THE OWL

VOLUME I, ISSUE 1 SPRING 2011

THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL

Wescott at Night, by Bill Lax

THE OWL

Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire. W. B. Yeats (1865 - 1939)

Wescott at Night, by Bill Lax

CO-EDITORS-IN-CHIEF:EKATERINA RYBAKOVA • PATRICE C. WILLIAMS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:WILLIAM PHILIP BOYCE • DAVID MARI

ASSISTANT EDITORS:NOWRIN ALAM • AVIRAM ASSIDON • SEAN ENNIS • VINCENT LABARBERA • CHRISTOPHER MATECHIK • CHELSEA MORGAN • TARREQ NOORI • STEPHEN PAPE • LAUREN TERPAK

COPY EDITOR:STEPHANIE M. ANDRE

GRAPHIC DESIGNERS:WILLIAM PHILIP BOYCE • PATRICE C. WILLIAMS

SCURC ADVISORS:DR. KRISTAL MOORE CLEMONS • DR. ALEC KERCHEVAL

PRINCIPAL SUPPORT:THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY STUDENT GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION

The Florida State University Undergraduate Research JournalCopyright © 2011 Student Government Association, The Florida State University

All rights reserved:FSURJ is a part of the Student Government Association (SGA) as an affiliated project and its views do not necessarily reflect the views of the university. FSURJ is published electroni-cally on the internet, with a print issue released during the spring semester. Primary author-ship of articles is restricted to students of Florida State University, while faculty, students, and other contributors may be listed as secondary authors. All works published in FSURJ are published under an attribution, non-commercial, and share-alike Creative Commons license. The author retains copyright. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/)

Inquires should be addressed to:The Florida State UniversityOffice of Undergraduate ResearchStudent Council for Undergraduate Research & Creativity (SCURC)UCA3600 282 Champions WayTallahassee, FL. 32306-2360Phone: (850) 645-8118 Fax: (850) 644-2101

iii. | THE OWL

THE OWLTHE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH JOURNAL

Introductory

1. LETTER FROM THE COUNCIL

2. CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

3. WHAT I THINK I’D LIKE TO SAYJESSE DAMIANI

4. ORGANIC SERIES: Untitled IDANIELLE DELPH

H u m a n i t i e s

5. RELIGION AND MODERNITY: “THE FIRE-SERMON”WILLIAM PHILIP BOYCE

22. THE FIRE SERMONMICHAEL SHEA

23. ORGANIC SERIES: Untitled IIDANIELLE DELPH

Natural Sc iences

24. APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MUSH-ROOM EDIBILITY CLASSIFICATION

GUSTAVO MUNOZ

39. A SIMPLE METHOD FOR CHARACTERIZING IRIDESCENCEDOROTHY JACKSON

52. POEM BEGINNING WITH A QUOTE FROM WITTGENSTEINMICHAEL SHEA

53. ORGANIC SERIES: Untitled IIIDANIELLE DELPH

Social Sciences

54. INTERNATIONAL SECURITY IN SPACE PRESIDENTIAL LEADER-SHIP AND THE FUTURE OF OUTER SPACE

BRIAN DENNY

73. YEMEN: AL-QAEDA’S NEXT FORTRESSTERRY RYDZ

94. REGARDING THE WATCH YOU GAVE MEJESSE DAMIANI

Further Remarks

96. THE NAMING OF THE OWL

97. ARTIST STATEMENTDANIELLE DELPH

98. A CONCISE HISTORY OF SCURC

100. FOUNDING MEMBERS OF SCURC 2009 - 2010

101. EDITORIAL BOARD & SCURC MEMBERS 2010 - 2011

102. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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LET TER FROM THE EDITORSDear Reader,

Welcome to the inaugural issue of The Owl, Florida State University’s only undergraduate research journal! We are honored to present this first edition to you and the entire community of Florida State Seminoles, whether student, faculty, or administration.

This we believe: The Owl highlights the finest quality of our beloved university by showcasing the pinnacle of academic research, intellectual curiosity, and artistic talent. Beyond the articles and original works of art themselves, we hope you are awakened to the powerful conversation occurring at Florida State University amongst emerging scholars at the undergraduate level. The students at our university possess brilliance no less than their peers at any other university, and this journal is proof-positive of that reality.

After two years of extensive development, The Owl is pleased to facilitate the interdisciplinary exchange of ideas happening presently and those that will transpire in the years to come. The Owl is so named after the original seal employed from 1851 to 1901 by West Florida Seminary. Anchored in the history and tradition of our institution, the journal is illuminated by the brightest minds of our student body today, with a sharp eye to the future.

We humbly believe The Owl captures the character and vitality of Florida State University. May the vigorous research and sophisticated works of art be first words in the long chorus of praise for this magnificent institution!

In Vires, Artes, Mores,

Ekaterina Rybakova William Philip BoycePatrice C. Williams David MariCo-Editors-in-Chief Associate Editors

William Boyce is completing an Honors in the Major thesis under Dr. David Kirby, he will graduate in the spring 2011 with a B.A. in History, English-Creative Writing, and Religious Studies. A Fulbright Full Grant Scholar to the U.K., he will continue his research at the University of Glasgow on the relationship between theology and the arts.

Danielle Delph is a Lexington, Kentucky native turned Seminole, and will be finishing a BFA in Graphic Design this April. She received the Anne Kirn Design Award in 2010. With a background in fine arts and an enthusiasm for advertising design, she hopes to pursue a career in art direction following graduation.

Brian Denny is a pre-law junior at Florida State University, studying political science and Asian studies.   Prior to transferring to FSU in the spring of 2011, he attended Santa Fe College in Gainesville, FL.   Denny is a member of the pre-law Phi Alpha Delta fraternity and of the Chinese Language and Culture Association.

Dorothy A. Jackson is a senior English major interested in the interplay between the humanities and the natural and physical sciences. Upon completion of her Bachelor’s of Arts in April 2011, Jackson plans to pursue a second Bachelor’s Degree in biology at The University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa

Gustavo Munoz is an undergraduate student studying civil engineering at the FAMU–FSU College of Engineering. He is also a research assistant at the Laboratory for Intelligent Materials and Structures at the FAMU-FSU COE. His research interests are centered on Structural Control and Smart Structures.

