Thinking Critically about the vehicle for all thought- LANGUAGE
What is Rhetoric?
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The Sophists The art of rhetoric was designed to help citizens
plead their cases in court. The key names were Gorgias and
Isocrates. With Isocrates we have the first attempt at teaching
writing as a manipulative tool. Rhetoric was a response to social
and economic change. The democracy of Athens included only
landholding aristocracy, a tiny percentage of the populous. As a
merchant/trade class began to grow wealthy, they demanded the same
political and social rights as the aristocracy. This group,
however, had been heretofore disenfranchised from the political
forum. The sophists rose to fill the need of training this new
group of citizens to participate in open debate. Rhetoric was a
tool for participation in the democracy.
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Socrates Socrates modeled questioning and probing as tools for
pursuing depth of knowledge, and he had a number of objections to
the work of the sophists. Rhetoric does not pursue truth Rhetoric
casts a spell over the audience Dialectic is the path to truth His
most political objection to the work of the sophists was that
audiences were persuaded to act through opinion and not truth.
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Aristotle Aristotle examined rhetoric as a pragmatist (taking a
practical approach to problems), asking what the elements of
oratory were and how one might best use them. His Rhetoric stresses
issues regarding audience and how best to move an audience to
action. In addition to audience concerns, Aristotle taught the
emerging rhetorician how to recall information and how to best
organize that material. This he called topoi (contemporary
composition theory refers to topoi as modes or patterns of
organization). Aristotle also recognized the importance of Socrates
work. Rhetoric, Aristotle tells us, is the counterpart to
Dialectic. Both rhetoric and dialectic are the key elements of
teaching academic writing to young scholars. We help them discover
and develop their argument through dialectical classroom
discussion, then we use the elements of rhetoric to help them shape
their writing.
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So What? Is there a difference between argument and persuasion?
Argument (discover a truth) conviction Persuasion (know a truth)
action Purposes of Argument: Inform Convince Explore Make Decisions
Meditate and Pray
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Inform To inform members of an audience about something that
they did not know. Not always argumentative merely meant to convey
information to the audience. Examples: Headlines Street signs
Campaign signs Advertisements
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Convince Trying not to conquer opponents but to satisfy readers
that you have thoroughly examined those causes and that they merit
serious attention. To examine and accepted truth and/or the status
quo and bring to light an opposing view. What are some examples
that you can think of?
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Explore An argument aimed at addressing serious problems in
society and can, therefore, sometimes be deeply personal. An
argument in which the writer asserts that a problem exists and that
with exploration the reader may be able to solve the
problem/present defend solutions. Example?
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Make Decisions An argument that which aims at making good sound
decisions.
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Meditate or Pray An argument in which the writer or speaker is
most often hoping to transform something in him/herself or to reach
a state of equilibrium or peace of mind. Usually uses a kind of
meditative language that allows the reader to reach an
understanding of the speaker and to evoke meditative thought in
others. Examples: Stained glass windows in the chapel.
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Occasions for Argument Arguments regarding the Past are
forensic arguments. Examples include criminal and civil cases.
Arguments regarding the Present are epideictic or ceremonial
arguments because they tend to be heard at public occasions.
Examples include sermons, eulogies, inaugural address and civic
remarks. Arguments regarding/influence the Future are deliberative
arguments. Examples include legislative arguments (Congress,
Parliament, government),
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Kinds of Argument Cultural Context Considering arguments that
consider status or stasis (the kinds of issues the arguments
address) = Stasis Theory Did something happen? = Argument of Fact
What is the nature? = Argument of Definition What is the quality? =
Argument of Evaluation What actions should be taken? = Proposal
Arguments
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Narration Description Exemplification Compare & Contrast
Classification & Division Process Analysis Cause & Effect
Argument/Persuasion Modes of Writing
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Appealing to Audiences Emotional Appeals Ethical Appeals
Logical Appeals
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Arguments from the Heart - Pathos Understanding Emotional
Arguments: How does the speaker anticipate and manipulate the
audiences emotional reaction? When writers and speakers can find
the words and images to evoke certain emotions in people they might
also move their audiences to sympathize with ideas they connect to
those feelings, and even to act on them. Arguments from the heart
probably count more when youre persuading than when youre arguing.
Why?
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Using Emotions to Build Bridges: Arguments sometimes use
emotions to connect with their audience, to assure them that you
understand their experiences or to feel their pain. If you strike
the right emotional note, you will establish an important
connection/bridge. Using Emotions to Sustain Arguments: You can use
emotional appeals to make arguments stronger and/or more memorable.
Lay on too much emotion, however, and you may end up offending the
very audience you hoped to convince.
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Using Humor: Humor is the sugar that makes the medicine go
down. Laughter may often be a sign that there is a kernel of truth
behind even the most ridiculous statement. Humor used to address
sensitive issues. Humor used as an outlet to admit mistakes that
cannot be acknowledged in any other way satire.
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Using Arguments from the Heart Always remember that when
dealing with emotional arguments you are dealing with a
double-edged sword. Some of the best arguments use pathos so subtly
that the audience is not aware of the manipulative effect.
