→ Y , isa function which defines data transformations from tensor X totensor Y . W are the parameters which are learned from the data,and H are the hyperparameters which are given beforehand. Alayer is non-parametric if W = ∅.

In the computer vision community, the layers definingtransformations are considered building blocks of a DNNmodel, and referred to using a conventional name, such asfull layer, convolution layer, pool layer, normalization layer,etc. The chain is often called the network architecture. TheLeNet architecture has two convolution layers, each followedby a pool layer, and two full layers, shown with layer shapesand hyperparameters in Fig. 2. Moreover, winning models inrecent ILSVRC (ImageNet Large Scale Vision RecognitionCompetitions) are shown in Table I, with their architecturesdescribed by a composition of common layers in regularexpressions syntax for illustrating the similarities (Note theactivation functions and detailed connections are omitted).

Network Architecture (in regular expression) |W | (flops)

LeNet [6] (LconvLpool){2}Lip{2} 4.31 × 105

AlexNet [7] (LconvLpool){2}(Lconv{2}Lpool){2}Lip{3} 6 × 107

VGG [8] (Lconv{2}Lpool){2}(Lconv{4}Lpool){3}Lip{3} 1.96 × 1010

ResNet [9] (LconvLpool)(Lconv){150}LpoolLip 1.13 × 1010

TABLE I. Popular CNN Models for Object Recognition

DNN models are learned from massive data based on somearchitecture, and modern successful computer vision DNN ar-chitectures consist of a large number of float weight parameters(flops) shown in Table I, resulting in large storage footprints(GBs) and long training times (often weeks). Furthermore, thetraining process is often checkpointed and variations of modelsneed to be explored, leading to many model copies.

Modeling Data Artifacts: Unlike many other predictionmethods, DNN modeling results in a very large number ofweight parameters, a rich set of hyperparameters, and learningmeasurements, which are used in unique ways in practice,resulting in a mixture of structured data, files and binaryfloating number artifacts:

• Non-convexity & Hyperparameters: A DNN model istypically non-convex, and {W} is a local optimum of the un-derlying loss-minimization problem. Optimization procedureemploys many tricks to reach a solution quickly [5]. The setof hyperparameters (e.g., learning rate, momentum) w.r.t. tothe optimization algorithm need to be maintained.• Iterations & Measurements: Models are trained iterativelyand checkpointed periodically due to the long running times.A set of learning measurements are collected in various logs,including objective loss values and accuracy scores.• Fine-tuning & Snapshots: Well-known models are often

learned from massive real-world data (ImageNet), and re-quire large amounts of resources to train; when predictiontasks do not vary much (e.g., animal recognition vs dogrecognition), the model parameters are reused as initializa-tions and adjusted using new data; this is often referred toas fine-tuning. On the other hand, not all snapshots can besimply deleted, as the convergence is not monotonic.• Provenance & Arbitrary Files: Alternate ways to con-

struct architectures or to set hyperparameters lead to human-in-the-loop model adjustments. Initialization, preprocessingschemes, and hand-crafted scripts are crucial provenanceinformation to explore models and reproduce results.

Model Adjustment: In a modeling lifecycle for a predictiontask, the update-train-evaluate loop is repeated in daily work,and many model variations are adjusted and trained. In general,once data and loss are determined, model adjustment can bedone in two orthogonal steps: a) network architecture adjust-ments where layers are dropped or added and layer functiontemplates are varied, and b) hyperparameter selections, whichaffect the behavior of the optimization algorithms. There ismuch work on search strategies to enumerate and explore both.

Model Sharing: Due to the good generalizability, long train-ing times, and verbose hyperparameters required for largeDNN models, there is a need to share the trained models.Jia et al. [3] built an online venue (Caffe Model Zoo) to share

ModelHub Client

Hosted DLV Repositories

ServerModelSearch

Model Publish

Model Learning Module

DQL Module

DQL Parser & Optimizer

DLV Module

Command-line & UI toolkit

caffe Wrapper

publish reuse

manage versionsexplore modelsenumerate models

Modeler

Local DLV Repository

PAS: Parameter Archival Store

git repofacade

metadata catalog

Fig. 3. ModelHub System Architecture

models. Briefly, Model Zoo is part of a github repository1

with a markdown file edited collaboratively. To publish models,modelers add an entry with links to download trained parame-ters in caffe format. Apart from the caffe community, similarinitiatives are in place for other training systems.

III. ModelHub System Overview

We show the ModelHub architecture including the keycomponents and their interactions in Fig. 3. At a high level, theModelHub functionality is divided among a local componentand a remote component. The local functionality includes theintegration with popular DNN systems such as caffe, torch,tensorflow, etc., on a local machine or a cluster. The remotefunctionality includes sharing of models, and their versions,among different groups of users. We primarily focus on thelocal functionality in this paper.

On the local system side, DLV is a version control system(VCS) implemented as a command-line tool (dlv), that servesas an interface to interact with the rest of the local and remotecomponents. Use of a specialized VCS instead of a general-purpose VCS such as git or svn allows us to better portrayand query the internal structure of the artifacts generated in amodeling lifecycle, such as network definitions, training logs,binary weights, and relationships between models. The keyutilities of dlv are listed in Table III-A, grouped by theirpurpose; we explain these in further detail in Sec. III-B. DQL isa DSL we propose to assist modelers in deriving new models;the DQL query parser and optimizer components in the figureare used to support this language. The model learning moduleinteracts with external deep learning tools that the modeleruses for training and testing. They are essentially wrappers onspecific DNN systems that extract and reproduce modelingartifacts. Finally, the ModelHub service is a hosted toolkitto support publishing, discovering and reusing models, andserves similar role for DNN models as github for softwaredevelopment or DataHub for data science [10].

A. Data Model

ModelHub works with two data models: a conceptual DNNmodel, and a data model for the versions in a DLV repository.

DNN Model: A DNN model can be understood in differentways, as one can tell from the different model creation APIs inpopular deep learning systems. In the formulation mentionedin Sec. I, if we view a function fi as a node and dependency

1Caffe Model Zoo: https://github.com/BVLC/caffe/wiki/Model-Zoo

Type Command Description

model versionmanagement

init Initialize a dlv repository.add Add model files to be committed.commit Commit the added files.copy Scaffold model from an old one.archive Archive models in the repository.

model explorationlist List models and related lineages.desc Describe a particular model.diff Compare multiple models.eval Evaluate a model with given data.

model enumeration query Run DQL clause.

remote interactionpublish Publish a model to ModelHub.search Search models in ModelHub.pull Download from ModelHub.