Terry Rydz is currently an undergraduate at Florida State University, double majoring in International Affairs and Middle Eastern Studies. His hopes are to work for the U.S. government as a counter-terrorist expert. He plans on attending law school after graduation.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

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Michael Shea will graduate in the

spring of 2011 with a B.A. in English and

Philosophy. Completing his Honors in the

Major project in English, his thesis is en-

titled, “Mexicans Lost in Mexico: Roberto

Bolano’s Dialectical Homelessness and the

Literary State of Exception.” His poems

have appeared in Rattle, Salt Hill, and The

Apalachee Review.

Jesse Damiani will graduate in the spring

of 2011 with a B.A. in Creative Writing

and a B.A. in Media Production. Un-

der the mentorship of Professor Barbara

Hamby, he completed an Honors in the

Major thesis project in English, consisting

of a book-length manuscript of poetry,

entitled Your Language Is My Language.

What I think I’d like to say

The skull claps open—a misplaced comma,a misplaced mattress.

To steal a coat—to wake up on a highway

barrier in Barcelona,or a beach in Barcelona,or a taxi in Barcelona,

or a hotel in Barcelona,or, just, forget Barcelona—to douse us all in chocolate& not nata—to drink more

than two glasses of winea day, or gin, or more than

four glasses a day—gin,snippy like we all are, sweet

with juice, sweetwith cucumber—

to embrace, but alwaysdevour—to regenerateold daydreams—what

novae do. In the silenceof a tent in the woods

after prom, her leg wrapsaround his into a question

mark, & I believe it.

Jesse Damiani

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Organic Series: Untitled I,by Danielle Delph

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RELIGION AND MODERNITY: “THE FIRE SERMON”1

WILLIAM PHILIP BOYCEFaculty Advisor: Amy Koehlinger

Department of Religion

The progression of the modern age, in the form of modernization and the modernist artistic movement,

presents a direct challenge to the historically rooted practices of man. Modernity, liberated from

tradition, seeks constant innovation and enlightenment unfettered by customs or limitations. Caught

in the crosshairs of this melee stands the institution of religion. This article explores the relationship

between modernity and religion through the works of Karl Marx and T.S. Eliot. In a world where

“all that is solid melts into air,” to quote Marx, does religion or the phenomenology of religion offer

meaning for man? Can it provide worth in its own right? Both thinkers say yes, but qualify their

assessments in remarkably differing ways.

Enter the age of modernity. Whirling in a frenetic foxtrot of the-

oria and praxis, the last two centuries have expanded and excoriated the

conditions for man in such a quickened society. Against the backdrop of the

cataclysmic Industrial Revolution; the transformation of scientific discov-

ery and technological achievements; the explosion of capitalism across the

globe; the mass migrations into urban and suburban localities; the ratchet-

ing up of socio-political power structures; the divestment of man from man’s

traditions and history; the growth of nationalistic imperialism and bureau-

cratic ossification; the demographic upheaval through innovative mass

communication systems; the ascendency of the world market; the dizzying

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specialization of intellectual curiosi-

ty and research; the lionization of art

and aesthetics; and the perpetuity of

spiritual longings, awakenings, vili-

fications, and reformations; against

these, modernity—as discussed in

this essay and understood in broader

academic contexts—commences to

bear meaning.

Grazing upon the long grass of

modernity, theorists, artists, and in-

tellectuals have operated as partici-

pants and as critics simultaneously

as they digest its triumphs and ca-

tastrophes. But how has modernity

grappled, principally through the

acclamations and denunciations of

social theorists and literary mod-

ernists, with religion? The answers

are as polyphonic as the individuals

inquiring thereof. This paper will ex-

plore that question first by defining

modernity, then by delineating the

perspectives of Karl Marx and T.S.

Eliot. The ambition of this paper is to

illuminate the aforementioned en-

treaty from the pronounced world-

view of these two individuals but

makes no pretense of ultimacy or of

expositing the subject in entirety.

Modernity Defined

Modernity is the loosely bound

variety of visions, values, and actions

augmented by the world-historical

processes mentioned above. The aim

of modernity is “to make men and

women the subjects as well as the

objects of modernization, to give

them the power to change the world

that is changing them.”2 As a vague

moniker for the fragile and fantastic

realities engendered within this cir-

cuitous period, modernity seeks to

unveil the systemic and particular

psychosis in all of man. To be mod-

ern, according to intellectual histo-

rian Marshall Berman, “is to find

ourselves in an environment that

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promises us adventure, power, joy,

growth, transformation of ourselves

and the world”; that same milieu,

concomitantly, “threatens to destroy

everything we have, everything we

know, everything we are.” This “par-

adoxical unity, a unity of disunity”

crashes in a constant “maelstrom of

perpetual disintegration and renew-

al, of struggle and contradiction, of

ambiguity and anguish.”3 No one, ac-

cording to Berman’s prognosis, can

circumambulate this universal man-

tle, not even those diametrically op-

posed to its inceptive prejudices and

resultants. In this sense of moder-

nity, the timbre of its effects echoes

across every ethnicity and ideology,

every religion and geography, every

class and nationality.

Modernity, thusly construed,

is the “totality of fragmentary, cen-

trifugal directions of existence”

whereby “the concentric principle,

the monumental element is [never-

theless] not attained.”4 Simply put,

modernity hinges on dialectical

humanism; man is the center of his

universe, but bears all the weight of

his centrality. He must, like Atlas,

shoulder his world—the aggregate

of internal and external stimuli—to

fashion meaning for himself. The

symphony of human events, innova-

tions, and musings couches the pan-

demonium within the soul of man.

This atmosphere “of agitation and

turbulence, psychic dizziness and

drunkenness, expansion of experi-

ential possibilities and destruction

of moral boundaries and personal

bonds, self-enlargement and self-

derangement,” reflects and affects

modern man’s sensibility.5 Per Ber-

man’s rendering of modernity, each

individual must resolve his own

“concentric principle” or “monu-

mental element” in reaction to the

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awareness that no indwelling or cos-

mogenic principle unifies mankind.

Navigating these dialogues, mo-

dernity can be dissected into two au-

tonomous and interrelated stations:

modernization, the socio-political

and economic branch of the tree, and

modernism, the artistic, cultural, and

literary branch. Each is intertwined

at various points. Modernism, fur-

ther defined, is “the literature that

acknowledged and attempted to re-

spond to a crisis of representation

beginning in the mid-nineteenth

century.” Modernism presented a

response to a pervasive impression

that “the ways of knowing and rep-

resenting the world developed in the

Renaissance…distorted the actual

experience of reality, of art, and of

literature.” Consequently, both “the

content and the form of represen-

tation” were cast in suspicious light

and subverted in the regenerative

apparatus of modernism, where new

tools were crafted and old instru-

ments were either ironically refur-

bished or repulsively dismissed.6

Under the expanding arch of

modernity, with one leg being mod-

ernization and the other modern-

ism, the relationship with religion

can be explicated. In no way should

it be suggested that modernity

eradicated religion or the impulse

of religion full-stop in the Western

Hemisphere, the anchor of moder-

nity. Even cursory observation to-

day reveals that religion still obtains.

