Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy's Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination

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2006 30: 354Journal of Hospitality & Tourism ResearchJaksa Kivela and John C. CrottsExperience a Destination

Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy's Influence on How Tourists

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Authors’ Note: This research project was funded in part by The Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity Project Grant Allocation G-T752 and by the Hong Kong SAR Government’s CentralEarmarked Research Grant No. RGC/PolyU 5241/00H/ (B-Q397).

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Vol. 30, No. 3, August 2006, 354-377DOI: 10.1177/1096348006286797© 2006 International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education

TOURISM AND GASTRONOMY:GASTRONOMY’S INFLUENCE

ON HOW TOURISTS EXPERIENCEA DESTINATION

Jakša KivelaThe Hong Kong Polytechnic University

John C. CrottsCollege of Charleston

Gastronomy is becoming an important attribute in the development of niche travel andniche destinations. Although the literature supports the view that there is a connectionbetween tourism and gastronomy, little is known about gastronomy tourists. For example,is there a gastronomy-tourism market segment? Does a destination’s gastronomy con-tribute to the tourists’ quality of experiences while visiting the destination? Do touristsreturn to the destination to resample its gastronomy? This study was undertaken in HongKong, which is arguably a city destination that offers unique and diverse gastronomy.The results of the study provide evidence suggesting that motivation to travel for gas-tronomy reasons is a valid construct. Also, the results of the data analysis reveal that gas-tronomy plays a major role in the way tourists experience the destination, and indicatethat some travelers would return to the same destination to savor its unique gastronomy.Implications for practitioners are also discussed.

KEYWORDS: gastronomy; tourism; dining-out experience; Hong Kong

Gastronomy is often referred to exclusively as the art of cooking and goodeating; however, this is only one part of this discipline. Others have suggestedthat gastronomy is the study of the relationship between culture and food.Someone who is seriously involved in gastronomy is often involved in tasting,preparing, experiencing, experimenting, researching, discovering, understand-ing, and writing about food, and, usually but not exclusively, about wine. It isimportant that a careful glance at gastronomy reveal that

a. it is very closely connected to, and at times is inseparable from, wine and otherbeverages and

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b. it often involves an understanding and appreciation of chemistry, literature, biology,geology, history, agronomy, anthropology, music, philosophy, psychology, andsociology. One can therefore argue that gastronomy is a complex, interdisciplinaryactivity.

The first formal study of gastronomy was undertaken by Jean AnthelmeBrillat-Savarin (1755-1826), which was most eloquently published in LaPhysiologie du gout in 1825 and has been translated numerous times intoEnglish as The Physiology of Taste. What Brillat-Savarin (1825/1994) has doneis to pave the way for subsequent studies about the relationship between thesenses and food and food and beverage consumption as a science.

Etymologically, the word gastronomy is derived from Greek gastros, mean-ing stomach, and gnomos, knowledge or law. Culinaria, on the other hand, is aterm often used in the context of gastronomy that describes a country’s orregion’s dishes, foods, and food preparation techniques, which give rise to thecountry’s or region’s distinctive cuisine. Hence, for the purposes of this study,the term gastronomy will be used to represent food, wine, and culinaria.

Gastronomy is a body of knowledge with its roots in all major classical civ-ilizations; despite this, however, in the hospitality and tourism contexts gastron-omy is a new area of study.

Our sensory perceptions play a major psychological and physiological rolein our appraisal and appreciation of food, as they do for other experiences at adestination. Consumption of food especially when dining out is a pleasurablesensory experience, hence the pleasure factor or the “feel good” factor as aresult of food consumption at a destination is a “pull factor” and a marketingand merchandising tool that must not be underestimated. For this reason, onecan argue that tourists often place considerable emphasis on how they feel at adestination, and how they experience what the destination offers, by carefullyselecting that special restaurant and/or food that might fulfill a particular per-sonal desire (Richards, 2002). Although many studies identify and address fac-tors that affect destination choice and image, very few empirical studies addressthe role that gastronomy plays in the way tourists experience the destination.Equally, although the relationship between gastronomy and tourism is affirmedin select social sciences literature, very few studies are reported in the hospital-ity literature that specifically address the gastronomy and tourism relationship.

This study’s objective is to identify areas of commonality in the way touristsperceive and experience gastronomy while visiting a destination. Specifically,the study aims to determine (a) if gastronomy tourists represent a distinct mar-ket segment of an overall visitor market and (b) if the destination’s gastronomycontributes to the tourists’ quality of experience.

The purpose of this research was to review prior studies involving gastron-omy and its linkage to tourism. Moreover, its purpose is to determine how gas-tronomy influences how tourists experience a destination. The significance ofthis research is twofold. If gastronomy can be shown to significantly influencehow visitors experience a destination, then it can be argued that gastronomy is

Kivela, Crotts / TOURISM AND GASTRONOMY 355



a viable alternative for new destinations that cannot benefit from “sun, sea, andsand” or natural or cultural resources. Unlike other travel activities and attrac-tions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day, and in any weather.In addition, gastronomy, if viable, could become the driving force behind therevival of tourism for destinations that are struggling at a critical stage of thetourist-product life cycle. With this said, evidence is needed to justify suchclaims that sufficient tourism demand can be generated from a destination’sculinary resources.

GASTRONOMY AND TOURISM

It was Long (2004) who first coined the term “culinary tourism” in 1998 toexpress the idea of experiencing other cultures through food and, incidentally,wine. Wolf (2002), however, defines culinaria and gastronomy tourism as“travel in order to search for, and enjoy prepared food and drink . . . and uniqueand memorable gastronomic experiences.” This statement clearly suggests thatwhen we talk about gastronomy we are not just focusing on food but also bev-erage. This supports earlier research (Finkelstein, 1989; Mennel, Murcott, &van Otterloo, 1992) that suggests that feelings and memories make wining anddining out when on holiday very special and attractive because these becometransposed into experiences that are often very personal. It is important to notethat these experiences also have the power to modify our eating and drinkingpreferences and tastes as well as imbue us with experiences of the culture thatwe are visiting (Johns & Clarke, 2001; Johns & Kivela, 2001; Kivela & Johns,2002). For seasoned travelers who have had many such holiday experiences,these experiences often come to be lived (hyperreality; Eco, 1986) such that theimages of a destination, its culture, and its gastronomy have gained ascendancyover, or even supplanted, the actual. In this context, one of the functions of thedestination’s foodservice industries is the provision of those experiences andfeelings that individuals believe they should be having while on holiday or whiletraveling (Johns & Kivela, 2001). It is normal that we should experience plea-sure as an essential part of a holiday experience, and dining out or a culinary orwine tour, for example, should be a pleasurable and memorable part of thatexperience. So much, in fact, that culinaria and gastronomy play a pivotal rolein the marketing of some tourist destinations. For example, some travel organi-zations (Intrepid Travel, 2004) regularly offer gourmet or culinary holidays toAsia, Italy, and France; holidays with cooking and wine appreciation classes inTuscany and Provence. Melbourne and Sydney, in Australia, are often marketedas food and wine and restaurant destinations; and wine regions of France, theBarossa Valley in Australia, and Napa Valley and Sonoma Valley in Californiahave become premier wine tourism destinations. For tourists, this means that thedestination’s restaurants’ ambience and cuisine, and/or its vineyards, are legiti-mate sources of pleasure that generate emotions and experiences, it is hopedpleasant ones, that they are supposed to be having while on holiday (Kivela &Chu, 2001). It must be said, however, that such pleasure does not always have

