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Thought &

Language

Thinking• Thinking involves manipulating mental

representations for a purpose

• Incorporates the use of:– WordsWords – Mental Images

• Visual representations– Mental Models

• Representations that describe, explain, or predict the way things work

Categories & Concepts

• People classify objects to determine what it is using categories and concepts

• Categoriesg– Groupings based on common properties – Further assumptions are based on category

identification• Concepts

– A mental representation of a category – Internal to a given individual

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Defining Features

• Categorization is the mental process of identifying an object as a member of a category

• Categorization involves the use of defining features– Some well-defined concepts have clear properties– People also judge similarity to prototypes

• abstraction across many instances of a category

Defining Features• Category

– A grouping based on common prosperities (car)

• CategorizationTh l f i ( b)– The mental process of creating concepts (verb)

• Concept– One’s mental representation of a category (noun)

• Prototype– Abstract representations of a category

Hierarchies of Concepts• Basic Level

– Level at which objects share distinctive common attributes; Natural level people use

• E.g., what is a cow

• Subordinate Level– Level at which more specific attributes are shared by

members of a category • E.g., what is a milk cow versus a beef cow

• Superordinate Level– More abstract level of in which objects share few

common features • E.g., all the animals in the barn

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Hierarchies of Concepts

Reasoning• Reasoning

– The process by which we generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs

• Inductive Reasoning– Specific observations to more general propositions

• Shamus is Irish and likes to eat fish• All Irish like to eat fish

• Deductive Reasoning– General observations to more specific instances

• All Irish like to eat fish• Shamus is Irish so I guess he must like to eat fish

Analogy

• Analogical reasoning involves comparing a novel situation to a familiar one– Elements are understood as the same both situations

• Often influenced by emotionally significant events – New events, like new politicians, are understood as

“just like” or “nothing like” the last one.

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Problem Solving• The process of transforming one situation into

another to meet a goal

• Three componentsI iti l t t– Initial state

• Current unsatisfactory state– Operators

• Mental and behavioral processes used to reach goal state– Goal state

• State in which problem is resolved

Well and Ill defined Problems• Well-defined problems

– Initial state, goal, operators are easily determined• I need to lose 15 pounds

• Ill-defined problemsIll defined problems– Information needed to solve and the criteria for

determining when the goal has been met are vague• What do I need to do to fix my relationship with my

partner?

Problem Solving Model• Compare initial state with goal state

– I weigh 210 and want to get to 195

• Identify possible operators– Exercise and diet

• Apply operators– Exercise and diet

• Continue using operators until differences between initial and goal states are achieved– Keep exercising and dieting until you reach 195

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Problem Solving Strategies

• Algorithms– Systematic procedures that inevitably produce a

solution to a problem– This is how computers solve problems– Guaranteed to find a solution so long as one exists

(but not necessarily efficient)

• Mental Simulation– Imagining the steps involved in solving a problem

before actually taking action

Problems in Problem Solving

• Functional Fixedness– Fixating on one approach rather than looking at

a problem with an open mind

• Confirmation Bias– Jumping to a conclusion regarding the nature of

a problem

Decision Making• Information Processing Model:

– Decision making involves considering utility (value to self) and probability of each outcome

• Weighted Utility Value– Combines the importance of an attribute & how well

an option satisfies it

• Expected Utility– Combines importance of an approach & the

probability of obtaining the outcome

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Decision Making• Explicit Cognition

– Decision making that is conscious and involves weighing the pros and cons of different alternatives to solving a problem

P d i l d ti l f– Pros and cons include emotional consequences of alternative outcomes

Problem Solving Shortcuts• Explicit cognition suggests rational decision

making– Problem: People often are not rational

• Heuristics• Heuristics– Cognitive shortcuts that allow rapid, efficient, but

sometimes irrational judgments

Problem Solving Shortcuts• Representativeness Heuristic

– Categorize by matching the similarity of object or incident to prototype

• Ignore likelihood of occurrence if there is a match to prototype

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Problem Solving Shortcuts• Availability Heuristic

– Infer something will happen based on how easily it comes to mind

• The quicker it comes to mind the more likely a category seems to be

Bounded Rationality• Bounded reality: people are rational within

constraints imposed by their environment, goals, and abilities – Involves making decisions that are good enough,

given limited time and resourcesg ve ted t e a d esou ces– Does not seek all possible information nor a perfect

solution

• Limitations of rational decision making include– Realistic goals– Cognitive resources– Environmental demands

Implicit Cognition• Implicit cognition

– Cognition outside conscious awareness

• Implicit learning– We learn through observation but do not consciously

l th l ianalyze the learning– We make complex judgments without explicit

directions

• Implicit problem solving– Solution to a problem suddenly comes to us without

conscious effort– We suddenly just see the solution

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Emotion and Cognition• Emotion can interfere with cognition

– Cognition can interfere with cognition too! • Conscious decision making sometimes derails more

reliable implicit processes

• Counterfactual thinking• Counterfactual thinking– “if only” reasoning influences emotions about

consequences– We make decisions to minimize how we would feel

if outcomes would be different

Assessing Risk

• Many of our everyday decisions involve emotional expectations and expected emotional responses

• Prospect Theory– Suggests that potential future losses have a greater

impact than potential gains

Parallel Distributed Processing

• Parallel distributed processing (connectionist) model suggests

– A perceived problem activates parallel cognitive processes within the brain

– Meaning comes from the interaction between processes

– Best match for current perceptions is interpreted as answer

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Parallel Distributed Processing

• constraint satisfaction – Tendency to choose cognitive solution that satisfies

as many constraints as possible to achieve best fit to data

• Handwriting does not have to look perfectly formed for• Handwriting does not have to look perfectly formed for interpretation to be possible

• A barking 4 legged animal is most likely to be a dog, not a cat

Neurobiology of Problem Solving

• Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved with:– Working memory– Complex thought– Allocating attention– Integrating multiple kinds of information– Forming and executing intentions

• Ventromedial prefrontal cortex– Emotional control over decision making– Many aspects of social functioning

Language• Language is the system of

– symbols – sounds – meaning

rules for combinations– rules for combinations

• Primary mode of communications among humans

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Language• Linguistic Relativity

– Suggests language shapes thought– Complex linguistic terms represent more complex

thought.

• Problems with Linguistic Relativity: – Thought can occur without language– People recall “gist” without recalling specifics– Converse works as well: thought shapes language– Language evolves to express new thoughts

Elements of Language• Phonemes

– Smallest unit of language

• Morphemes– Smallest unit of meaning

• ā ,â , th,

• Are, the

• Phrases– Groups of words that act

as a unit

• Sentences– Organized sequences of

words that express a thought or intention

• are next to

• The bananas are next to the peaches

Syntax & Semantics• Syntax involves

– The rules for placement of words and phrases

• Semantics – Rules that govern meaning of words and phrases

• Pragmatics– The way language is used and understood in

everyday life

• Discourse– How people ordinarily speak, hear, read and write

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Levels of Discourse• Lowest level is exact meaning

• People recall general meaning, not exact words – We make inferences about what is intended

• A higher level is to consider the situation in which words are spoken

• Communication involves highest level– Conveys intent behind statements

• E.g., that was just a pick-up line

Principles of Communication• In communication people keep track of what

listener knows

• People signal important information with intonation or phrasing

Nonverbal Communications• Ways we communicate without the use of words

• Body language• Touch• Gestures• Facial expressions• Nonverbal vocalizations• Physical distance