On the other hand, modernity cer-

tainly complicates religion. For ex-

ample, this convolution resounds

within Christianity, if not theologi-

cally, then representationally in the

institutions of politics, economics,

art, philosophy, and the public do-

main. How religion is interwoven

in the tapestry of modernity, both

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perceived and instantiated, remains

a preoccupation of social theorists

and literary modernists. From the

death of God to the empty casket at

his funeral, the witness of religion in

this period is intricate, arresting, and

by no means settled law.

Marx

“The more man puts into God,

the less he retains in himself.”7 Karl

Marx’s philosophy of history, often

painted in too broad of strokes as it

relates to religion, confounds sim-

plistic narratives. Marx’s critique “is

more complex and more interesting

than the standard nineteenth-cen-

tury materialist assertion that God

does not exist.”8 Unlike Nietzsche,

who pinned modernity’s predica-

ment of moral illimitability and of

nihilist estrangement on its pro-

genitor—namely, the progressive

march of “science, rationalism, the

death of God”—Marx indicts the

bourgeoisie. The gilded accoutre-

ments of religion, over against the

religious impulse, accuse the “banal

everyday workings of the bourgeoi-

sie economic order—an order that

equates our human value with our

market price, no more, no less.”9 A

proper reading of Marx must spot-

light his appreciation for the spiri-

tual impulse and, reciprocally, his

acrimony for institutionalized reli-

gion. The source of Marx’s antipathy

can be recognized in his profound

mistrust prima facie of the institu-

tions that influence the modern

laborer. Religion, in one sense, is

undistinguished in the long list of

corrosive infrastructures; contra-

puntally, because religion attempts

to answer deeper soul-making ques-

tions and pervades Western culture,

its stakes are higher for Marx. Based

on that logic, it must be vanquished

at the outset in order to foster the

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apotheosis of the laborer.

The epitome of Marx’s disdain

for institutional religion is offered in

The Communist Manifesto. The reli-

gious impulse, or the phenomenol-

ogy of religion, was easily and gain-

fully seduced by the bourgeoisie out

of the gate, as Marx reads history. “In

the icy water of egotistical calcula-

tion” the bourgeoisie “drowned the

most heavenly ecstasies of religious

fervor, of chivalrous enthusiasm,

of philistine sentimentalism.”10 The

halo, which “splits life into sacred

and profane,” was quickly leveraged

by the bourgeoisie in Marx’s depic-

tion. Coalescing “an aura of holy

dread and radiance,” the bourgeoisie

substituted the innocence of reli-

gious fervor for the haloed positions

of the religious institution. With this

replacement, the bourgeoisie gener-

ated “cash payment” or the resolving

of “personal worth into exchange

value.” In this economic machina-

tion, the bourgeoisie, “veiled by

religious and political illusions,”

shamelessly and brutally exploited

the working class and the sincer-

ity of religious impulses along with

them. The economizing of the meta-

physical—or that “which asks what

is worthwhile, what is honorable,

even what is real”—is the root of the

problem of institutional religion, as

Marx sees it.11

Picked over, the “priest, the

poet, the man of science” are effectu-

ally “stripped of its halo” in a rigid

conversion to “paid wage-labour-

ers”; that is to say, the halo behaves

purely as a pecuniary symbol of the

bourgeoisie, rather than signaling

the religious impulse.12 While the

exchange under capitalism of sacred

stations like priest and poet in return

for dehumanizing monetization

policies is sour for Marx, it is not

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inopportune. The haloed position

and their corresponding institutions

of “law, morality, religion” erupt

with “so many bourgeois prejudices,

behind which lurk in ambush just as

many bourgeois interests,” that their

disintegration and demystification

is welcomed by Marx.13 The former

“aura of holiness” around priest and

poet becomes the missing compo-

nent in this equation of division,

though Marx is by no means empa-

thetic to this purging.14 The tearing

of veils, which leaves priest and poet

naked and with exposed wounds,

concurrently introduces “new op-

tions and hopes.”15 A new paradise

is gained, according to Marx’s narra-

tive, through and despite the process

of stripped haloes.

The “new options and hopes”

must be grounded in the appropri-

ately understood and demytholo-

gized religious life. In his doctorate,

Difference between the Democritean

and the Epicurean Philosophy of Na-

ture, Marx accredits philosophy with

diametrically opposing “all heavenly

and earthly Gods who do not ac-

knowledge human self-conscious-

ness as the highest divinity.”16 Thus,

the consummation of the religious

life, disconnected from the ruse con-

structed by the bourgeoisie, is part

and parcel with proletariat experi-

ence and philosophy. In the frenzied

modern world of reconfiguration

and malleability, “philosophy finds

its material weapons in the proletar-

iat,” Marx writes in a letter to a fellow

German philosopher, “so the prole-

tariat finds its spiritual weapons in

philosophy.”17

The bifurcation of modernity,

for Marx, encompasses the desire

for “clear and solid values to live by”

and the desire to “embrace the limit-

less possibilities of modern life and

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experience that obliterate all val-

ues.”18 Paradoxically, this requisite

period of history comports itself to

newer virtues in spiritual equality.

“[A]ll that is holy is profaned, and

man is at last compelled to face with

sober senses, his real conditions of

life, and his relations with his kind,”

unmediated by the dogmatism or

fanaticism of institutional religion.19

At the conclusive moment in history

man freely fashions “a world after

its own image,” alluding to God’s

creation of man in Genesis.20 New

morality and religion, not founded

on the principles of the bourgeoisie’s

self-interest and self-propagation,

espouse the unitive consciousness of

man, thereby allowing each man to

sculpt meaning for himself in him-

self; in so doing, he must never suc-

cumb to the pressure of satisfying

his religious fervor with someone or

something outside himself, such as

God, religion, or priest. As Berman

qualifies, “to unmask phony claims

of transcendence is to demand and

fight for real transcendence,” or that

of man’s inner transcendence.21

Marx appends this message by clari-

fying that if one balks at the notion of

such revolutionary change—i.e. de-

stroying the institution of religion—

a conservative appeal to “notions of

freedom, culture, law, &c” deceives

the position fundamentally. “Your

very ideas are but the outgrowth of

the conditions of your bourgeoi-

sie production.”22 The principles

of “religious liberty and freedom

of conscience, merely gave expres-

sion to the sway of free competition

within the domain of knowledge.”