356 JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM RESEARCH



an enduring effect and that it does diminish over time. Also, although touristsoften dine out in search of new taste and culinary experiences, or when they dis-cover a new vineyard, they may also encounter disappointment from time totime: an eatery or wine that is a parody of the destination’s image, or whatFinkelstein (1989) calls “manufactured images.” Nevertheless, an increasingnumber of tourist destinations are very sought after because of their unique gas-tronomy (Hjalager, 2002). These destinations are also known as the “foodie”and/or wine holiday destinations, for example, cooking holidays in Tuscanyand Lyons in France (made famous by such maître chefs as Paul Bocuse),Melbourne’s restaurant and wine scene, Munich’s Oktoberfest, wine-tastingtours of Bordeaux, and so on. For these destinations, gastronomy is a centralfeature of the tourist attraction. Lifestyle and travel media also vigorously pro-mote gastronomy, for example, magazines such as Epicure and Gourmet. Insearch of new recipes and taste sensations, both food critics and celebrity chefsscour the world for new and different gastronomy, rediscovering old, long-forgotten recipes and discovering new ingredients and new culinary destinations.Therefore, it is appropriate to say that the relationship between gastronomy anda tourist destination is symbiotic because the destination provides the food,recipes, chefs, and the cultural backdrop that make gastronomy an ideal productfor tourist consumption (Fields, 2002; Richards, 2002; Scarpato, 2002). Simplystated, gastronomy is an inextricable part the holiday experience.

Based on Cohen’s (1984) phenomenological categorization of tourist lifestyles,Hjalager (2003) offers a phenomenological model of culinary tourism experi-ences. The model of tourism and gastronomy lifestyles depicts tourist attitudesand preferences for food and beverage according to four categorizations—recreational, existential, diversionary, and experimental gastronomy tourists. Thefollowing section discusses the culinary tourism experience in the context ofHjalager’s model and highlights the variations in tourists’ dining-related behavior.

According to Hjalager (2003), the existential gastronomy tourists seek foodand beverage combinations and eating experiences that foster (gastronomy)learning. For these tourists, food and beverage consumption does not only sat-isfy hunger and thirst but, important for them, such consumption means gainingin-depth knowledge about the local or regional cuisine, wine, and beverages andof the destination’s culture. Existential gastronomy tourists are unlikely to befound in typical tourist restaurants or crowded chain or popular restaurants. Forthese tourists, the holiday’s success is measured by that special restaurant“where only the locals eat,” or that special vineyard. These tourists actively seeksimple and unsophisticated peasant food and beverage that is prepared with careand respect to tradition; for example, Portugal offers some great gastronomyretreats that attract the existential gastronomy tourist. The existential gastron-omy tourists avoid expensive restaurants not only because of the price but alsobecause of the extravagant décor and service that often happens, according toFinkelstein (1989), in a “manufactured” dining-out environment.

The existential gastronomy tourist will actively seek and visit working farmsand vineyards, participate in cooking classes and harvesting of grapes and fruits




and vegetables; they will visit cheese makers and go fishing with professionalfishermen. They are especially prone to sampling and buying the produce to takehome with them. The Internet and specialized travel literature are the mainsources of knowledge about culinary opportunities; existential gourmet touristspay little attention to travel agency advertisements and the claims made in desti-nation brochures.

The experimental gastronomy tourists symbolize their lifestyle through foodand beverage—usually trendy and “in” foods and boutique wines. These touristswill actively seek the destination’s smartest designer cafes and restaurants thatserve innovative menus and offer equally chic service. The experimental gastron-omy tourists keep up to date about trendy and fashionable foods, latest growth,ingredients, and recipes. They actively pursue trying out new ingredients and newways of eating and preparing food. Yesterday’s food trends are quickly replacedby today’s food fashions. Food and wine styles and cuisines often form a part oftheir image and prestige and although they themselves do not necessarily cook,they are well informed by reading trendy lifestyle and epicurean magazines.

For experimental gastronomy tourists, the consumption of food and bever-age on holiday is part of the staging of the personality. Quality and fashionabilityvalue of food and beverage is a major consideration, being part of their overalllifestyle. Food, wine, and dining out are synonymous with designer clothes, mar-quee cars, interior décor, and designer kitchenware, and prestige is gained by pay-ing careful attention to the current food and dining trends. Holiday souvenirsinclude coffee-table cookbooks and culinary and wine literature. Designer glass-ware, porcelain, cutlery, and kitchen gadgets are often sought after as souvenirs.

The recreational gastronomy tourists are the more conservative type; that is,they appreciate and actively seek while on holidays the familiarity of their homefoods and beverages. The recreational gastronomy tourists actively engage in self-catering while on holidays. They also prefer to stay in self-contained accommo-dation, such as holiday apartments, if available. Often, they bring ingredients withthem so that they will not have to do without. Anecdotal findings from this studysuggest that many tourists from Australia, Scandinavian countries, and the UnitedKingdom countries fit into this category. Recreational gastronomy tourists instillfamily values and the pleasures of eating a meal together, and they are also intim-idated by waiters, fancy restaurants, complex wines, and excessive bills. Diningambiance and service style has little impact on recreationalists. They also do notlike foreign foods, except those foods that have long been part of their everydaylife. For recreational gastronomy tourists, food and beverage are not that impor-tant when on holiday, and food-related entertainment while on holiday is oftenlimited to activities that afford watching without participation.

The diversionary gastronomy tourists are the kinds of tourists that want toescape from the mundanity (Finkelstein, 1989) of everyday life that includes day-to-day shopping and cooking for the family. For these tourists while on holiday,food and beverage must come easily, without too much effort, and there must beplenty of it, for example, in popular and chain-restaurant operations. They preferand actively seek menu items that are familiar. For the diversionaries, quantity,




not quality, of food and beverage is essential; for example, large meat joints,jumbo-sized desserts, house wine, and big plates of pasta are taken into consid-eration rather than haute cuisine. The diversionary gastronomy tourists dislikeexotic foods. It is interesting that although food might be the issue, the main issueis the company. For diversionary gastronomy tourists, eating and drinking is anexcellent way of getting together with friends and new acquaintances and enjoy-ing life. For this reason, the diversionaries often prefer rustic places, for example,trattoria, with room for noise and laughter, where staff’s service approach iscasual and where there are no particular restrictions on behavior and dress code.The diversionaries are likely to consult travel agents and tourist brochures, andthey rely on tour leaders.