TABLE II. A list of key dlv utilities.

relationship ( fi, fi−1) as an edge, it becomes a directed acyclicgraph (DAG). Depending on the granularity of the functionin the DAG, either at the tensor arithmetic operator level(add, multiply), or at a logical composition of those operators(convolution layer, full layer), it forms different types ofDAGs. In ModelHub, we consider a DNN model node asa composition of unit operators (layers), often adopted bycomputer vision models. The main reason for this decisionis that we focus on productivity improvement in the lifecycle,rather than implementation efficiencies of training and testing.

VCS Data Model: When managing DNN models in the VCSrepository, a model version represents the contents in a singleversion. It consists of a network definition, a collection ofweights (each of which is a value assignment for the weightparameters), a set of extracted metadata (such as hyper-parameter, accuracy and loss generated in the training phase),and a collection of files used together with the model instance(e.g., scripts, datasets). In addition, we enforce that a modelversion must be associated with a human readable name forbetter utility, which reflects the logical groups of a series ofimprovement efforts over a DNN model in practice.

In the implementation, model versions can be viewed asa relation model version(name, id, N, W, M, F), where idis part of the primary key of model versions and is auto-generated to distinguish model versions with the same name.In brief, N,W,M, F are the network definition, weight values,extracted metadata and associated files respectively. The DAG,N, is stored as two tables: Node(id, node, A), where A is a listof attributes such as layer name, and Edge(from, to). W ismanaged in our learned parameter storage (PAS, Sec. IV). M,the metadata, captures the provenance information of trainingand testing a particular model; it is extracted from traininglogs by the wrapper module, and includes the hyperparameterswhen training a model, the loss and accuracy measures at someiterations, as well as dynamic parameters in the optimizationprocess, such as learning rate at some iterations. Finally, Fis file list marked to be associated with a model version,including data files, scripts, initial configurations, and etc.Besides a set of model versions, the lineage of the modelversions are captured using a separate parent(base, derived,commit) relation. All of these relations are maintained/updatedin a relational backend when the modeler runs the different dlvcommands that update the repository.

B. Query Facilities

Once the DNN models and their relationships are managedin DLV, the modeler can interact with them easily. The queryfacilities we provide can be categorized into two types: a)model exploration queries and b) model enumeration queries.

1) Model Exploration Queries: Model exploration queriesinteract with the models in a repository, and are used tounderstand a particular model, to query lineages of the models,and to compare several models. For usability, we design it asquery templates via dlv sub-command, similar to other VCS.

List Models & Related Lineages: By default, the query listsall versions of all models including their commit descriptionsand parent versions; it also takes options, such as showingresults for a particular model, or limiting the number ofversions to be listed.dlv list [--model_name] [--commit_msg] [--last]

Describe Model: dlv desc shows the extracted metadatafrom a model version, such as the network definition, learnableparameters, execution footprint (memory and runtime), activa-tions of convolutional DNNs, weight matrices, and evaluationresults across iterations. Note the activation is the intermediateoutput of a DNN model in computer vision and often usedas an important tool to understand the model. The currentoutput formats are a result of discussions with computer visionmodelers to deliver tools that fit their needs. In addition toprinting to console, the query supports HTML output fordisplaying the images and visualizing the weight distribution.dlv desc [--model_name | --version] [--output]

Compare Models: dlv diff takes a list of model namesor version ids and allows the modeler to compare the DNNmodels. Most of desc components are aligned and returned inthe query result side by side.dlv diff [--model_names | --versions] [--output]

Evaluate Model: dlv eval runs test phase of the managedmodels with an optional config specifying different data orchanges in the current hyper-parameters. The main usages ofexploration query are two-fold: 1) for the users to get familiarwith a new model, 2) for the user to test known models ondifferent data or settings. The query returns the accuracy andoptionally the activations. It is worth pointing out that complexevaluations can be done via model enumeration queries in DQL.dlv eval [--model_name | --versions] [--config]

2) Model Enumeration Queries: Model enumerationqueries are used to explore variations of currently availablemodels in a repository by changing network structures ortuning hyper-parameters. There are several operations that needto be done in order to derive new models: 1) Select modelsfrom the repository to improve; 2) Slice particular modelsto get reusable components; 3) Construct new models bymutating the existing ones; 4) Try the new models on differenthyper-parameters and pick good ones to save and work with.When enumerating models, we also want to stop explorationof bad models early.

To support this rich set of requirements, we propose theDQL domain specific language, that can be executed using“dlv query”. Challenges of designing the language are: a) thedata model is a mix of relational and the graph data models

select m1where m1.name like "alexnet_%" and

m1.creation_time > "2015-11-22" andm1["conv[1,3,5]"].next has POOL("MAX")

Query 1. DQL select query to pick the models.

slice m2 from m1where m1.name like "alexnet-origin%"mutate m2.input = m1["conv1"] and

m2.output = m1["fc7"]

Query 2. DQL slice query to get a sub-network.

construct m2 from m1where m1.name like "alexnet-avgv1%" and

m1["conv*($1)"].next has POOL("AVG")mutate m1["conv*($1)"].insert = RELU("relu$1")

Query 3. DQL construct query to derive more models on existing ones.

evaluate mfrom "query3"with config = "path to config"vary config.base_lr in [0.1, 0.01, 0.001] and

config.net["conv*"].lr auto andconfig.input_data in ["path1", "path2"]

keep top(5, m["loss"], 100)

Query 4. DQL evaluate query to enumerate models with different networkarchitectures, search hyper-parameters, and eliminate models.

and b) the enumeration includes hyper-parameter tuning aswell as network structure mutations, which are very differentoperations. We omit a thorough explanation of the languagedue to space constraints, and instead show the key operatorsand constructs along with a set of examples (Query 1∼4) toshow how requirements are met.

Key Operators: We adopt the standard SQL syntax to interactwith the repository. DQL views the repository as a single modelversion table. A model version instance is a DAG, whichcan be viewed as object types in modern SQL conventions.In DQL, attributes can be referenced using attribute names(e.g. m1.name, m1.creation_time, m2.input, m2.output),while navigating the internal structures of the DAG, i.e. theNode and Edge EDB, we provide a regexp style selectoroperator on a model version to access individual DNN nodes,e.g. m1["conv[1,3,5]"] in Query 1 filters the nodes in m1.Once the selector operator returns a set of nodes, prev andnext attributes of the node allow 1-hop traversal in the DAG.Note that POOL("MAX") is one of the standard built-in nodetemplates for condition clauses. Using SPJ operators withobject type attribute access and the selector operator, we allowrelational queries to be mixed with graph traversal conditions.