As maintained by Marx, mere his-

torical fluctuations, such as Chris-

tianity overcoming the religions of

the ancient world in its last causal

transmutation, only prove that those

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movements are historical realities in

flux at particular moments in space

and time, nothing more. History is

not sacramental or imbued with the

divine, in any epoch, in any locality.

As Marx plainly expounds, it is

but a “selfish misconception that in-

duces you to transform into eternal

laws of nature” what are merely “the

social forms springing from your

present mode of production.”23 Even

under the auspices of a liberal pro-

gressive “social Gospel”24 or “Chris-

tian Socialism,” Marx refutes these

self-deceptions or the “holy water

with which the priest consecrates the

heart-burnings of the aristocrat.”25

Communism by revolution, as per

Marx, accelerates history, progresses

mankind, and inaugurates a new reli-

gious impulse. Communism, hence,

“abolishes eternal truths, it abolishes

all religion, and all morality, instead

of constituting them on a new basis;

it therefore acts in contradiction to

all past historical experience.” 26

A modernity where “[a]ll that

is solid melts into air”27 cautions the

proletariat of institutionalizing their

religious impulses or fervor. Man is

spiritual insofar as he is “linked to

nature,” which is to say, “linked to

itself, for man is a part of nature.”

The religious impulse is nourished

when man “makes his life-activity

itself the object of his will and of his

consciousness.” With his own life as

the object of his existence, man is

a “Conscious Being” when absent

of “estranged labour” that vocation

transfigures “his essential being” into

“a mere means to his existence.”28 The

religious impulse must be enveloped

in the truth that man is the highest

goal of this secularized and human-

ized spirituality, the highest divinity.

“Not the gods, not nature, but only

man himself can be this alien power

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over man.”29

Eliot

As a literary modernist, T.S. El-

iot necessarily approached the chal-

lenges, sentiments, and anxieties of

modernity from a wholly different

perspective than Marx. Not only

does Eliot distinguish himself from

Marx by encapsulating his interpre-

tation of the modern era through the

medium of poetry, but by being the

most modern, historically speaking;

thus, the breadth of his views are

nearer to contemporary society on

the unfurling timeline of maturity

within modernity. Born in St. Louis,

Missouri, Eliot emigrated to Eng-

land after his education at Harvard

in philosophy and comparative lit-

erature.

His first poetic masterpiece,

The Waste Land, would be com-

posed while Eliot recovered from a

neurotic breakdown after the First

World War. At the ominous age of

thirty-three, Eliot was revived dur-

ing his stay in a sanatorium in Lau-

sanne, Switzerland by his poetic vi-

sion in The Waste Land: “the relief

of a personal and wholly insignifi-

cant grouse against life…just a piece

of rhythmical grumbling.”30 Ezra

Pound, a fellow poet and close friend

of Eliot’s, was hardly as modest in his

praise: “Eliot’s Waste Land is I think

the justification of the ‘movement,’

of our modern experiment, since

1900.”31 To many of his contempo-

raries, it incarnated the transcendent

quality over personal situation and

embodied the general crisis of faith

and representation in Western civi-

lization. Its symbolic manifestation

culminated in reorienting the myth-

ological parallels that he employed

in the poem for modern life; it “of-

fered a way to transform the ‘stam-

merings’ of the individual artist into

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a broader sense of order, one that

could link contemporary culture

with the major concerns of the entire

literary and cultural tradition.”32

Eliot’s mystical revelation in

The Waste Land harangued modern

society from within it, but not from

the social angle that Marx attacked.

Barren and desperately groping

for significance, the world after the

Great War, for Eliot, was ontologi-

cally remodeled. The telos of history

offered no redemption and no end

to itself, in contravention to Marx’s

prophesy about the end of history,

which would fructify after the work-

ers of the world united. Religion, for

Eliot, could neither be reduced to

religious fervor, as Marx had whit-

tled it down, nor a mere catalyst of

individuation and differentiation.

Religion, like all the grand traditions

of man’s historical heritage, tenders

a glimpse of something entrenched

in the heart and soul of man; when

gathered together with all the asso-

ciative traditions, they bear a sem-

blance of corporealized meaning:

“A heap of broken images.”33 Yet,

not unlike the moral devolution ar-

ticulated by Marx, Eliot’s man of the

waste land, or the “Unreal City,”34

can only beseech “O Lord Thou

pluckest me out”35 and “each in his

prison/…Shantih shantih shantih,”

or a pathetic peroration of peace,

peace, peace.36

The furious and timeless motion

of the eternal present was ultimately

an unsatisfying condition for man in

Eliot’s mind. Fourteen years after the

publication of The Waste Land, Eliot

penned his final inimitable work,

Four Quartets. In the fourteen-year

intermission, he discovered a sa-

cred vocation. Through baptism

in the Church of England, Eliot

translated his longing for a timeless

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transcendence into a spiritual quest,

and yet retained most of his previous

skepticisms and provisos. As the via

media between dispassionate Uni-

tarianism (the religious heritage to

which Eliot’s parents had exposed

him) and obdurate Catholicism,

the Anglican tradition allowed Eliot

to navigate amongst his suspicions

and, simultaneously, direct his “in-

tenser human feelings” to the ulti-

mate “divine goal.”37 His conversion

bridged “the point of intersection

of the timeless [Divine Godhead] /

With time.”38

Eliot’s movement into the

Church and into Christian faith es-

sentialized this renaissance of uni-

tive contemplation. To suggest that

Eliot’s conversion rectified, in some

simplistic sense, the angst and be-

reavement he set about exploring in

The Waste Land would be to reduce

Eliot’s religious sincerity and artistic

sensibilities carelessly. Rather, Eliot’s

conversion “shifted the style of both

his life and his art” quite simply be-

cause it complicated his life and his

art.39 On the precipice of the Sec-

ond World War, Eliot excavated his

yearning for liberation from perva-

sive evils in correspondence with a

Christian apprehension of sin, pro-

pitiation, and regeneration in Four

Quartets.