As a contemporary cultural resource, gastronomy satisfies all the conventionalrequirements of cultural tourism products (Scarpato, 2002). First, it is a viablealternative for new destinations that cannot benefit from sun, sea, and sand or thatlack natural or historical resources. Gastronomy can add value to the touristexperience and is associated with quality tourism for travelers in search of newproducts and experiences that yield a high level of satisfaction, wine tourismbeing a good example. Gastronomy and wine have created demand for shortand/or weekend holidays; for example, lifestyle pursuits such as packagedgourmet and wine weekend-escapes, most notably in Australia, California, NewZealand, Germany, and the United Kingdom. In this context, foodservice indus-tries must accept that the role of gastronomy is also one of cultural tourism;hence, borrowing from Poon’s vocabulary, gastronomy is a form of new tourism.As noted, the Intrepid Travel agency (2004) in Australia now offers gourmetpackage holidays to Asia—China, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, andJapan. These gastronomy tours specifically focus on food and food culture, wine,indigenous cuisine, dining out, cooking, and shopping for foods at local markets.It is important, however, that Intrepid’s marketing message perhaps encapsulateshow gastronomy tourism appeals to people, for instance,

Intrepid’s new Gourmet Traveler trips are the food lover’s perfect choice! Asia isrenowned for its delicious cuisine and travelers on Intrepid’s Gourmet Travelertrips make the most of it while exploring the country’s highlights and culture. Fromelaborate banquets and street stalls to bustling markets and frantic kitchens, wetaste and discover a country, meeting its people and experiencing its culture . . . weget to know the locals and enjoy an insight into their lives and palates. (p. 3)

And second, gastronomy is often the driving force behind the revival of tourismfor destinations that are struggling for one reason or another. For example,Croatia faced a Herculean task in rebuilding its tourism industry after the war ofindependence, 1990-1995. To this day, an integral part of its rebuilding programstrongly features local foods, regional cuisines, wine making, and food customs.Similar examples can be drawn from countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia.It seems when dining out at a destination, tourists in effect consume “ingredi-ents” that satisfy their feelings and enhance their cultural experiences.




To recap what the unique features of gastronomy tourism are, the InternationalCulinary Tourism Association’s (2006, p. 1) Web site provides this most lucidappraisal, for example,

• almost 100 per cent of tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportu-nity is a chance to get to know local food and people;

• dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (and it was inthis study also);

• culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all fivehuman senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch;

• there is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festi-vals, and cultural attractions;

• interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnicgroup;

• unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round,any time of day and in any weather;

• more often than not, gastronomy tourists are “explorers”; and• gastronomy is “experiential” as it satisfies new traveler demands for hands-on,

interactive experiences.

METHOD

The data used for this analysis were from a survey of visitors to Hong Kong thatsought to identify the dining-out perceptions of tourists visiting the island. Adescriptive research design was adopted that utilized quantitative techniques fordata collection and analysis involving the use of a survey questionnaire. The inter-relationships of cultural awareness, motive for traveling, the destination’s gastron-omy image, food quality, satisfaction, tourists’ revisiting intentions, and the effectsof gastronomy on these interrelationships were tested with a sample of respondentsusing the services of one sector, namely, the restaurant sector in Hong Kong.

A survey sample should normally represent the population, particularly whena random sampling method is used. In this instance, however, it was very diffi-cult to apply a random sampling methodology to disparate tourist respondents.The alternative strategy was to employ a systematic approach in selecting therespondents, and the respondents’ age and gender were selected by a judgmen-tal method. The sample size was set at 1,200. The survey time frame was des-ignated as a 2-month period. The survey was conducted with the assistance andcooperation of select Hong Kong restaurants at two main tourist locations—Hong Kong Island and Kowloon.

Based on the researchers’ prior experience, the proposed sampling designminimized undue inconvenience to other guests and the participating organiza-tions. The survey was conducted at the participating restaurant properties. Thesurvey was randomly administered twice per day from 9:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m.and from 4:30 p.m. to 6:30 p.m., three times per week on a continual basis overthe 2-month period.




Thus, over the 2-month period there were in all 24 survey days with a dailyquota sample of three (three for the 9:00 a.m.-to-11:00 a.m. time slot and threefor the 4:30 p.m.-to-6:30 p.m. time slot) assigned for every interviewer.Therefore, 6 × 8 (8 interviewers) = 48 respondents per survey day × 24 surveydays = 1,152 respondents (rounded off to 1,200).

A random number was assigned to each interviewer for each survey day. Therandom number was used to select potential respondents. For instance, a ran-dom number 3 indicated that every 3rd, 6th, 9th, and so on respondent would beselected for sampling during the sampling period. In-house training was pro-vided for the interviewers before the actual surveys took place. This includedminiworkshops in which effective interview and sampling techniques weredemonstrated and practiced. During the training sessions, interviewers werebriefed with detailed information on the process of conducting an interview. Apilot test was conducted prior to actual sampling, and necessary adjustments tothe instrument were made; for example, the instrument was tested to estimatethe sampling time and improve the precision, structure, and layout of questions.A team of eight interviewers, including the researcher, undertook the task ofsurveying.

The first part of the instrument contained introductory notes, a screeningquestion, and demographic data, followed by a body of questions. Potentialrespondents were usually approached in the restaurants, and they had to satisfyone screening question before they became qualified to participate in the survey.The filtering question was whether the respondent was a resident of Hong Kong.Hong Kong residents were disqualified from the survey. The next section of theinstrument was designed to solicit demographic data such as gender, country ofresidence, age, education, and household income. The next section constitutedthe main body of the research. The entire process was conducted face to face,followed by an administered questionnaire. The instrument was written inEnglish. A reliability analysis was calculated to measure the internal consis-tency of each of the research instrument’s main item banks. The coefficients forall item banks exceeded the recommended level of .50 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham,& Black, 1995), ranging from .88 to .96.

In analyzing the data, descriptive statistics were used to examine variables ofinterest, including chi-square. To compare samples across perceptual and expe-rience dimensions or demographic grouping, appropriate comparative analysessuch as ANOVA were used. Multivariate analysis (factor and regression) wasalso used to (a) create correlated variable composites from the original attributesratings and obtain a relatively small number of variables that explain most ofthe variances among attributes and (b) apply the derived factor scores in subse-quent multiple regression analysis. The appropriateness of factor analysis wasassessed by correlation, measures of sampling adequacy (MSA), partial corre-lation among variables, and reliability alpha to ensure that the factor analysiswas appropriate to the data. In addition, factor analysis is usually conducted todetermine whether the indicators of each latent variable are good and reliablemeasures. The maximum likelihood method was also used to test the resulting





model. The results of the study demonstrated how gastronomy influencedtourists’ perceptions of the destination, as well as their behavioral intentionsbased on gastronomy. Only the findings of the select regression analysis are pre-sented in this article.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

One thousand two hundred questionnaires were distributed to a systematicsample of tourists visiting Hong Kong. Of the 1,105 returned questionnaires(92.1% of 1,200), 1,067 usable questionnaires (89% of 1,200) were used for theanalysis. Thirty-eight questionnaires were not used for the analysis because theywere more than 15% incomplete. The demographic characteristics of the sam-ple are presented in Table 1.