To retrieve reusable components in a DAG, and mutate itto get new models, we provide slice, construct and mutateoperators. Slice originates in programming analysis research;given a start and an end node, it returns a subgraph includingall paths from the start to the end and the connections whichare needed to produce the output. Construct can be foundin graph query languages such as SPARQL to create newgraphs. We allow construct to derive new DAGs by usingselected nodes to insert nodes by splitting an outgoing edgeor to delete an outgoing edge connecting to another node.

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latest snapshots

model version

one snapshot

Fig. 4. Relationships of Model Versions and Snapshots

Mutate limits the places where insert and delete can occur. Forexample, Query 2 and 3 generate reusable subgraphs and newgraphs. Query 2 slices a sub-network from matching modelsbetween convolution layer ‘conv1’ and full layer ‘fc7’, whileQuery 3 derives new models by appending a ReLU layer afterall convolution layers followed by an average pool. All queriescan be nested.

Finally, evaluate can be used to try out new models, withpotential for early out if expectations are not reached. Weseparate the network enumeration component from the hyper-parameter turning component; while network enumeration canbe nested in the from clause, we introduce a with opera-tor to take an instance of a tuning config template, and avary operator to express the combination of activated multi-dimensional hyper-parameters and search strategies. auto iskeyword implemented using default search strategies (currentlygrid search). To stop early and let the user control the stoppinglogic, we introduce a keep operator to take a rule consistingof stopping condition templates, such as top-k of the evaluatedmodels, or accuracy threshold. Query 4 evaluates the modelsconstructed and tries combinations of at least three differenthyper-parameters, and keeps the top 5 models w.r.t. the lossafter 100 iterations.

C. ModelHub Implementation

On the local side, the current implementation of Mod-elHub maintains the data model in multiple back-ends andutilizes git to manage the arbitrary file diffs. Various queriesare decomposed and sent to different backends and chainedaccordingly. On the other hand, as the model repository isstandalone, we host the repositories as a whole in a ModelHubservice. The modeler can use the dlv publish to push therepository for archiving, collaborating or sharing, and usedlv search and dlv pull to discover and reuse remotemodels. We envision such a form of collaboration can facilitatea learning environment, as all versions in the lifecycle areaccessible and understandable with ease.

IV. Parameter archival storage (PAS)

Modeling lifecycle for DNNs, and machine learning mod-els in general, is centered around the learned parameters,whose storage footprint can be very large. The goal of PASis to maintain a large number of learned models as compactlyas possible, without compromising on the query performance.Before introducing our design, we first discuss the queries ofinterest, and some key properties of the model artifacts. Wethen describe different options to store a single float matrix,

and to construct deltas (differences) between two matrices.We then formulate the optimal version graph storage problem,discuss how it differs from the prior work, and present algo-rithms for solving it. Finally, we develop a novel approximatemodel evaluation technique, suitable for the segmented storagetechnique that PAS uses.

A. Weight Parameters & Query Type of Interests

We illustrate the key weight parameter artifacts and therelationships among them in Fig. 4, and also explain someof the notations used in this section. At a high level, thepredecessor-successor relationships between all the developedmodels is captured as a version graph. These relationships areuser-specified and conceptual in nature, and the interpretationis left to the user (i.e., an edge vi → v j indicates that v jwas an updated version of the model that the user checked inafter vi, but the nature of this update is irrelevant for storagepurposes). A model version vi itself consists of a series ofsnapshots, s1, ..., sn, which represent checkpoints during thetraining process (most systems will take such snapshots dueto the long running times of the iterations). We refer the lastor the best checkpointed snapshot sn as the latest snapshot ofvi, and denote it by svi .

One snapshot, in turn, consists of intermediate data X andtrained parameters W (e.g., in Fig. 2, the model has 431080parameters for W, and 19694 · b dimensions for X, where b isthe minibatch size). Since X is useful only if training needs tobe resumed, only W is stored in PAS. Outside of a few rareexceptions, W can always be viewed as a collection of floatmatrices, Rm×n,m ≥ 1, n ≥ 1, which encode the weights on theedges from outputs of the neurons in one layer to the inputsof the neurons in the next layer. Thus, we treat a float matrixas a first class data type in PAS2.

The retrieval queries of interest are dictated by the oper-ations that are done on these stored models, which include:(a) testing a model, (b) reusing weights to fine-tune othermodels, (c) comparing parameters of different models, (d)comparing the results of different models on a dataset, and(e) model exploration queries (Sec. III-B). Most of theseoperations require execution of group retrieval queries, whereall the weight matrices in a specific snapshot need to beretrieved. This is different from range queries seen in arraydatabases (e.g., SciDB), and also have unique characteristicsthat influence the storage and retrieval algorithms.

• Similarity among Fine-tuned Models: Although non-convexity of the training algorithm and differences in net-work architectures across models lead to non-correlatedparameters, the widely-used fine-tuning practices (Sec. II)generate model versions with similar parameters, resultingin efficient delta encoding schemes.• Co-usage constraints: Prior work on versioning and re-

trieval [11] has focused on retrieving a single artifact storedin its entirety. However, we would like to store the differentmatrices in a snapshot independently of each other, but wemust retrieve them together. These co-usage constraints makethe prior algorithms inapplicable as we discuss later.

2We do not make a distinction about the bias weight; the typical lineartransformation W′x + b is treated as W · (x, 1) = (W′, b)T · (x, 1).

• Low Precision Tolerance: DNNs are well-known for theirtolerance to using low-precision floating point numbers(Sec. VI), both during training and evaluation. Further, manytypes of queries (e.g., visualization and comparisons) do notrequire retrieving the full-precision weights.• Unbalanced Access Frequencies: Not all snapshots are usedfrequently. The latest snapshots with the best testing accuracyare used in most of the cases. The checkpointed snapshotshave limited usages, including debugging and comparisons.

B. Parameters As Segmented Float Matrices

Float Data Type Schemes: Although binary (1/-1) or ternary(1/0/-1) matrices are sometimes used in DNNs, in generalPAS handles real number weights. Due to different usages ofsnapshots, PAS offers a handful of float representations to letthe user trade-off storage efficiency with lossyness using dlv.

• Float Point: DNNs are typically trained with single pre-cision (32 bit) floats. This scheme uses the standard IEEE754 floating point encoding to store the weights with sign,exponent, and mantissa bits. IEEE half-precision proposal(16 bits) and tensorflow truncated 16bits [4] are supportedas well and can be used if desired.• Fixed Point: Fixed point encoding has a global exponent permatrix, and each float number only has sign and mantissausing all k bits. This scheme is a lossy scheme as tailpositions are dropped, and a maximum of 2k different valuescan be expressed. The entropy of the matrix also dropsconsiderably, aiding in compression.• Quantization: Similarly, PAS supports quantization usingk bits, k ≤ 8, where 2k possible values are allowed. Thequantization can be done in random manner or uniformmanner by analyzing the distribution, and a coding table isused to maintain the integer codes stored in the matrices inPAS. This is most useful for snapshots whose weights areprimarily used for fine-tuning or initialization.