The antidote to the modern

geist of alienation and estrangement

was, for Eliot, the humility to walk

forward in faith, moored by religion

and tradition. Eliot remarks in “Tra-

dition and the Individual Talent”

that “the historical sense involves a

perception, not only of the pastness

of the past, but of its presence….a

sense of the timeless as well as of

the temporal and of the timeless

and of the temporal together.”40 Per

Eliot, the liminality of the modern

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world—“caught in the form of limi-

tation/Between un-being and be-

ing”41—aches for the salvation of the

Word incarnate whether it is compre-

hensively aware of this need or not;

consonantly, Eliot could not have

portended his metaphysical conver-

sion when he first penned The Waste

Land. Like the liminal stasis of life

itself, art “never improves,” but rath-

er “the material of art is never quite

the same.”42 Altogether, the creative

process mirrors soteriology and the

denial of “human self-consciousness

as the highest divinity.”43 That is to

say, Eliot interlocks human experi-

ence and salvation: “what happens

is a continual surrender of himself

as he is at the moment of something

which is more valuable…a continual

extinction of personality.”44

The descent into the soul,

into the world that is not the world,

into a place destitute of property and

fancy and distractions, into a land

not twittering with movement, Eliot

exclaims, “This is the one way.”45 In a

world of chatter and transience, even

the external influences of words and

music decay and crack under the

tension, refusing to “stay still.” There

is but one word, “The Word in the

desert,” which can transverberate or

transfigure the soul.46 The incarnat-

ed Christ becomes the “light…/ At

the still point of the turning world.”47

Thus, Eliot’s man walks the via nega-

tiva: “In order to arrive at what you

are not / You must go through the

way in which you are not.”48 That

way is the divine Incarnation, cross,

and immanent Spirit of God.

After the plum-line is set, El-

iot purposefully complicates his gos-

pel by escorting his reader through

the realms of the soul; the way out

is inward. The salvation of the soul

is not the constituency of action

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or inaction. Rather, it is “whatever

sphere of being / The mind of man

may be intent / At the time of death,”

when one awakens to consider-

ing the time of death to be “every

moment.”49 Salvific humility at the

every-moment juncture, Eliot pos-

its, requires the abnegation of the

self: “I said to my soul, be still, and

let the dark come upon you.”50 The

soul need not “fare well / But fare

forward” along this journey, grasp-

ing faith “between the hither and

the farther shore.”51 Thus, the new

means become the end of the old

ends: “prayer, observance, discipline,

thought and action” point attribu-

tively to the “Incarnation. / Here the

impossible union.”52

Rich is the inheritance of

man, Eliot specifies, who declares

“A people without history / Is not

redeemed from time, for history is

a pattern / Of timeless moments.”

The Church is the vanguard against

a world “Distracted from distraction

by distraction” and the most beauti-

ful museum for the relics of tradition

and faith. If anything is manifest in

perpetuity for Eliot, it is “the draw-

ing of this Love and the voice of this

Calling” beckoning the soul of man

“Quick now, here, now, always.”53 Al-

though “human kind / Cannot bear

very much reality,”54 the “dripping

blood [and]… / The bloody flesh”55

of the crucified Christ paves an in-

effable “lifetime’s death in love”56

for wearied humanity; whensoever

and for whosoever this religious in-

tersection occurs, “Costing not less

than everything,” then the soul can

exclaim “all shall be well and / All

manner of thing shall be well.”57

Summary

Modernity, through modern-

ization and modernism, is the ma-

trix of contemporary life where the

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condition of man is paramount. The

ways in which religion complicates

this arithmetical formula, and in

turn, is complicated by it, enhance

and showcase the evolution and as-

cendency of modern thought. The

social theories of Karl Marx along-

side the counterdistinctive voice

of T.S. Eliot illumine the lightning

rod of religious and spiritual repre-

sentations in this period, though by

no means elude its circumscription.

Straining with the question of how

to expropriate religion, each mod-

ern author uniquely ventured “a raid

on the inarticulate / With shabby

equipment,” and wagered the very

cornerstone of their philosophy on

it.58 In so doing, they bequeathed a

legacy of historical and psychologi-

cal analysis, personal soul-search-

ing, and a touchstone from which

to better understand and contextu-

alize modernity in all its feats and

failures.

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1 T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land, ed. Michael North (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001), 11

2 Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: the Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1999), 16.

3 Berman 15.4 David Frisby, Fragments of Modernity

(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988), 39.5 Berman 18.6 Pericles Lewis, The Cambridge Introduction to

Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), xviii.

7 Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,” The Marx-Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W.W. Norton, 1978), 31.

8 Berman 89.9 Berman 111.10 Marx and Engels 222.11 Berman 111.12 Marx and Engels 222.13 Marx and Engels 232.14 Berman 89.15 Berman 109.16 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist

Manifesto (London: Penguin Books, 2002), 94.17 Marx and Engels 119.18 Berman 35.19 Marx and Engels 223.20 Marx and Engels 224.21 Berman 120.22 Marx and Engels 238.23 Marx and Engels 239.24 Marx and Engels 255.25 Marx and Engels 247.26 Marx and Engels 242.27 Marx and Engels 223.28 Marx 34.29 Marx 35.30 Lewis 129.31 Ibid. 32 Lewis 124.33 T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land, “The Burial of the

Dead,” ln. 22.34 T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land, “The Fire Sermon,” ln.

207.35 T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land, “The Fire Sermon,” ln.

309.36 T.S. Eliot, The Waste Land, “What the Thunder

Said,” ln. 413 & 433.37 Kenneth Paul Kramer, Redeeming Time: T.S.

Eliot’s Four Quartets (Cowley: 2007), 3-4.38 T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets, “The Dry Salvages,” V.39 Kramer 4.40 T.S. Eliot, “Tradition and the Individual Talent,”

38. 41 T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets, “Burnt Norton,” V.42 T.S. Eliot, “Tradition and the Individual Talent,”

39.43 See endnote 10

44 T.S. Eliot, “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” 40.

45 “Burnt Norton,” III.46 “Burnt Norton,” V.47 “Burnt Norton,” IV.48 T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets, “East Coker,” III.49 “The Dry Salvages,” V.50 “East Coker,” III.51 “The Dry Salvages,” III.52 “The Dry Salvages,” V.53 T.S. Eliot, Four Quartets, “Little Gidding,” V.54 “Burnt Norton,” I.55 “East Coker,” IV.56 “The Dry Salvages,” V.57 “Little Gidding,” V.58 “East Coker,” V.