Respondents’ demographic data are presented in Table 1. Of particular inter-est is that almost 21% of the sample indicated that their main reason for travel-ing to Hong Kong was for the food. Given that projected tourist arrivals forHong Kong for 2004 were somewhere in the range of 13.5 million (Hong KongTourism Board [HKTB], 2004), this means that about 2.8 million tourists cometo Hong Kong just to savor its gastronomy. These numbers are not inconse-quential, and a culinary or gastronomy segment representing 20% of the totalvisitor market is by any measures a significant market segment. For Hong Kong,this represents a substantial gastronomy tourism market segment, and its evi-dence suggests that motivation to travel for gastronomy reasons is a reasonablyvalid construct to use for market segmentation purposes in Hong Kong.

When questioned further during the sampling period, many respondents whosaid that they were visiting Hong Kong for food elaborated on this point furtherby saying that for them, Hong Kong was a prime destination for its cuisine andgastronomy and that this was not their first visit to Hong Kong. It is of interest,also, that most of the gastronomy tourists are from Taiwan, Japan, and Singapore.This confirms the anecdotal evidence that Japanese, Singaporeans, and Taiwanesetravelers, in particular, take advantage of the convenience of the weekend get-away simply to enjoy the destination’s gastronomy. The HKTB promotes HongKong’s culinaria and gastronomy vis-à-vis its tourist information offices inHong Kong and in the region, its brochures, special regional “Hong Kong food”promotions, specialty publications such as its food and restaurant guides, andannual food festivals; however, it does not specifically market Hong Kong’s gas-tronomy to the international gastronomy-tourism market segment, as is done, forexample, by Tourism Victoria in Australia and by the Regional Tourism Authorityin Tuscany (the State of Victoria actually has a much smaller gastronomy-tourismmarket).

Factor Analysis

The principal components and orthogonal (varimax) rotation method wasused for the analysis, and the results are shown in Tables 2 and 3. The appropri-ateness of factor analysis was assessed by correlation, MSA, partial correlation




Table 1The Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Gender Frequency % Age Frequency %

Male 544 51.0 Under 18 5 0.5Female 521 48.8 18-25 98 9.2

26-35 327 30.636-45 287 26.946-55 194 18.256-65 121 11.366 + 32 3.0

Total 1,065 99.8 Total 1,064 99.7Missing 2 0.2 Missing 3 0.3Total 1,067 100.0 Total 1,067 100.0

Highest Education Annual HouseholdLevel Attained Income

Less than 38 3.6 Less than 68 6.4secondary/high US$10, 000 school

Completed 208 19.5 US$10,000-29,999 365 34.2secondary/highschool

Some college or 205 19.2 US$30,000-49,999 168 15.7university

Completed 420 39.4 US$50,000-69,999 130 12.2college/universitydiploma/degree

Completed 196 18.4 US$70,000-99,999 108 10.1postgraduate degree

US$100,000 or more 149 14.0No income/retired 15 1.4Total 1,003 94.0Missing 64 6.0

Total 1,067 100.0 1,067 100.0

Usual Country/Region of Length of Residence Stay in Hong Kong

China 85 8.0 Less than 1 day 101 9.5Japan 146 13.7 1-2 days 361 33.8Singapore 151 14.2 3-5 days 519 48.6Taiwan 182 17.1 About 1 week 21 2.0North America 186 17.4 About 2 weeks 35 3.3Australia/ 117 11.0 More than 2 weeks 8 0.7

New ZealandEurope 200 18.7 About 1 month 11 1.0

More than 1 month 11 1.0Total 1,067 100.0 Total 1,067 100.0

(Continued)

Frequency %

Frequency %

Frequency %

Frequency %




among variables, and reliability alpha to ensure that the factor analysis wasappropriate to the data. The criteria for the number of factors to be extractedwere eigenvalue, percentage of variance, significance of factor loading, andassessment of structure. Only factors with eigenvalues equal to or greater than1 were considered significant; others were considered insignificant and weredisregarded. The solution accounted for 68.8% of the total cumulative varianceand was considered a satisfactory solution. A variable was considered of practi-cal significance and included in a factor when its factor loading was equal to orgreater than 0.5 (Norušis, 1994), with a Bartlett Test of Sphericity value of5879.128, which indicated that the data matrix had sufficient correlation to thefactor analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin overall MSA was 0.875. From theorthogonal (varimax) rotated factor matrix, six factors with 17 variables weredefined by the original variables that loaded most heavily (loading = 0.5) onthem. Table 3 highlights that the factor analysis produced a clean factor struc-ture with relatively higher loadings on the appropriate factors, with most vari-ables loaded heavily on the first four factors but not on the fifth and sixth. Thisverified that there was a minimal overlap among these factors and that all fac-tors were independently structured. The higher loadings signaled the correla-tion of the variables with the factors on which they loaded. The communalityof each variable was relatively high, ranging from 0.337 to 0.825, which alsoindicates that the variance of the original values was captured well by the sixfactors.

A six-factor solution resulted in the following factor labels:

Factor 1: Expectations of GastronomyFactor 2: Importance of GastronomyFactor 3: Gastronomy Experiences at DestinationFactor 4: Gastronomy as Reason for TravelFactor 5: Evaluation of Gastronomy Experiences at DestinationFactor 6: Culture and Gastronomy

Table 1(Continued)

Main Purpose for First VisitVisiting Hong Kong to Hong Kong

Holiday/pleasure 393 36.8 Yes 566 53.0Business/meeting 340 31.9 No 496 46.5Visiting friends 55 5.2

or relativesStopover 57 5.3For the food 222 20.8 Total 1,062 99.5

Missing 5 0.5Total 1,067 100.0 Total 1,067 100.0

Frequency Frequency% %



Regression analysis, dependent variable: Based on your eating-out experiences whilevisiting Hong Kong, would you rate Hong Kong as a gastronomy destination?

A linear (stepwise) regression was used in this study to estimate the coeffi-cients of the linear equation involving seven factors that best predict the valueof the various dependent variables. Tables 4a, 4b, and 4c highlight the results ofdifferent regression models.

The results show that a significant model emerged (F6, 1049 = 88.621, p = .000)and that six predictor variables were added to the model.