The float point schemes present here are not new, and areused in DNN systems in practice [12], [13], [14]. As a lifecyclemanagement tool, PAS lets experienced users select schemesrather than deleting snapshots due to resource constraints. Ourevaluation shows storage/accuracy tradeoffs of these schemes.

Bytewise Segmentation for Float Matrices: One challengefor PAS is the high entropy of float numbers in the floatarithmetic representations, which leads to them being veryhard to compress. Compression ratio shown in related workfor scientific float point datasets, e.g., simulations, is very low.The state of art compression schemes do not work well forDNN parameters either (Sec. VI). By exploiting DNN low-precision tolerance, we adopt bytewise decomposition fromprior work [15], [16] and extend it to our context to storethe float matrices. The basic idea is to separate the high-orderand low-order mantissa bits, and so a float matrix is stored inmultiple chunks; the first chunk consists of 8 high-order bits,and the rest are segmented one byte per chunk. One majoradvantage is the high-order bits have low entropy, and standardcompression schemes (e.g., zlib) are effective for them.

Apart from the simplicity of the approach, the key benefitsof segmented approach are two-fold: (a) it allows offloadinglow-order bytes to remote storage, (b) PAS queries can readhigh-order bytes only, in exchange for tolerating small errors.

s1 s2

m1

m2

m3

v0

m4

(2,1)

(8,2)(1,0.5)

(4,1)

(2,1)

(8,2)

m5(4,1)

(4,1)

(8,2)

(a) Matrix Storage Graph

s1 s2

m1

m2

m3

v0

m4

(2,1)

(8,2)(1,0.5)

(4,1)m5(4,1)

(b) Optimal Planwithout Constraints

s1 s2

m1

m2

m3

v0

m4

(2,1)

(8,2)

(2,1)

(8,2)

m5

(4,1)

(c) Optimal Plan withCr

ψi (s1) ≤ 3 ∧ Crψi (s2) ≤ 6

Fig. 5. Illustrating Matrix Storage Graph & Plan using a Toy Example

Comparison and exploration queries (dlv desc, dlv diff)can easily tolerate such errors and, as we show in this paper,dlv eval queries can also be made tolerant to these errors.

Delta Encoding Across Snapshots: We observed that, due tothe non-convexity in training, even re-training the same modelwith slightly different initializations results in very different pa-rameters. However, the parameters from checkpoint snapshotsfor the same or similar models tend to be close to each other.Furthermore, across model versions, fine-tuned models gener-ated using fixed initializations from another model often havesimilar parameters. The observations naturally suggest use ofdelta encoding between checkpointed snapshots in one modelversion and latest snapshots across multiple model versions;i.e., instead of storing all matrices in entirety, we can storesome in their entirety and others as differences from those. Twopossible delta functions (denoted ) are arithmetic subtractionand bitwise XOR3. We find the compression footprints whenapplying the diff in different directions are similar. We studythe delta operators on real models in Sec. V.

C. Optimal Parameter Archival Storage

Given the above background, we next address the questionof how to best store a collection of model versions, so that thetotal storage footprint occupied by the large segmented floatmatrices is minimized while the retrieval performance is notcompromised. This recreation/storage tradeoff sits at the coreof any version control system. In recent work [11], the authorsstudy six variants of this problem, and show the NP-hardnessof most of those variations. However, their techniques cannotbe directly applied in PAS, primarily because their approach isnot able to handle the group retrieval (co-usage) constraints.

We first introduce the necessary notation, discuss thedifferences from prior work, and present the new techniques wedeveloped for PAS. In Fig. 4, a model version v ∈ V consistsof time-ordered checkpointed snapshots, S v = s1, ..., sn. Eachsnapshot, si consists of a named list of float matrices Mv,i ={mk} representing the learned parameters. All matrices in arepository, M =

⋃v∈V⋃

si∈S vMv,i, are the parameter artifacts

to archive. Each matrix m ∈ M is either stored directly, or isrecovered through another matrix m′ ∈ M via a delta operator, i.e. m = m′ d, where d is the delta computed using one ofthe techniques discussed above. In the latter case, the matrixd is stored instead of m. To unify the two cases, we introducea empty matrix ν0, and define ∀∀m ∈ M,m ν0 = m.

3 Delta functions for matrices with different dimensions are discussed in thelong version of the paper; techniques in Sec IV work with minor modification.

Definition 1 (Matrix Storage Graph): Given a repositoryof model versions V , let ν0 be an empty matrix, and V =M∪ {ν0} be the set of all parameter matrices. We denote byE = {mi m j} ∪ {mi ν0} the available deltas between allpairs of matrices. Abusing notation somewhat, we also treat Eas the set of all edges in a graph where V are the vertices.Finally, let GV (V,E, cs, cr) denote the matrix storage graph ofV , where edge weights cs, cr : E 7→ R+ are storage cost andrecreation cost of an edge respectively.

Definition 2 (Matrix Storage Plan): Any connected sub-graph of GV (V,E) is called a matrix storage plan for V , anddenoted by PV (VP,EP), where VP = V and EP ⊆ E.

Example 1: In Fig. 5(a), we show a matrix storage graphfor a repository with two snapshots, s1 = {m1,m2} and s2 ={m3,m4,m5}. The weights associated with an edge e = (ν0,mi)reflect the cost of materializing the matrix mi and retrieving itdirectly. On the other hand, for an edge between two matrices,e.g., e = (m2,m5), the weights denote the storage cost of thecorresponding delta and the recreation cost of applying thatdelta. In Fig. 5(b) and 5(c), two matrix storage plans are shown.

For a matrix storage plan PV (VP,EP), PAS stores allits edges and is able to recreate any matrix mi follow-ing a path starting from ν0. The total storage cost ofPV , denoted as Cs(PV ), is simply the sum of edge stor-age costs, i.e. Cs(PV ) =

∑e∈EP

cs(e). Computation of theaverage snapshot recreation cost is more involved and de-pends on the retreival scheme used:• Independent scheme recreates each matrix mi one by oneby following the shortest path (Υν0,mi ) to mi from ν0. In thatcase, the recreation cost is simply computed by summing therecreation costs for all the edges along the shortest path.• Parallel scheme accesses all matrices of a snapshot inparallel (using multiple threads); the longest shortest pathfrom ν0 defines the recreation cost for the snapshot.• Reusable scheme considers caching deltas on the way, i.e.,

if paths from ν0 to two different matrices overlap, then theshared computation is only done once. In that case, we needto construct the lowest-cost Steiner tree (TPV ,si ) involving ν0and the matrices in the snapshot. However, because multiplelarge matrices need to be kept in memory simultaneously,the memory consumption of this scheme can be large.