Questions to consider: How do arguments from the heart work in
different media? Books? Newspapers? Television? Radio? Films? Are
newspapers an emotionally colder source of information than TV news
programs?
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Arguments Based on Character - Ethos How does the speaker
establish common values with the audience? How does the speaker
create a common ground for speaker and audience? Writers and
speakers usually establish their argument in two ways: They shape
themselves at the very moment they make an argument using such
things as language, the evidence they offer, the respect they
demonstrate to those with whom they disagree, and the way they
tender themselves to an audience physically. They also bring their
previous lives, work, and reputation to the table if they are
well-known, liked, respected, etc. that will add to their
persuasive power.
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Understanding How Ethos Works Audiences will give
people/institutions that they know and respect more credibility
than an unknown source (The Car Guy vs. Consumer Reports vs.
People). Appeals or arguments about character often turn on claims
such as the following: A person/group does or does not have the
authority to speak to a particular issue; A person is or is not
trustworthy/credible on a particular issue; A person does or does
not have good motives for addressing a particular issue.
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Claiming Authority You can always question a writer/speakers
authority and they can always question yours! You must, therefore,
be able to anticipate pointed questions with often times bold and
personal responses. Writers typically, however, establish their
authority is more subtle ways: attaching a title to their name;
mentioning an employer/how much experience (in years) that they
have; attaching themselves to an agency/school; other
examples...
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Establishing Credibility Authority is a measure of how much
command someone has over a subject Credibility speaks to a writers
honesty and respect for the audience. Authority is, therefore, a
good way to build credibility. You can establish credibility by:
connecting your own beliefs and values to core principles that are
well established and widely respected; using language that shows
your respect for readers, addressing them neither above nor below
their capabilities; admitting (sometimes) your limitations;
acknowledging outright any expectations, qualifications or even
weaknesses in your argument.
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Motives Two questions to remember when examining ethos: Whose
interests are they serving? How will they profit from their
proposal? Consider the ethos of each of the following public
figures; who would benefit or not benefit from their endorsement?
Oprah Winfrey Dick Cheney Al Sharpton Bill OReilly
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Arguments Based on Facts, Evidence and Reason - Logos How is
the message presented? What figurative language? What mode of
discourse (compare/contrast, cause/effect, classification/division,
etc.) does the speaker employ to convey the message? There are two
types of facts: Hard evidence (inartistic appeals) = facts, clues,
statistics, testimonies Reason, Common Sense (artistic appeals) =
what would a reasonable person think?
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Providing Hard and Factual Evidence Facts vs. Statistics
Running a red and being on camera = hard evidence Factual evidence,
however, depends of the kind of argument you are making. Aristotle
claims that all arguments can be reduced to only two components:
Statement + Proof Claim + Supporting Evidence What does this mean
for us? Its possible to lie with numbers, even those that are
accurate, because numbers rarely speak for themselves. They need to
be interpreted by writers. And writers almost always have agendas
that shape the interpretations (Lundsford 85).
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Surveys and Polls Some of the most influential forms of
statistics are produced by surveys and polls. Surveys play off the
democratic idea and provide persuasive appeals because whatever the
majority of people want is the best is often a compelling argument.
Be careful... Surveys are affected by the way that questions are
asked. Wording by a pollster can make a difference. Example: How
worried are you that you or someone in your family may become a
victim of terrorism?
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Testimonies, Narratives and Interviews Personal experience,
carefully reported, can also support a claim convincingly,
especially if the writer has earned the trust of the audience. In
the absence of hard facts, Use Reason and Common Sense: Syllogism
is a vehicle of deductive reasoning. If A = B and B = C, then A =
C.
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Providing Logical Structure for Argument Arguments based on:
Degree most audiences will readily accept that more of a good thing
or less of a bad thing is good. Analogies explain one idea or
concept by comparing it to something else that people understand
intuitively ~ if is like a box of chocolates... Precedent also
involves comparisons; focuses on comparable institutions. Are the
following statements hard evidence or rational appeals: Honey
attracts more flies than vinegar. The bigger they are, the harder
they fall. DNA tests of skin found under the victims fingernails
suggest that the defendant was responsible for the assault.
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Thinking Rhetorically SOAPSTone Understand Who Makes an
Argument Identify and Appeal to the Audience Examine Pathos Examine
Ethos Examine Logos Examine the Shape and Media (the Mode) of the
Argument: Argumentative/Persuasive, Definition,
Classification/Division, Cause/Effect, Narration, Description,
Process/Analysis, Compare/Contrast
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The Rhetorical Square The Elements of Any Rhetorical Situation
are These: The purpose for writingThe persona or assumed role of
the writer The audience for whom the writing is done The message or
content of the writing Four Questions for Rhetorical, Analytical
Reading Purpose Identify the physical and measurable action. What
action does the speaker want the audience to take? Ethos Ethos -
How does the speaker establish an common values with the audience?
How does the speaker create a common ground for speaker and
audience? Audience Pathoshow does the speaker anticipate and
manipulate the audiences emotional reaction? Argument Logoshow is
the message presented? What figurative language? What mode of
discourse (compare/contrast, cause/effect, classification and
division, et al.) does the speaker employ to convey the
message?