The results of the analysis highlight that six predictor variables are includedin the model to predict which tourist groups in the sample were most likely todesignate and/or predict that Hong Kong is a gastronomy destination. It seemsclear that tourists with Expectations of Gastronomy (Factor 1) are an importantgroup in this regard, with the highest beta value of .520, which accounted for52% (adjusted R2 = .333) of the variance explained. The inclusion of Factor 6,Culture and Gastronomy (β = .194), accounted for 19.4% of the varianceexplained, and inclusion of Gastronomy Experiences at Destination (β = .158)accounted for a further 15.8% of the variance explained. Evaluation ofGastronomy Experiences at Destination also accounted for a further 3.5% of thevariance explained. The analysis reveals that these factors are very importantwhen wishing to know what tourists are likely thinking about when evaluatingtheir experiences of gastronomy at the destination they are visiting.

The results also indicate that Hong Kong’s gastronomy has made a positiveimpact on a group of tourists who through positive gastronomy experiences areprobably willing to designate gastronomy status to the destination. No doubt,specific information about the city’s gastronomy offerings is important; how-ever, visitor comments and feedback is essential, for example, gathering specificinformation about what this segment of tourists say about the city’s gastronomywhen preparing gastronomy-related marketing initiatives.

The second-highest predictor variable, Gastronomy as Reason for Travel,leaves little doubt about how influential this tourist segment is in bestowinggastronomy status to the destination—in this case, Hong Kong. Obviously,these travelers had prior gastronomy knowledge and experience (Factor 1,Expectations of Gastronomy) and had some expectations. Food lovers, a com-mon term given to gastronomes and gastronomy travelers in Asia, are likely tohave considerable experience in dining out at different destinations. They areeither existential gastronomy tourists or experimental gastronomy tourists, andif they are satisfied with their dining-out experiences while visiting and, it isimportant, revisiting Hong Kong, they will be the more likely tourist group toidentify Hong Kong as a gourmet destination. As noted earlier, both existentialand experimental gastronomy tourists do not consider the destination’s culinaryattractions in the same way as the recreational and diversionary gourmet touristsdo; they take culinaria and gastronomy very seriously: Their whole reason intaking the trip is to experience and savor good food—exquisite gastronomy. Forexistential and experimental gastronomy tourists, food is not an appendage to





the holiday—something that is just not OK, or plentiful, or value for money—it is the whole reason for being there! Evaluation of Gastronomy Experiences atDestination (β = .035) was the fourth important predictor variable. This result

Table 2Rotated Component Matrixa

1 Overall, how would you rate the food .906 1that you have eaten in Hong Kong restaurants?

2 Overall, how satisfied were you with the quality .861of food in Hong Kong?

3 Based on your eating-out experiences while .877visiting Hong Kong, how will you remember yourfood and cuisine experiences in Hong Kong?

4 When traveling, how important is it for .876 2you to experience a different cultureat a destination?

5 When traveling, how important to you .874is the food and culinary experienceat a destination?

6 How would you describe the cuisine .502 3you sampled in Hong Kong restaurants?

7 In general, did you find the food in Hong .755Kong restaurants to be what you anticipated?

8 How did you feel when ordering foods that .757you had not had before for the first time?

9 Would you describe yourself as someone .515who is knowledgeable about food and cuisine?

10 Do you usually travel because you want .702 4to take a rest or to relax?

11 Do you usually travel because you want to .640escape from daily routine—just to getaway somewhere?

12 When you travel to a destination as a .732tourist, how important is it to you to dineout (outside your hotel)?

13 How would you rate Hong Kong restaurants .779 5in terms of eating pleasure?

14 Compared to your own country, how would .649your rate street food in Hong Kong?

15 Do you feel that you got to know the .519Chinese culture by dining in local restaurants?

16 How would you describe your knowledge of .809 6Chinese cuisine before visiting Hong Kong?

17 Before visiting Hong Kong, how much had .813you read about the local Hong Kong cuisine?

Note: extraction method: principal components analysis; rotation method: varimax withKaiser normalization.a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.

(text continues on p. 371) at MEMORIAL UNIV OF NEWFOUNDLAND on August 3, 2014jht.sagepub.comDownloaded from


367

Tab

le 3

Tota

l Var

ian

ce E

xpla

ined

Initi

al E

igen

valu

eE

xtra

ctio

n S

ums

of S

quar

ed L

oadi

ngs

Rot

atio

n S

ums

of S

quar

ed L

oadi

ngs

% o

f C

umul

ativ

e%

of

Cum

ulat

ive

% o

fC

umul

ativ

eC

ompo

nent

Tota

lV

aria

nce

%To

tal

Var

ianc

e%

Tota

lV

aria

nce

%

13.

006

17.6

8117

.681

3.00

617

.681

17.6

812.

408

16.1

6614

.166

22.

283

15.4

3033

.111

2.28

315

.430

33.1

111.

955

14.4

9728

.663

31.

803

12.6

0745

.718

1.80

312

.607

45.7

181.

841

11.8

3140

.494

41.

321

8.76

854

.486

1.32

18.

768

54.4

861.

504

9.84

550

.339

51.

074

7.31

561

.801

1.07

47.

315

61.8

011.

438

9.45

859

.797

61.

015

6.97

168

.772

1.01

56.

971

68.7

721.

356

8.97

568

.772



368

Tab

le 4

aD

epen

den

t Var

iab

le:

Bas

ed o

n Y

ou

r E

atin

g-O

ut

Exp

erie

nce

s W

hile

Vis

itin

g H

on

g K

on

g,

Wo

uld

Yo

u R

ate

Ho

ng

Ko

ng

as

a G

astr

on

om

y D

esti

nat

ion

?

AN

OV

Ab

Mod

elS

um o

f S

quar

esdf

Mea

n S

quar

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nific

ance

1R

egre

ssio

n (R

EG

R)

614.

849

610

2.47

588

.621

.000

a

Res

idua

l1,

212.

983

1049

1.15

6To

tal

1,82

7.83

210

55

Mod

el S

umm

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nge

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tistic

s

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uste

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ard

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R2

of E

stim

ate

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nge

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nge

df1

df2

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hang

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n-W

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n

1.5

80a

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1.07

5.3

3688

.621

610

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002.

012

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ardi

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ts

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rror

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3.08

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.149

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RE

GR

fact

or s

core

1 fo

r an

alys

is 1

0.68

4.0

33.5

2020

.655

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RE

GR

fact

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core

2 fo

r an

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is 1

–0.0

53.0

33–.

040

–1.6

05.1

09R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 3

for

anal

ysis

10.

208

.033

.158

6.28

8.0

00R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 4

for

anal

ysis

10.

255

.033

.194

7.71

6.0

00R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 5

for

anal

ysis

10.