Retrieval Scheme Recreation Crψ (PV , si) Solution of Prob.1

Independent (ψi)∑

m j∈si

∑ek∈Υν0 ,m j

cr(ek) Spanning treeParallel (ψp) maxm j∈si {

∑ek∈Υν0 ,m j

cr(ek)} Spanning treeReusable (ψr)

∑ek∈TPV ,si

cr(ek) Subgraph

TABLE III. Recreation Cost of a Snapshot si Cr(PV , si) in a plan PV

PAS can be configured to use any of these options duringthe actual query execution. However, solving the storage opti-mization problem with Reusable scheme is nearly impossible;since the Steiner tree problem is NP-Hard, just computingthe cost of a solution becomes intractable making it hard toeven compare two different storage solutions. Hence, duringthe storage optimization process, PAS can only support Inde-pendent or Parallel schemes.

In the example above, the edges are shown as being undi-rected indicating that the deltas are symmetric. In general, we

allow for directed deltas to handle asymmetric delta functions,and also for multiple directed edges between the same twomatrices. The latter can be used to capture different options forstoring the delta; e.g., we may have one edge corresponding toa remote storage option, where the storage cost is lower andthe recreation cost is higher; whereas another edge (betweenthe same two matrices) may correspond to a local SSD storageoption, where the storage cost is the highest and the recreationcost is the lowest. Our algorithms can thus automaticallychoose the appropriate storage option for different deltas.

Similarly, PAS is able to make decisions at the level ofbyte segments of float matrices, by treating them as separatematrices that need to be retrieved together in some cases, andnot in other cases. This, combined with the ability to incorpo-rate different storage options, is a powerful generalization thatallows PAS to make decisions at a very fine granularity.

Given this notation, we can now state the problem formally.Since there are multiple optimization metrics, we assume thatconstraints on the retrieval costs are provided and ask tominimize the storage.

Problem 1 (Optimal Parameter Archival Storage): Givena matrix storage graph GV (V,E, cs, cr), let θi be the snapshotrecreation cost budget for each si ∈ S . Under a retrievalscheme ψ, find a matrix storage plan PV

∗ that minimizes thetotal storage cost, while satisfying recreation constraints, i.e.:

minimizePV Cs(PV ); s.t. ∀si ∈ S ,Crψ (PV , si) ≤ θi

Example 2: In Fig. 5(b), without any recreation con-straints, we show the best storage plan, which is the mini-mum spanning tree based on cs of the matrix storage graph,Cs(PV ) = 19. Under independent scheme ψi, Cr

ψi (PV , s1) = 3and Cr

ψi (PV , s2) = 7.5. In Fig. 5(c), after adding two con-straints θ1 = 3 and θ2 = 6, we shows an optimal storageplan PV

∗ satisfying all constraints. The storage cost increases,Cs(PV

∗) = 24, while Crψi (PV

∗, s1) = 3 and Crψi (PV

∗, s2) = 6.

Although this problem variation might look similar to theones considered in recent work [11], none of the variationsstudied there can handle the co-usage constraints (i.e., theconstraints on simultaneously retrieving a group of versioneddata artifacts). One way to enforce such constraints is totreat the entire snapshot as a single data artifact that isstored together; however, that may force us to use an overallsuboptimal solution because we would not be able to choosethe most appropriate delta at the level of individual matrices.Another option would be to sub-divide the retrieval budgetfor a snapshot into constraints on individual matrices in thesnapshot. As our experiments show, that can lead to signifi-cantly higher storage utilization. Thus the formulation aboveis a strict generalization of the formulations considered in thatprior work.

Theorem 1: Optimal Parameter Archival Storage Problemis NP-hard for all retrieval schemes in Table III.

Proof: We reduce Prob.5 in [11] to the independentscheme ψi, and Prob.6 in [11] to the parallel scheme ψp,by mapping each datasets as vertices in storage graph, andintroducing a snapshot holding all matrices with recreationbound Θg. For reuse scheme ψr, it is at least as hard asweighted set cover problem if reducing a set to an edge e with

storage cost cs(e) as weight, an item to an vertex in GV (V,E),and set recreation budget Θg = ∞.

Lemma 2: The optimal solution for Problem 1 is a span-ning tree when retrieval scheme ψ is independent or parallel.

Proof: Suppose we have a non-tree solution PV satisfyingthe constraints, and also minimize the objective. Note thatparallel and independent schemes are based on shortest pathΥν0,m in PV from ν0 to each matrix m, so the union of eachshortest path forms a shortest path tree. If we remove edgeswhich are not in the shortest path tree from the plan to PV

′,it results in a lower objective Cs(PV

′), but still satisfying allrecreation constraints, which leads to a contradiction.

Lemma 2 shows PV∗ is a spanning tree and connects our prob-

lem to a class of constrained minimum spanning tree problems.The above lemma is not true for the reusable scheme (ψr);snapshot Steiner trees satisfying different recreation constraintsmay share intermediate nodes resulting in a subgraph solution.

Constrained Spanning Tree Problem: In Problem 1, storagecost minimization while ignoring the recreation constraintsleads to a minimum spanning tree (MST) of the storage matrix;whereas the snapshot recreation constraints are best satisfiedby using a shortest path tree (SPT). These problems are oftenreferred to as constrained spanning tree problems [17] orshallow-light tree constructions [18], which have been studiedin areas other than dataset versioning, such as VLSI designs.Khuller et al. [19] propose an algorithm called LAST toconstruct such a “balanced” spanning tree in an undirectedgraph G. LAST starts with a minimum spanning tree of theprovided graph, traverses it in a DFS manner, and adjuststhe tree by changing parents to ensure the path length inconstructed solution is within (1+ε) times of shortest path inG, i.e. Cr(T, vi) ≤ (1 + ε)Cr(Υν0,vi , vi), while total storage costis within (1+ 2

ε) times of MST. In our problem, the co-usage

constraints of matrices in each snapshot form hyperedges overthe graph making the problem more difficult.

In the rest of the discussion, we adapt meta-heuristics forconstrained MST problems to develop two algorithms: the firstone (PAS-MT) is based on an iterative refinement scheme,where we start from an MST and then adjust it to satisfyconstraints; the second one is a priority-based tree constructionalgorithm (PAS-PT), which adds nodes one by one and encodesheuristic in the priority function. Both algorithms aim to solvethe parallel and independent recreation schemes, and thuscan also find feasible solution for reusable scheme. Due tolarge memory footprints of intermediate matrices, we leaveimproving reusable scheme solutions for future work.