The Fire Sermon

Now I am the red clay leaching your lungs in each breath of breaded flesh. One seeks for a moment of feeling in barbeque sauce

and cold beer foamed like dog’s breath, the pant and the pantees. Desire swims in glass

bottles watered and swallowed with pieces

of pecan pie, and if you’re a nut, you can’t not be a nut. Throttle down that throat, babe. One doesn’t explain greatness;

one lets it drip from one’s mouth.

Michael Shea

Organic Series: Untitled II,by Danielle Delph

Pictured: Students sitting on the steps of Wescott in 1952

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APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS IN MUSHROOM EDIBILITY

CLASSIFICATION

GUSTAVO J. MUNOZ, SUNGMOON JUNGFaculty Advisor: Sungmoon JungDepartment of Civil Engineering

We report the accuracy of a two-layer, back-propagation artificial neural network in identifying

edibility of a set of random mushrooms. Mushrooms edibility was synthesized using many different

characteristics. Tests were run using different combinations of number of hidden nodes, separation

of training, validation, and test data and number of iterations. Qualitative identification of an optimal

combination of network parameters will provide a basis toward applications of artificial neural

networks in future civil engineering endeavors.

Artificial intelligence has become a very important topic since

the mid twentieth century1. An artificial neural network is a computational

model used to mimic the processes of natural, biological neural networks,

such as the respiratory system and learning functions in the brain. The arti-

ficial neural network, or more colloquially known as the neural network, has

been used in many computational applications due to its pattern recognition

capabilities. Many studies, such as bridge degradation patterns (using Self-

Organizing Map, a type of unsupervised artificial neural network)2, crab sex

classification3 , and abnormality identification using CT scans have been

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investigated using Artificial Neural

Networks4.

Neural Networks have a prop-

erty of learning, which allows for

many applications. The learning is

based on values given for a train-

ing set of data. Once the training is

finished, the network has “learned”

the given data sets, and, therefore, it

can be used as a prediction tool. The

usage of the network is often called

as testing. Depending on the ap-

plication, testing is conducted with

known target values so that an error

is calculated, proving the accuracy of

the network.

The question of edibility of

mushrooms has been a long-lived

query. There have not been any

particular “rules of thumb” to fol-

low in order to classify whether a

mushroom is poisonous or edible.

Because such a system (the mush-

room) contains so many variables

(i.e. shape of bell, color, smell, etc.)

a multi-variable computational ap-

proach, such as neural networking,

may alleviate the problem.

Preliminary Data Processing

The data used for classification

purposes contains target values, that

is, values to which the network is

trying to calculate to. In this classi-

fication, twenty-two characteristics

for 8,124 separate mushrooms are

given in the data set5. Each of these

mushrooms has already been de-

termined to be poisonous or edible

through investigation prior to this

one. The data labels are in character

form that cannot be read by Matlab

and so must be represented in a form

that can be processed [See Table 1].

Mushroom characteristics were

first in word form then converted

to character form (i.e. bell = b), but

none of these forms are read by Mat-

lab. These forms of representation

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were then converted to numerical

form to allow for usage in Matlab

[See Table 2]. Edible is represented

as -1 while poisonous is represent-

ed as +1.

It is important to note that in

representing each characteristic

by increasing numerical values,

a bias is introduced. This means

that some numbers that are larger

in value than others (7 vs. 1) may

create a bias and so skew the final

result. This limitation is strongly

considered when evaluating the

final results and is understood to

be the less-accurate way of repre-

senting non-numerical charac-

ters. Correct representation would

prove exhaustive in the time frame

given. Correct representation re-

quires converting each attribute to

multiple bits, so that the bias is not

introduced.

Artificial Neural Network

The neural network used in

pattern recognition of mushroom

edibility is a two-layer feed for-

ward network. That is, twenty-two

inputs, a hidden layer with an ar-

bitrary amount of nodes, and an

output (see Figure 1).

The initial tiny circles repre-

sent the input of 8,124 data points.

The two middle circles represent

the hidden layer with two nodes

and the final circle represents the

output; that is, the classification

as “edible” or “poisonous.” The

hidden layer contains neurons

(nodes) with hyperbolic activation

functions that compute a weighted

summation of the inputs to pass

through those functions.

The two-layer network was

written into Matlab using the Neu-

ral Network Toolbox. This enabled

us to use a few commands in order

to execute the task of training the

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network.

Various trials were used in or-

der to identify the optimal usage of

network parameters. Table 3 tabu-

lates all the different combinations

and parameters tested for mush-

room pattern recognition using the

two-layer feed-forward network.

Data are split in three groups: train-

ing data, which the network uses to

train; validation data set, which the

network uses as a preliminary test-

ing set; and test data, which finds

a value closest to the target value

based on the training done by the

training set. Each partition is fur-

ther separated by five hidden nodes

or twenty hidden nodes. Two groups

are observed, one being run at 1,000

iterations (epochs) and one being

run at 10,000 iterations (epochs).

After tests are run, a com-

parison is made in search of the

least error with regards to testing vs.

validation vs. training. A semi-qual-

itative analysis is made to find the

best option for network parameters

Results

Figure 4 shows the best vali-

dation performance is at 7.4448 x

10^-14. This plot shows that in this

particular case (1,000 iterations, 5

nodes), a separation of 20% train-

ing, 20% validation, and 60% testing

gives us minimum error. Only 37 it-

erations to reach the minimum gra-

dient were needed. The simplicity of

the problem may contribute to such

low error and such low iteration.

Figure 8 proved the best perfor-

mance in terms of the 1,000-itera-

tion, 20-node, category. An error of

8.204 x 10^-16 are noticed from this

plot. A minimum gradient is also

reached at 211 iterations. The mini-

mum gradient is found at a plot dif-

ferent than the previous example – 5

nodes.

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With 10,000 iterations, a very

high error, relative to the other tests,

is seen in Figure 11. An error of

0.024018 vs. 2.5332 x 10^-15 (Fig-

ure 10) is significantly different. The

minimum error was found using a

separation of 20% training, 20% val-

idation, and 60% testing.

Figure 12 shows the minimum

gradient of 1.1225 x 10^-27. This

corresponds to a separation of data

of 60% training, 20% validation and

20% testing. The other two plots il-

lustrate a similar amount of error as

other runs.

Conclusion

The two-layer feedforward ar-

tificial neural network has proven

very useful in classification of edibil-

ity of mushrooms. With the training

of the data and learning capacities,

the network has provided a test, us-

ing various network parameters, to

provide values very near the target

values. The errors were all on the

order of at least 10^-11 except for 1

plot (Figure 11).