046

.033

.035

1.37

9.0

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EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 6

for

anal

ysis

1–0

.041

.033

–.03

1–1

.237

.216

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redi

ctor

s:co

nsta

nt,

regr

essi

on (

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GR

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ctor

sco

re 6

for

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ysis

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GR

fact

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core

5 fo

r an

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EG

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ysis

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GR

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3 fo

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ctor

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re 2

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GR

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core

1 fo

r an

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Dep

ende

nt v

aria

ble:

Bas

ed o

n yo

ur e

atin

g-ou

t ex

perie

nces

whi

le v

isiti

ng H

ong

Kon

g, w

ould

you

rat

e H

ong

Kon

g as

a g

astr

onom

y de

stin

atio

n?



369

Tab

le 4

bD

epen

dent

Var

iabl

e:O

vera

ll,W

hat C

ontr

ibut

ion

Did

Foo

d an

d C

uisi

ne H

ave

on Y

our

Ove

rall

Qua

lity

of E

xper

ienc

e as

a T

ouri

st V

isiti

ng H

ong

Kon

g?

AN

OV

Ab

Mod

elS

um o

f S

quar

esdf

Mea

n S

quar

eF

Sig

nific

ance

1R

egre

ssio

n (R

EG

R)

921.

266

615

3.54

412

8.63

2.0

00a

Res

idua

l1,

252.

157

1049

1.19

4To

tal

2,17

3.42

310

55

Mod

el S

umm

aryb

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nge

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tistic

s

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dS

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ard

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nific

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of E

stim

ate

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nge

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nge

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df2

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hang

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n-W

atso

n

1.6

51a

.424

.421

1.09

3.4

2412

8.63

86

1049

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1.99

5

Coe

ffici

ents

b

Uns

tand

ardi

zed

Coe

ffici

ents

Sta

ndar

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d C

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cien

ts

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ndar

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rror

βt

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nific

ance

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3.24

1.0

3496

.412

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RE

GR

fact

or s

core

1 fo

r an

alys

is 1

0.86

4.0

34.6

0225

.683

.000

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

2 fo

r an

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is 1

0.01

8.0

34.0

130.

540

.589

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

3 fo

r an

alys

is 1

–0.0

72.0

34–.

050

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EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 4

for

anal

ysis

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057

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1.68

4.0

92R

EG

R fa

ctor

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re 5

for

anal

ysis

1–0

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.034

–.04

7–2

.001

.046

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

6 fo

r an

alys

is 1

0.33

7.0

34.2

3510

.025

.000

a.P

redi

ctor

s:co

nsta

nt,

regr

essi

on (

RE

GR

) fa

ctor

sco

re 6

for

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ysis

1,

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GR

fact

or s

core

5 fo

r an

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, R

EG

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ctor

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ysis

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GR

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core

3 fo

r an

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, R

EG

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ctor

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re 2

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GR

fact

or s

core

1 fo

r an

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Dep

ende

nt v

aria

ble:

Ove

rall,

wha

t co

ntrib

utio

n di

d fo

od a

nd c

uisi

ne h

ave

on y

our

over

all q

ualit

y of

exp

erie

nce

as a

tou

rist

visi

ting

Hon

g K

ong?



370

Tab

le 4

cD

epen

den

t Var

iabl

e:A

ll T

hin

gs

Co

nsi

der

ed,W

ou

ld Y

ou

Ret

urn

to

(R

evis

it) H

on

g K

on

g t

o S

amp

le t

he

Lo

cal C

uis

ine

So

me

Tim

e in

th

e F

utu

re?

AN

OV

Ab

Mod

elS

um o

f S

quar

esdf

Mea

n S

quar

eF

Sig

nific

ance

1R

egre

ssio

n1,

244.

653

620

7.44

260

3.05

8.0

00a

Res

idua

l36

0.83

910

490.

344

Tota

l1,

605.

491

1055

Mod

el S

umm

aryb

Cha

nge

Sta

tistic

s

Adj

uste

dS

tand

ard

Err

orR

2F

Sig

nific

ance

Mod

elR

R2

R2

of E

stim

ate

Cha

nge

Cha

nge

df1

df2

FC

hang

eD

urbi

n-W

atso

n

1.8

80a

.775

.774

0.58

7.7

7560

3.05

86

1049

.000

1.98

9

Coe

ffici

ents

b

Uns

tand

ardi

zed

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ents

Sta

ndar

dize

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cien

ts

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rror

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Sig

nific

ance

1C

onst

ant

3.56

5.0

1819

7.54

4.0

00R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 1

for

anal

ysis

11.

082

.018

.877

59.9

42.0

00R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 2

for

anal

ysis

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046

.018

.037

2.55

4.0

11R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 3

for

anal

ysis

10.

050

.018

.041

2.78

8.0

05R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 4

for

anal

ysis

10.

023

.018

.018

1.26

1.2

08R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 5

for

anal

ysis

10.

051

.018

.041

2.79

8.0

05R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 6

for

anal

ysis

10.

023

.018

.019

1.27

6.2

02

a.P

redi

ctor

s:co

nsta

nt,

regr

essi

on (

RE

GR

) fa

ctor

sco

re 6

for

anal

ysis

1,

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

5 fo

r an

alys

is 1

, R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 4

for

anal

ysis

1,

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

3 fo

r an

alys

is 1

, R

EG

R fa

ctor

sco

re 2

for

anal

ysis

1,

RE

GR

fact

or s

core

1 fo

r an

alys

is 1

.b.

Dep

ende

nt v

aria

ble:

All

thin

gs c

onsi

dere

d, w

ould

you

ret

urn

to (

revi

sit)

Hon

g K

ong

to s

ampl

e th

e lo

cal c

uisi

ne s

ome

time

in t

he f

utur

e?




finds support in the reviewed literature, which suggests that a pleasurable andinteresting gastronomy experience is an important part of travelers feeling con-fident when faced with “strange” foods at the destination and that tourists willevaluate this experience, which then colors, positively or negatively, their over-all perception of the destination. For existential and to a lesser extent experi-mental gastronomy tourists, this means that dining out in local dining places inHong Kong that are located in small streets and alleys (dai pai dongs) or reallyswank “designer everything” eateries offers authenticity and a gourmet chal-lenge. In Hong Kong, this often demands walking the streets and pouring overlocal food guides, where regular guidebooks might not provide sufficient infor-mation. For gourmet tourists, this in itself is an adventure, especially without atour guide, which has a positive impact when tracking down the city’s gastron-omy. In this case, both existential and experimental gastronomy tourists arelikely to rate Hong Kong a gourmet-city destination, and also because they wereable to find and take themselves to the restaurants they read about or found bychance.