PAS-MT: The algorithm starts with T as the MST of GV (V,E),and iteratively adjusts T to satisfy the broken snapshot recre-ation constraints, U = {si|Cr(T, si) > θi}, by swapping one edgeat a time. We denote pi as the parent of vi, (pi, vi) ∈ T andp0 = φ, and successors of vi in T as Di. A swap operation on(pi, vi) to edge (vs, vi) ∈ E− T changes parent of vi to vs in T .

Lemma 3: A swap operation on vi changes storage cost ofCs(T ) by cs(pi, vi) − cs(vs, vi), and changes recreation costs ofvi and its successors Di by: Cr(T, vi) − Cr(T, vs) − cr(vs, vi).

The proof can be derived from definition of Cs and Cr by

Algorithm 1 PAS-MTInput: GV (V,E, cs, cr), snapshots S , recreation cost {θi ≥ 0 | si ∈ S }.Output: A spanning tree T satisfying constraints {Cr(T, si) ≤ θi}

1: let T = MST of GV (V,E);2: while unsatisfied constraints U = {si | Cr(T, si) > θi} , ∅ do3: for each edge esi = (vs, vi) ∈ E − T do4: calculate gain(esi) with Eq. 1 (Eq. 2 for scheme ψp)5: end for6: find e′si = max{esi | gain(esi)}7: break if gain(e′si) ≤ 08: swap (pi, vi) with e′si: T = (T − {(pi, vi)}) ∪ {e′si}

9: end while10: return T unless U , ∅

Algorithm 2 PAS-PTInput: GV (V,E, cs, cr), snapshots S , recreation cost {θi ≥ 0 | si ∈ S }.Output: A spanning tree T satisfying constraints {Cr(T, si) ≤ θi}

1: let T = ∅ and Q be a priority queue of edges based on cs2: push {(ν0, vi) | vi ∈ V} in Q3: while Q , ∅ do4: pop ei j = (vi, v j) from Q; let T = T ∪ {ei j}

5: let constraints satisfaction flag be Θei jsatis f y = true

6: for each snapshot constraint sa ∈ {s | s ∈ S ∧ v j ∈ s} do7: estimate recreation cost Cr(T, sa)8: Θ

ei jsatis f y = f alse and break if Cr(T, sa) > θa

9: end for10: if Θ

ei jsatis f y is f alse, then T = T − {ei j} and goto line 3

11: pop inner edges of v j IjT = {(vk, v j) | vk ∈ T } from Q

12: push outer edges O jE−T = {(v j, vk) | vk ∈ E − T } to Q

13: for (vk, v j) ∈ T , change pk improves Cs, and no worse Cr do14: swap (pk, vk) ∈ T with (v j, vk)15: end for16: end while17: if T is not a spanning tree then18: for each vu ∈ V − VT , do T = T ∪ {e0u = (ν0, vu)}19: adjust T using PAS-MT heuristic.20: end if21: return T if T is a matrix storage plan

inspection. When selecting edges in E−T , we choose the onewhich has the largest marginal gain for unsatisfied constraints:

ψi : max(vs ,vi)∈E−T

{

∑sk∈U∑

v j∈sk∩Di(Cr(T, vi) − Cr(T, vs) − cr(vs, vi))

cs(vs, vi) − cs(pi, vi)}

(1)

ψp : max(vs ,vi)∈E−T

{

∑sk∈U (Cr(T, vi) − Cr(T, vs) − cr(vs, vi))

cs(vs, vi) − cs(pi, vi)} (2)

The actual formula used is somewhat more complex, andhandles negative denominators. Eq. 1 sums the gain of recre-ation cost changes among all matrices in the same snapshotsi (for the independent scheme), while Eq. 2 uses the maxchange instead (for the parallel scheme).

The algorithm iteratively swaps edges and stops if allrecreation constraints are satisfied or no edge returns a positivegain. A single step examines |E −T | edges and |U | unsatisfiedconstraints, and there are at most |E| steps. Thus the complexityis bounded by O(|E|2|S |).

PAS-PT: This algorithm constructs a solution by “growing” atree starting with an empty tree. The algorithm examines the

edges in GV (V,E) in the increasing order by the storage costcs; a priority queue is used to maintain all the candidate edgesand is populated with all the edges from v0 in the beginning. Atany point, the edges in Q are the ones that connect a vertexT , to a vertex outside T . Using an edge ei j = (vi, v j) (s.t.,vi ∈ VT∧v j ∈ V−VT ) popped from Q, the algorithm tries to addv j to T with minimum storage increment cs(ei j). Before addingv j, it examines whether the constraints of affected groups sa(s.t., v j ∈ sa) are satisfied using actual and estimated recreationcosts for vertices {vk ∈ sa} in T and V − T respectively; ifvk ∈ T , actual recreation cost Cr(T, vk) is used, otherwise thelower bound of it, i.e. cr(ν0, vk) is used as an estimation. Werefer the estimation for sa as Cr(T, sa).

Once an edge ei j is added to T , the inner edges I jT =

{(vk, v j)|vk ∈ T } of newly added v j are dequeued from Q, whilethe outer edges O j

E−T = {(v j, vk) | vk ∈ E − T } are enqueued.If the storage cost of existing vertices in T can be improved(i.e., Cs(T, vk) > cs(vk, v j)), and recreation cost is not more (i.e.Cr(T, vk) ≥ Cr(T, v j) + cr(vk, v j)), then the parent pk of vk inT is replaced to v j via the swap operation, which obviouslydecreases the storage cost and affected group recreation cost.

The algorithm stops if Q is empty and T is a span-ning tree. In the case when Q is empty but VT ⊂ V,an adjustment operation on T to increase storage cost andsatisfy the group recreation constraints is performed. For eachvu ∈ V − VT , we append it to ν0, then in each unsatisfiedgroup si that vu belongs to, optimally, we want to choose aset of {vg} ⊆ si ∩ T to change their parents in T , such thatthe decrement of storage cost is minimized while recreationcost is satisfied. The optimal adjustment itself can be viewedas a knapsack problem with extra non-cyclic constraint of T ,which is NP-hard. Instead, we use the same heuristic in Eq. 1to adjust vg ∈ si ∩ T one by one by replacing its parent pgto vs until the group constraint in si is satisfied. As before,the parallel scheme ψp differs from independent case ψi inthe adjustment operator using Eq. 2. The complexity of thisalgorithm is O(|E|2|S |).

D. Model Evaluation Scheme in PAS

Model evaluation, i.e., applying a DNN forward on a datapoint to get the prediction result, is a common task to explore,debug and understand models. Given a PAS storage plan, andlv eval query requires uncompressing and applying deltasalong the path to the model. We develop a novel model evalua-tion scheme utilizing the segmented design, that progressivelyaccesses the low-order segments only when necessary, andguarantees no errors for arbitrary data points.