Limitations due to incorrect

representation of data may have

caused a skewed error and possible

discrepancies in the plots. A more

thorough study of this would pro-

vide much better results in terms of

accuracy and best option. No clear

option was made based on the lim-

ited amount of tests run.

Tests should each be run sev-

eral times, due to the randomly gen-

erated order of values. With large

numbers of trials tested in the fu-

ture, data would be plotted to show

standard deviation. A quantitative

study would also have to be done to

understand the pattern of error of

each individual plot in order to ap-

ply it to a more generalized under-

standing of an optimal combination

of parameters.

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With the skills garnered through

the study of Artificial Neural Net-

works, future applications can be in-

vestigated with regard to structural

failure, degradation and surround-

ing factors. The application of neural

networks also seems to promise var-

ious fields of research in other sub-

disciplinary areas of engineering.

Endnotes

1 Bishop, C.M. Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press, 1995

2 Jung, S., Sobanjo, J., Munoz, G.J. Visualization and Assessment of the Aging Infrastructure Using Self-Organizing Map

3 Neural Network Toolbox 6.0.4, Crab Classification, The Mathworks Inc., 2010.

4 Sinha, M., Kennedy, C.S, Ramundo, M.L. Artificial neural network predicts CT scan abnormalities in pediatric patients with closed head injury, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2001.

5 Asuncion, A., Newman, D.J. UCI Machine Learning Repository, Irvine, CA

Bibliography

Asuncion, A., Newman, D.J. UCI Machine Learning Repository, Irvine, CA: University of California, School of Information and Computer Science, 2007.

Bishop, C.M. Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press, 1995.

Jung, S., Sobanjo, J., Munoz, G.J. Visualization and Assessment of the Aging Infrastructure Using Self-Organizing Map, 19 Computational Specialty Conference, 2010.

Neural Network Toolbox 6.0.4, Crab Classification, The Mathworks Inc., 2010.

Sinha, M., Kennedy, C.S, Ramundo, M.L. Artificial neural network predicts CT scan abnormalities in pediatric patients with closed head injury, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2001.

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APPENDIX

Table 1: Character Representation of Mushroom CharacteristicsMushroom Characteristics

Cap-Shape

Cap- Surface

Cap- Color Bruises Odor Gill

AttachmentGill

Spacing Gill Size Gill Color

bell fibrous brown yes almond attached close broad black

conical grooves buff no anise descending crowded narrow brown

convex scaly cinna-mon creosote free distant buff

flat smooth gray fishy notched choco-late

knbbed green foul gray

sunken pink musty green

purple none orange

red pungent pink

white spicy purple

yellow red

white

yellow

Mushroom Characteristics

Stalk Shape

Stalk Root

Stalk surface above ring

Stalk surface below ring

Stalk color above ring

Stalk color below ring

Veil type

Veil color

Ring number

enlarg-ing bulbous fibrous fibrous brown brown partial brown none

tapering club scaly scaly buff buff univer-sal

or-ange one

cup silky silky cinna-mon

cinna-mon white two

equal smooth smooth gray gray yellow

rhizo-morphs orange orange

rooted pink pink

missing red red

white white

yellow yellow

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Mushroom CharacteristicsRing type Spore print color Population Habitat

cobwebby black abundant grasses

evanescent brown clustered leaves

flaring buff numerous meadows

large chcolate scattered paths

none green several urban

pendant orange solitary waste

sheathing purple woods

zone white

yellow

Table 2: Numerical Representation of Mushroom Characteristics (*Simplification*)

Mushroom CharacteristicsCap-Shape

Cap-Surface

Cap-Color Bruises Odor Gill

AttachmentGill

spacing Gill size Gill color

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6

7 7 7

8 8 8

9 9 9

10 10

11

12

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Mushroom Characteristics

Stalk Sahpe

Stalk Root

Stalk surface

above ring

Stalk surface

below ringStalk color above ring

Stalk color below ring

Veil type

Veil color

Ring number

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5

6 6 6

7 7 7

8 8

9 9

Mushroom CharacteristicsRing type Spore print color Population Habitat

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6

7 7 7

8 8

9

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Figure 1: Two-Layer Feed-forward Artificial Neural Network

Figure 2: Neural Network Toolbox Matlab Table 3: Different combinations used for Testing

60% Training

20% Training

20% Training

20% Validation

20% Validation

60% Validation

20% Testing

60% Testing

20% Testing

60% Training

20% Training

20% Training

20% Validation

20% Validation

60% Validation

20% Testing

60% Testing

20% Testing

60% Training

20% Training

20% Training

20% Validation

20% Validation

60% Validation

20% Testing

60% Testing

20% Testing

60% Training

20% Training

20% Training

20% Validation

20% Validation

60% Validation

20% Testing

60% Testing

20% Testing

1,000 iterations

5 Nodes

20 Nodes

5 Nodes

20 Nodes

10,000 iterations

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Figure 3: 1,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 60%R, 20%V, 20%T - stopped at 888 iterations

Figure 4: 1,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 20%R, 20%V, 60%T - min. gradient reached at 37 iterations

Figure 5: 1,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 20%R, 60%V, 20%T - max. epoch reached

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Figure 6: 1,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 60%R, 20%V, 20%T - max. epoch reached

Figure 7: 1,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 20%R, 20%V, 60%T - max. epoch reached

Figure 8: 1,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 20%R, 60%V, 20%T - min. gradient reached - 211 epochs

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36 | THE OWL

Figure 9: 10,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 60%R, 20%V, 20%T - max. epoch reached

Figure 10: 10,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 20%R, 20%V, 60%T - min. gradient reached - 5,291

Figure 11: 10,000 iterations, 5 nodes, 20%R, 60%V, 20%T - min. gradient reached - 3,077 epochs

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Figure 12: 10,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 60%R, 20%V, 20%T - min. gradient reached - 1,342

Figure 13: 10,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 20%R, 20%V, 60%T - min. gradient reached - 3,530

Figure 14: 10,000 iterations, 20 nodes, 20%R, 60%V, 20%T - max. epoch reached

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A SIMPLE METHOD FOR CHARACTERIZING

IRIDESCENCE

DOROTHY JACKSON, STEVEN LENHERTFaculty Advisor: Steven Lenhert

Department of Biological Science & Integrative NanoScience Institute

Iridescence is the change in hue of a surface with varying angles of illumination and/or observation; it

is generated by optical diffraction resulting from subwavelength features on the specimen’s surface.1,

2 This form of structural coloration enhances various biological processes (e.g., mate selection,

species recognition, defense, and photosynthesis) for a wide variety of animal and plant species.1, 3, 4

The invention of the electron microscope is responsible for many of the major breakthroughs in the

ultrastructural characterization of iridescence, and electron microscopy is among the most commonly

cited methods used.2 The goal of this project is to present a simple method for characterizing

iridescence that overcomes cost and portability limitations associated with commonly used methods.