The remaining factors in the model, Factor 2, Importance of Gastronomy,and Factor 6, Culture and Gastronomy, had a negative effect on rating HongKong as a gastronomy destination. Hence, knowledgeable gastronomy risk-taking tourists and tourists who might have had pleasurable and interestinggastronomy experiences are not the likely tourist groups in the sample to rateHong Kong as a gastronomy destination. It is important to note that the touristsin the sample felt that culture (Chinese culture) was not conveyed to them vis-à-vis the gastronomy that they experienced.

Regression analysis, dependent variable: Overall, what contribution did food andcuisine have on your overall quality of experience as a tourist visiting Hong Kong?

According to the results (see Table 4b), two predictors—Factor 2, Importanceof Gastronomy (t = 0.540, p value = .589) and Factor 4, Gastronomy as Reason forTravel (t = 1.684, p value = .092)—were excluded from the model of predicting thedependent variable “Overall, what contributions did food and cuisine have on youroverall quality of experience as a tourist visiting Hong Kong?” which left four pre-dictors in the model, namely, Factor 1, Expectations of Gastronomy (β =.602);Factor 6, Culture and Gastronomy (β = .235); Factor 3, Gastronomy Experiences atDestination (β = –.050); and Factor 5, Evaluation of Gastronomy Experiences atDestination (β = –.047).

It is not surprising that for the segment in the sample for whom expectationsof gastronomy were high and who looked forward to cultural experiencesthrough gastronomy, culture and gastronomy were the groups to which the des-tination’s gastronomy was most likely to make a significant contribution to theiroverall quality (positive) of experience as a tourist while visiting Hong Kong.Negative experiences, for example, as Hjalager (2003) suggests, can arise forsome travelers because the destination’s gastronomy is not the only factor thataffects their travel experience. For instance, as a result of the language barrier,which can be a challenge in Hong Kong, the perceived substandard service quality




and customer care in restaurants, hotels, and other services can affect howtravelers experience the destination. On the other hand, for recreational anddiversionary gourmet tourists, the destination’s gastronomy is an unlikely factorto affect their travel experiences. Equally for the existential and experimentalgastronomy tourist, that is, someone who considers himself or herself knowl-edgeable about food and cuisines, the contribution of the destination’s gastron-omy to the overall experience of the destination is often profound. Hence,tourists experiencing gastronomy that has come up to their expectations andexperiencing culture through gastronomy are likely to give their full attentionand spend more time, and money, on what gastronomy they have sampled at thedestination than those who just experience gastronomy without its cultural ref-erence or those that have “nice” eating experiences. Importantly however, for theexistential and experimental gastronomy tourists, the dissatisfaction with gastron-omy as a result of not meeting tourists’ expectations once experienced is oftena strong one, and one that would significantly contribute, negatively, to the over-all experience as a tourist visiting Hong Kong. The results also confirm the find-ings by Scarpato (2002), Richards (2002), Hjalager (2002, 2003), and Fields(2002) that in meeting tourists’ gastronomy and cultural (through food andbeverage) expectations at a destination does play a critical role in their qualityperceptions of the destination.

Regression analysis, dependent variable: All things considered, would you return to(revisit) Hong Kong to sample the local cuisine some time in the future?

The analysis in Table 4c shows that all predictors except Factor 2, Importanceof Gastronomy; Factor 4, Gastronomy as Reason for Travel; and Factor 6,Culture and Gastronomy, were included in the model for the prediction. Thesample’s gastronomy-tourist group Expectations of Gastronomy with β = .877accounted for a very high 87% of the variance explained, and together with Factor3, Gastronomy Experiences at Destination with β = .041, and Factor 5, Evaluationof Gastronomy Experiences at Destination with β = .041, was found to be themost important predictor group that would consider returning to Hong Kong tosample its gastronomy some time in the future.

Both the literature and evidence from this study suggest that when travelers’expectations are met and/or exceeded, they are likely to return to the destinationsome time in the future. Important in this study, it appears that this also appliesto gastronomy tourists, and arguably the existential and experimental gastron-omy tourists, who are knowledgeable in gastronomy, are the most likely groupswho would return to the same destination because of its unique gastronomy, pro-viding they had satisfying gastronomic experiences (Evaluation of GastronomyExperiences at Destination). These results provide good evidence suggesting thatas a result of favorable experiences, repeat visits to a destination because of itsunique gastronomy is a reasonably valid construct to use for destination market-ing purposes. The results from this study clearly indicate that Hong Kong’sgastronomy was a significant factor that positively contributed to the respondents’desire to return to Hong Kong. Hence, Hong Kong’s gastronomy plays a major




contributing role in the creation of a high-quality traveling experience and returnbehavior. In addition, the analysis of the findings also reveals that Hong Kong’sgastronomy might be increasingly converging as a significant element in a rangeof touristic experiences. That is, gastronomy is increasingly vital to a wholerange of tourism products and services that are offered in Hong Kong.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The study described here identifies that gastronomy is inextricably linked tothe destination and the destination’s image in multidimensional forms, some ofwhich are not yet clearly understood. It can also be hypothesized that gastron-omy and culinary experiences are powerful tools for marketing Hong Kong’sunique gastronomy.

It is only recently that tourists have been able to travel there in large numbers,especially for gastronomy reasons, perhaps to see how dim sum is made or tolearn Cantonese cooking techniques. Although the study confirms that HongKong’s gastronomy is an integral part of the visitor’s experience, the HongKong’s destination marketing organizations (DMOs) such as the HKTB have notreally focused on strategies to develop, refine, and capitalize on interest in gas-tronomy, and yet there is substantive evidence that shows that various tourismauthorities use gastronomy to create niche markets for their destinations.Although the HKTB does a fair job of publicizing and promoting Hong Kong’sgastronomy, this happens in a piecemeal and uncoordinated manner that isappendaged to its overall tourism promotions. That is, the HKTB does not havea clearly defined strategy to market Hong Kong’s unique gastronomy. There areseveral notable destinations that demonstrate such leadership in the gastronomytourism niche. Noteworthy examples include Sydney and Melbourne, Australia;Western Australia; Singapore; Taiwan; Shanghai; China; Bali, Indonesia; Japan;Macao; New Orleans; New Zealand; Spain; and Greece. Space precludes dis-cussing them all here; however, it is important to cite one good case. Forexample, in addition to the brief questionnaires found on the back of theAustralian immigration forms that visitors receive upon arrival in the country,the Australian Tourism Commission conducts extensive market research thatfuels the development of solid marketing and product development strategies.According to a formal press release issued by the Australian Tourism Commission(2000), “Tourism statistics showed experiencing Australian food and visitingwine regions were two of the top five factors influencing international visitors’decision to come to Australia.” Since then, regional DMOs in Australia havetaken the Australian Tourism Commission’s lead and have developed their ownunique regional gastronomy tourism strategies.

SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR HONG KONG’S DMOs

The literature suggests that destinations with the best chances for developinga culinary tourism product are those destinations that already have the advanta-geous ingredients to support a gastronomy tourism strategy. Such resources




include unique and/or multiethnic cuisine, creative chefs, unique marine andagricultural products, unique culinary heritage, and so on. No doubt, Hong Kongis endowed with all of these ingredients. Although gastronomy tourism is theprimary tourism product in only a handful of destinations, a gastronomy desti-nation such as Hong Kong, if it is serious about refining and niching its gas-tronomy tourism products as have Taiwan, Macao, Singapore, and Shanghai,should first perform an asset inventory. The inventory is then sorted accordingto type (restaurants, cafés, farms, markets, etc.). How many resources exist ineach category? Then an informal ranking should be performed; for example,What is the quality of each resource on a scale of 1 to 5? Next, it should listHong Kong’s unique gastronomy assets: Does Hong Kong produce and/or pre-pare a unique food item (e.g., snake soup in winter)? Does only a certain kindof fruit and/or vegetable grow in Hong Kong? Last, what are Hong Kong’sgastronomy strengths and weaknesses? That is, what exists in the gastronomymarket that could be an opportunity or threat? What kinds of partnerships couldHong Kong forge to take gastronomy tourism product development to themarketable level?

As the regional gastronomy tourism niche market intensifies, and as more pro-fessionals begin to understand its role within their tourism industry, we will seemore gastronomy tours, more food-oriented travel guidebooks, more focus ontravel in epicure magazines, and more itineraries that celebrate food and drink asan integral part of the travel experience. There are many opportunities for pub-lishers of epicure and lifestyle publications to weave general editorial commen-tary about a destination’s gastronomy into their ratings. Such media exposure canhelp to shape popular opinion and influence gastronomy travel decisions. As aresult, the destination’s foodservice businesses will aim for refinements in styleand service upgrades. Establishments that suddenly find themselves in a gas-tronomy tourism sector will likely upgrade their facilities, and some will have totrain their staffs in order to meet the service and experience expectations of gas-tronomy tourists. This is already happening in Taiwan and Shanghai. In the HongKong context, and assuming that gastronomy tourism growth is to continue, busi-ness owners and the destination’s marketers will have to consider innovative andsynergistic opportunities for strategic partnerships.

General Benefits as a Result of the Partnership Matrix

As noted, gastronomy tourism is a complexly interesting and potentially veryunique product to add to Hong Kong’s destination product mix, if only because,as do all other tourists, gastronomy tourists leave their money within the localbusiness economy before they return home. Important in the Hong Kong context,gastronomy tourism, if strategically marketed as a unique product niche, wouldgreatly help in overcoming Hong Kong’s stereotypical identity as the “shoppers’paradise” with little else on offer. It would also provide additional opportunitiesfor local businesses that are in some way connected to tourism. As noted earlier,it is now apparent that gastronomy tourism is responsible for interregional com-petition (between Taiwan, Macao, Singapore, Hong Kong, and mainland China),



which has its positive and negative points. On the more positive note, regionalcompetition and the synergy of complementary products help to raise the overallquality of the visitor’s experience and the products offered in all destinations.In summary, gastronomy tourism can be of benefit to the tourists visiting HongKong by providing

• enjoyable, unique, and high-quality food and services;• better participation in indigenous culture through food;• opportunity to purchase and sample unique products (e.g., Chinese foods such as

teas) that are not readily available in their own country;• unique opportunities for discovering new taste sensations; and• access to well-coordinated gastronomy-related experiences.

Benefits to gastronomy providers include

• helps to crystallize the idea that Hong Kong is a premier gastronomy destinationas well;

• provides potential to increase sales, leading to better returns;• provides cooperative marketing and cross-marketing opportunities, offering more

potential impact than businesses can afford individually;• helps raise the quality of business products and services;• capitalizes on future dining-out/gastronomy trends; and• provides potential for new and additional business opportunities.

Benefits to residents and community include

• creates new jobs in rural areas,• promotes cross-cultural awareness and understanding,• helps local residents to see and understand the economic impact of tourism, and• promotes new business ideas and opportunities vis-à-vis gastronomy-related

support services.

Benefits to the travel industry sector include

• takes advantage of regional gastronomy tourist travel,• explores new gastronomy tourist markets beyond the region,• offers an alternative selling point for convention and meeting business, and• offers additional support for the DMO from the new gastronomy-related partners.

However, in developing the gastronomy tourism niche for tourists visitingHong Kong, it is not enough to simply offer a gastronomy experience; gastron-omy tourism is also about making tourists feel good as a result of their visit toHong Kong. Making tourists feel good about being in Hong Kong is desirable,but it is even more desirable to make the tourists feel good about themselves.This is an important, and appealing, emotional dimension of gastronomy. Toachieve this, however, requires an effort on the part of the destination’s DMO





and gastronomy providers to educate tourists about why the local cuisine and itsassociated culture are unique to the city.

If we are to consider the destination’s gastronomy as a pleasurable experience,the pre-elements and postelements of that experience gain added significance.This is because tourists appear to evaluate their holiday experiences against often-vague holiday ideas influenced by general motivators in the preholiday phase andreassessed in the postholiday phase. From the analysis of the results of this study,it can be said that respondents’ satisfaction with gastronomy in Hong Kong wasdependent on the image they had of the destination’s gastronomy before visitingcompared with the actual experience of gastronomy that they had experienced.This before-and-after relationship is important when developing strategies for gas-tronomy tourism in Hong Kong because its gastronomy is much more likely to bementioned by repeat visitors than by first-time visitors. Hence, because tourists’level of knowledge of the local gastronomy prior to consumption is likely to beless than their postvisit knowledge, this knowledge-gap knowledge must also beaddressed when marketing gastronomy tourism.

In summary, it can be said that the impression of gastronomy present in therespondents’ perceptions of their dining-out experiences offers a rich and analternative perspective from which to understand the experiences of holidaymakers. The precepts investigated can also provide a rational framework for afuture study about tourists’ perceptions of various gastronomy products in HongKong and in other destinations. For Hong Kong’s DMOs, the emotive nature ofgastronomy offers considerable potential in terms of niche marketing. Offeringexperiences that dovetail with the motivations of individual tourists can ensurethat gastronomy tourism in Hong Kong becomes even more popular in the future.Finally, the analysis of respondents’ perceptions about their dining-out experi-ences in this study has underpinned the structuring of the hypothesis for a morein-depth investigation, some time in the future, that gastronomy plays an increas-ingly deciding role in the way tourists select a destination.

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Submitted March 14, 2005Final Revision Submitted October 4, 2005Accepted December 12, 2005Refereed Anonymously

Jakša Kivela, PhD (e-mail: [email protected]), is an associate professor in theSchool of Hotel and Tourism Management at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University(Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR). John C. Crotts, PhD (e-mail: [email protected]), is a professor and chair in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Managementof the School of Business and Economics at the College of Charleston (66 George Street,Charleston, SC 29464, USA).



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