The basic intuition is that: when retrieving segmentedparameters, we know the minimum and maximum values ofthe parameters (since higher order bytes are retrieved first). Ifthe prediction result is the same for the entire range of thosevalues, then we do not need to access the lower order bytes.However, considering the high dimensions of parameters, non-linearity of the DNN model, unknown full precision valuewhen issuing the query, it is not clear if this is feasible.

We define the problem formally, and illustrate the de-terminism condition that we use to develop our algorithm.Our technique is inspired from theoretical stability analysisin numerical analysis. We make the formulation general to be

applicable to other prediction functions. The basic assumptionis that the prediction function returns a vector showing relativestrengths of the classification labels, then the dimension indexwith the maximum value is used as the predicted label.

Problem 2 (Parameter Perturbation Error Determination):Given a prediction function F (d,W) : Rm × Rn 7→ Rc, whered is the data and W are the learned weights, the predictionresult cd is the dimension index with the highest value in theoutput o ∈ Rc. When W value is uncertain, i.e., each wi ∈ Win known to be in the range [wi,min,wi,max], determine whethercd can be ascertained without error.

When W is uncertain, the output o is uncertain as well.However, if we can bound the individual entries in o, then thefollowing condition is an applicable necessary condition fordetermining error:

Lemma 4: Let oi ∈ o vary in range [oi,min, oi,max]. If ∃ksuch that ∀i, ok,min > oi,max, then prediction result cd is k.

Next we illustrate a query procedure, that given data d,evaluates a DNN with weight perturbations and determinesthe output perturbation on the fly. Recall that DNN is a nestedfunction (Sec. II), we derive the output perturbations whenevaluating a model while preserving perturbations step by step:

x0,k =∑

j

W0,k, jd j + b0,k x0,k,min =∑

j

min{W0,k, jd j} + min{b0,k}

x0,k,max =∑

j

max{W0,k, jd j} + max{b0,k}

Next, activation function σ0 is applied. Most of the commonactivation functions are monotonic function R 7→ R, (e.g.sigmoid, ReLu), while pool layer functions are min, max, avgfunctions over several dimensions. It is easy to derive the per-turbation of output of the activation function, [ f0,k,min, f0,k,max].During the evaluation query, instead of 1-D actual output, wecarry 2-D perturbations, as the actual parameter value is notavailable. Nonlinearity decreases or increases the perturbationrange. Now the output perturbation at fi can be calculatedsimilarly, except now both W and fi−1 are uncertain:

xi,k =∑

j

Wi,k, j fi−1, j + bi,k xi,k,min =∑

j

min{Wi,k, j fi−1, j} + min{bi,k}

xi,k,max =∑

j

max{Wi,k, j fi−1, j} + max{bi,k}

Applying these steps iteratively until last layer, we can thenapply Lemma 4, the condition of error determinism, to checkif the result is correct. If not, then lower order segments of thefloat matrices are retrieved, and the evaluation is re-performed.

This progressive evaluation query techniques dramaticallyimprove the utility of PAS, as we further illustrate in ourexperimental evaluation. Note that, other types of queries, e.g.,matrix plots, activation plots, visualizations, etc., can often beexecuted without retrieving the lower-order bytes either.

(a) Compression-Accuracy Tradeofffor Float Representation Schemes

(b) Compression Performance forDifferent Delta Schemes & Models

(c) PAS Optimal Archival StorageAlgorithms Results for SD

(d) Progressive Evaluation QueryProcessing Using High-Order Bytes

Fig. 6. Evaluation Results for PAS

V. Evaluation Study

ModelHub is designed to work with a variety of deep learn-ing backends; our current prototype interfaces with caffe [3]through a wrapper that can extract caffe training logs, andread and write parameters for training. We have also built acustom layer in caffe to support progressive queries. The dlvcommand-line suite is implemented as a Ruby gem, utilizinggit as internal VCS and sqlite3 and PAS as backends tomanage the set of heterogeneous artifacts in the local client.PAS is built in C++ with gcc 5.4.0. All experiments areconducted on a Ubuntu Linux 16.04 machine with an 8-core 3.0GHz AMD FX-380 processor, 16GB memory, andNVIDIA GTX 370 GPU. We use zlib for compression; unlessspecifically mentioned, the compression level is set to 6. Whenwrapping and modifying caffe, the code base version is rc3.

In this section, we present a comprehensive evaluationwith real-world and synthetic datasets aimed at examiningour design decisions, differences of configurations in PAS,and performance of archiving and progressive query evaluationtechniques proposed in earlier sections.

A. Dataset Description

Real World Dataset: To study the performance of PAS designdecisions, float representations, segmented float storage, deltaencoding and overall compression performance, we use a col-lection of shared caffe models published in caffe repository orModel Zoo. In brief, LeNet-5 [6] is a convolutional DNN with431k parameters. The reference model has 0.88% error rate onMNIST. AlexNet [7] is a medium-sized model with 61 millionparameters, while VGG-16 [8] has 1.9 billion parameters. BothAlexNet and VGG-16 are tested on ILSVRC-2012 dataset.The downloaded models have 43.1%, and 31.6% top-1 errorrate respectively. Besides, to study the delta performance onmodel repositories under different workloads (i.e., retraining,fine-tuning): we use CNN-S/M/F [20], a set of similar modelsdeveloped by VGG authors to study model variations. Thesemodels are similar to VGG in architecture, and retrained fromscratch; for fine-tuning, we use VGG-Salient [21] a fine-tuningVGG model which only changes last full layer.

Synthetic Datasets: Lacking sufficiently fine-grained real-world repositories of models, to evaluate performance ofparameter archiving algorithms, we developed an automaticmodeler to enumerate models and hyperparameters to producea dlv repository. We generated a synthetic dataset (SD):simulating a modeler who is enumerating models to solve

a face recognition task, and fine-tuning a trained VGG. SDresults in similar DNNs and relatively similar parametersacross the models. The datasets are shared online4.

To elaborate, the automation is driven by a state machinethat applies modeling practices from the real world. Themodeler updates the VGG network architecture slightly andchanges VGG object recognition goal to a face prediction task(prediction labels changed from 1000 to 100, so the last layeris changed); various fine-tuning hyperparameter alternationsare applied by mimicking practice [22]. SD in total has 54model versions, each of which have 10 snapshots. A snapshothas 16 parametric layers and a total of 1.96 × 1010 floats.

