Thought

&

Language

Thinking

• Thinking involves manipulating mental representations for a purpose. Thinking incorporates the use of:

• Words

• Mental Images– Visual representations

• Mental Models– Representations that describe, explain, or predict the

way things work

Categories & Concepts

• We classify an object as to what it is and what it is not using categories and concepts

• Categories

– Groupings based on common properties

– External, and independent of, a given person

• Concepts– A mental representation of a category

– Internal to a given individual

Categorization

• Categorization is the mental process of identifying an object as a member of a category

• Categorization involves the use of:– Defining features– Prototypes (abstraction across many instances

of a category

One More Time

• Category– A grouping based on common prosperities (car)

• Categorization– The mental process of creating concepts (verb)

• Concept– One’s mental representation of a category

(noun)

Hierarchies of Concepts

• Basic Level of categorization– The level people naturally tend to use– Cars

• Subordinate– More specific attributes than the basic level– Convertibles

• Superordinate– More abstract than the basic level– Motor vehicles (cars, motorcycles, trucks)

Reasoning

• Reasoning– The process by which we generate and evaluate

arguments and beliefs

• Inductive Reasoning– Specific observations to more general propositions

• Shamus is Irish and likes to eat fish• All Irish like to eat fish

• Deductive Reasoning– General observations to more specific instances

• All Irish like to eat fish• Shamus is Irish so I guess he must like to eat fish

Analogy

• Analogical reasoning involves comparing a novel situation to a familiar one– Compare a ride in Ferrari to a ride on a roller coaster

• Analogies & Metaphors– Analogy

• One thing is like another thing

• Iraq is like Vietnam

– Metaphor• More assertive than analogies. “All the world is a stage”

Problem Solving

• Problem solving refers to the process of transforming one situation into another to meet a goal

• Three components– Initial state

• What is

– Goal state• What we want it to be

– Operators• Mental and behavioral processes used to change things

Well and Ill defined Problems

• Well-defined problems– Initial state, goal, operators are easily

determined• I need to lose 15 pounds

• Ill-defined problems– Information needed to solve and the criteria for

determining when the goal has been met are vague

• What do I need to do to fix my relationship with my partner?

Problem Solving Model

• Compare initial state with goal state– I weight 210 and want to get to 195

• Identify possible operators– Exercise and diet

• Apply operators– Exercise and diet

• Continue using operators until the differences between the initial and goal states are achieved– Keep exercising and dieting until you reach 195

Problem Solving Strategies

• Algorithms– Systematic procedures that inevitably produce a

solution to a problem– Often involve the use of computers– Guaranteed to find a solution so long as one

exists

• Mental Simulation– Imagining the steps involved in solving a

problem before actually taking action

Problems in Problem Solving

• Functional Fixedness– Fixating on one approach rather than looking at

a problem with an open mind

• Confirmation Bias– Jumping to a conclusion regarding the nature of

a problem

Decision Making

• Explicit Cognition– Decision making that is conscious and involves

weighing the pros and cons of different alternatives to solving a problem

• Weighted Utility Value– Combines the importance of an attribute & how well an

option satisfies it

• Expected Utility– Combines importance of an approach & the probability

of obtaining the outcome

Problem Solving Shortcuts

• Heuristics– Cognitive shortcuts that allow rapid, efficient, but sometimes

irrational judgments

• Representativeness Heuristic– Match a new situation to a prototype – Ignore the dissimilarities

• Availability Heuristic– We infer something will happen based on how easily it comes to

mind– The quicker it comes to mind the more we assume it will happen

this time

Bounded Rationality

• Bounded reality involves making good decisions based on the information that is actually available to us– Does not seek all possible information nor a

perfect solution

• Limitations include– Realistic goals– Cognitive resources– Environmental demands

Implicit Cognition

• Implicit cognition – Cognition outside one’s awareness

• Implicit learning– We learn through observation but do not consciously

analyze the learning– No explicit directions

• Implicit problem solving– Solution to a problem suddenly comes to us without

conscious effort– We suddenly just see the solution

Accessing Risk

• Many of our everyday decisions involve emotional expectations and expected emotional responses

• Prospect Theory– Suggests that potential future losses have a

greater impact than potential gains

Parallel Distributed Processing

• Parallel distributed processing (connectionist) model suggests

– A perceived problem activates parallel cognitive processes within the brain

– The connections between these parallel mental processes is the source of knowledge

– We select a solution that satisfies as many constraints as possible

Neurobiology of Problem Solving

• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved with:– Associating complex ideas

– Allocating attention

– Making plans

– Forming and executing intentions

• Ventromedial prefrontal cortex– Emotional control over decision making

– Many aspects of social functioning

Language

• Language is the system of – symbols – sounds – meaning – rules that constitutes the primary mode of communications among humans

• Linguistic Relativity– Suggests language shapes thought

Elements of Language

• Phonemes– Smallest unit of sound

• Morphemes– Smallest unit of meaning

• Phrases– Groups of words that act as

a unit

• Sentences– Organized sequences of

words that express a thought or intention

• A

• Are

• are next to

• The bananas are next to the peaches

Syntax & Semantics• Syntax involves

– The rules for organizing words and phrases– As aspect of grammar

• Semantics – Involves understanding what people say

• Pragmatics– The study of the way language is used and understood in everyday

life

• Discourse– The way people ordinarily speak, hear, red and write

Nonverbal Communications

• Ways we communicate without the use of words

• Body language• Touch• Gestures• Facial expressions• Physical distance• Dress