B. Evaluation Results

Float Representation & Accuracy: We show the effect ofdifferent float encoding schemes on the compression andaccuracy in Fig. 6(a); this is a tradeoff that the user often needsto consider when configuring ModelHub to save a model. InFig. 6(a), for each scheme, we plot the average compressionratio versus the average accuracy drop when applying PASfloat schemes on the three real world models. Here, randomand uniform denote two standard quantization schemes. As wecan see, we can get very high compression ratios (a factor of20 or so) without a significant loss in accuracy, which may beacceptable in many scenarios.

Delta Encoding & Compression Ratio Gain: Next westudy the usefulness of delta encoding in real world modelsin the following scenarios: a) Similar: latest snapshotsacross similar models (CNN-S/M/F, VGG-16); b) Fine-tuning: fine-tuning models (VGG-16, VGG-Salient); andc) Snapshots: snapshots for the same VGG models in SDbetween iterations. In Fig. 6(b), for different delta schemes,namely, storing original matrices (Materialize), arithmeticsubtraction (Delta-SUB), and bitwise XOR diff (Delta-XOR),the comparison is shown (i.e., we show the results ofcompressing the resulting matrices using zlib). The figureshows the numbers under lossless compression scheme (float32), which has the largest storage footprint.

As we can see, delta scheme is not always good, due tothe non-convexity and high entropy of parameters. For modelsunder similar architectures, storing materialized original pa-rameters is often better than applying delta encoding. Withfine-tuning and nearby snapshots, the delta is always better,and arithmetic subtraction is consistently better than bitwise

4Dataset Details: http://www.cs.umd.edu/∼hui/code/modelhub

XOR. We saw similar results for many other models. Thesefindings are useful for PAS implementation decisions, wherewe only perform delta between nearby snapshots in a singlemodel, or for the fine-tuning setting among different models.

Optimal Parameter Archival Storage: We study the opti-mality and scalability of PAS-PT and PAS-MT with the base-line LAST [19] on the optimal parameter archival problem.We use SD here, from which we derive nearby snapshotdeltas as well as model-wise deltas among the latest snapshots.For the access frequencies, in practice, the modeler tends toaccess better models more frequently than bad ones. We usemultinomial distributions based on model accuracies to mimicthe behavior. As LAST cannot handle the co-usage constraints,to have a reasonable baseline, we decompose the co-usageconstraint to be proportional to each layer matrix size. Theperformance of the algorithms is shown in Fig. 6(c). Twodotted lines are the minimum possible storage cost (MST)and the recreation cost (SPT) for the independent scheme inversion graph. Each data point is a storage plan found by thealgorithms given a recreation cost constraint. As we can see,PAS algorithms (PT and MT) consistently perform better thanLAST. The reason is both of them consider the constraints asa group and thus choose better storage plans.

Progressive Query Evaluation: We study the efficiency ofthe progressive evaluation technique using perturbation errordetermination scheme on real world models (LeNet, AlexNet,VGG16) and their corresponding datasets. The original pa-rameters are 4-byte floats, which are archived in segments inPAS. We modify caffe implementation of involved layers andpass two additional blobs (min/max errors) between layers.The perturbation error determination algorithm uses high ordersegments, and answers eval query on the whole test dataset.The algorithm determines whether top-k (1 or 5) result needslower order bytes (i.e., matched index value range overlapswith k + 1 index value range).

The result is summarized in Fig. 6(d). The y-axis showsthe error rate, i.e., the percentage of test dataset that may haveperturbation errors due to low precision. The x-axis shows thepercentage of data that needs to be retrieved (i.e., 2 bytes or 1byte per float). As one can see, the prediction errors requiringfull precision lower-order bytes are very small. The less high-order bytes used, higher the chance of potential errors. Theconsistent result of progressive query evaluation on real modelssupports our design decision of segmented float storage.

VI. RelatedWork

Machine Learning Systems: There have been several high-profile deep learning systems in recent years, but those typi-cally focus on the training aspects (e.g., on distributed training,how to utilize GPUs or allow symbolic formulas, etc.) [3], [4],[23], [24], [25]. The data and lifecycle management challengesdiscussed above have been largely ignored so far, but are be-coming critical as the use of deep learning permeates through avariety of application domains, since those pose a high barrierto entry for many potential users. In the database community,there has been increasing work on developing general-purposesystems for supporting machine learning, including pushingpredictive models into databases [26], [27], accelerating tasksusing database optimizing methods [2], [28], and managing

modeling lifecycles and serving predictive models in advancedways [29], [30]. ModelHub is motivated by similar principles;aside from a focus on DNNs, it also supports versioning as afirst-class construct [10] which differentiates it from that work.

DNN Compression: There has been increasing interest oncompressing DNN models, motivated in part by the needto deploy them on devices with simple instruction sets, lowmemory, and/or energy constraints [13], [31], [32]. However,the goal of those works is simplify the model in a lossymanner with as little loss of accuracy as possible, which makesthis work orthogonal to the archival approach we take inModelHub; in fact, simplified models are likely to compressmuch better, magnifying the gains of our approach as ourexperimental results show. Further, these methods often requireheavy retraining or expensive computations (k-means, SVD,etc.) to derive simpler models, which makes them too heavy-weight in an interactive setting for which DLV is designed.

DNNs with Low Precision Floats: Low precision floats areexploited in accelerating training and testing systems [12],[32], [33], showing techniques and empirical results whentraining, testing DNN with limited precisions. ModelHubdiffers from their work by exploiting parameters archiving, anduse segmented floats to answer lifecycle modeling queries.

Stability Analysis Results Stability analysis of DNN is stud-ied in the literature [34], [35], [36], where the problem settingis perturbation analysis regardless specific data, rather focuson statistical measures of stability. ModelHub uses basic per-turbation analysis techniques and focus on novel progressivequery answering in a segmented float storage.

VII. Conclusion and FutureWork

In this paper, we described some of the key data man-agement challenges in learning, managing, and adjusting deeplearning models, and presented our ModelHub system thatattempts to address those challenges in a systematic fashion.The goals of ModelHub are multi-fold: (a) to make it easy fora user to explore the space of potential models by tweaking thenetwork architecture and/or the hyperparameter values, (b) tominimize the burden in keeping track of the metadata includingthe accuracy scores and the fine-grained results, and (c) tocompactly store a large number of models and constituentsnapshots without compromising on query or retrieval perfor-mance. We presented several high-level abstractions, includinga command-line version management tool and a domain-specific language, for addressing the first two goals. Anecdotalexperience with our early users suggests that both of thoseare effective at simplifying the model exploration tasks. Wealso developed a read-optimized parameter archival storagefor storing the learned weight parameters, and designed novelalgorithms for storage optimization and for progressive queryevaluation. Extensive experiments on real world and syntheticmodels verify the design decisions we made and demonstratethe advantages of proposed techniques.

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