While iridescence is typically characterized using electron microscopy,1,

3, 5-11 such methods often involve the use of expensive equipment that may

be inaccessible to biologists in the field or to student researchers; keeping

this in mind, the procedure presented in this paper is designed to be eas-

ily performed by individuals interested in researching iridescence. Various

forms of microscopy, spectroscopy, and cytophotometry require the use of

expensive, typically non-portable equipment that is often unavailable to stu-

dents completing research or to biologists interested in characterizing iri-

descent phenotypes in the field. The methods and materials presented in this

Pictured: Scientist with petri dishes, ca. 1960s

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40 | THE OWL

paper are comparatively inexpen-

sive (<500 USD) and portable, and

the protocols are easily performed.

Further, this unique experimental

design generates qualitative results

comparable to published quantita-

tive results.

The presented project uses an-

gle dependent optical microscopy

to generate qualitative information

that characterizes iridescence, us-

ing the wing of a Morpho butterfly

as a standard biological specimen;

the presented methods and experi-

mental design can be applied to any

iridescent material in biology or in

other fields.

In the setup used here (Figure

1), a color digital camera and white

light source are arranged at control-

lable angles relative to the sample

surface, and data are recorded at var-

ious illumination angles. The results

observed are qualitatively consistent

with results generated from other

studies of iridescence in the Morpho

butterfly and, interestingly, in stud-

ies of the Selaginellawilldenowii, a

blue-green iridescent fern 3, 4. The

following summary of recently pub-

lished papers on iridescence and its

proposed biological functions con-

textualizes the data presented in this

paper.

Iridescence has been character-

ized in a variety of insects, amphibi-

ans, and birds, and plants.3 Scientists

from various disciplines are interest-

ed in iridescence, indicating the rel-

evance and potential applications of

improved understanding of this phe-

nomenon. Iridescence is produced

by optical diffraction resulting from

a combination both regular and ir-

regular micro and nano-sized struc-

tural features on the surfaces of vari-

ous animal and plant species.12While

some structural similarities exist

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between iridescent species in the

plant and animal kingdoms, its pro-

posed functions differ.13 The recently

published review by Doucet and

Meadows provides a concise outline

of the proposed functions of animal

iridescence. Among these functions

is the visual communication of in-

formation between animals (e.g., age

and sex).4, 14-18 Structural color in an-

imals is also thought to aid animals

in eluding predators, either by cam-

ouflage or by mimicry.19-22

Plant and floral iridescence,

though not as widely character-

ized as animal iridescence, has been

observed in various plant species.

Suggested functions of floral irides-

cence in pollinating flowers are re-

lated to the attraction of pollinating

animals.1 It is also hypothesized that

plants growing in low-light envi-

ronments evolve structural features

that enable them to capture light

within the micro-structures in their

leaves;these microstructures that are

believed to be responsible for the

iridescence of various plant species

(e.g., S. willdenowii).13, 19

An important next step in the

continued characterization of plant

iridescence is the investigation of

the various kinds of plant species

that exhibit this structural color

property. Characterization of floral

iridescence will have to extend be-

yond structures that are exclusively

iridescent in the visible light range,

as the optical properties of pollinat-

ing animals (e.g. bees) vary greatly

from those of humans, thereby en-

abling some animals to perceive UV-

iridescence exhibited in some floral

plant species. It was recently demon-

strated for the first time that the red

rose is UV-iridescent.22 Similar ob-

servations are likely to be found in

various species of flowering plants.22

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42 | THE OWL

Plants also rely on structural

color for various purposes related to

display and defense. Plants, howev-

er, are interested in communicating

with pollinating animals rather than

with other plants. A likely function

of floral iridescence and iridescence

in various pollinating species is to

assist plants in communicating with

pollinators.4, 23 Plant iridescence is

also thought to defend plants from

animal predators and from poten-

tially harmful levels of light.4

While some forms of structural

coloration are chemically produced,

iridescence can only be derived from

physical properties.6, 24 Structural

colorin butterfly wings is derived

from periodically spaced sub-mi-

crometer structures. The formation

mechanisms of these biological

structures are extremely complex,

as each individual scale’s nano-

scopic properties contribute to this

physical color.2 Various attempts at

the biomimetic replication of these

nanostructures have been made.24

Computer technology has also been

integral in the characterization and

replication of these structures.2

Materials and Methods

Some previously reported

methods for characterizing irides-

cent structures in various animal

and floral species include various

forms of microscopy and spectros-

copy (i.e. transmission electron mi-

croscopy (TEM), scanning electron

(SEM), and atomic force micros-

copy (AFM)) and various forms of

spectroscopy, such as angle-resolved

spectroscopy.1, 3, 13, 22 This paper re-

ports an experiment using optical

and light microscopy, thereby pro-

viding researchers with a simple

method for qualitatively charac-

terizing biological iridescence.

In contrast to the methods used in

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previous experiments, the meth-

ods presented herein are simply

performed and the materials are

easily obtained and comparatively

inexpensive.

The wing from a blue iridescent

Morpho butterfly is the specimen

chosen for this project; iridescence in

Morpho butterflies is widely charac-

terized.2, 5, 7, 25 The specimen imaged

is supplied by JourdanJoly, Tallahas-

see, FL. Figure 1 shows the apparatus

used to image the butterfly wing and

Figure 2 shows the butterfly wing,

imaged at two different angles of in-

cidence. The images are split into the

three channels, red, green, and blue,

which are then analyzed to produce

the data in figures 3 and 4.

The sample is imaged using a

Dino Scope Pro (The Microscope

Store, L.L.C., at a magnification of

17x). The microscope is three inch-

es above the sample at a 90o angle

relative to the plane of the sample.

The white light source used is a 500-

watt Fiber-Lite, High-Intensity Il-

luminator Series 180 (Dolan-Jenner

Industries, Inc.). The lowest inten-

sity setting of the lamp is used to im-

age the sample.

An image of the setup (Figure

1) is taken using a standard digital

camera; the camera lens is paral-

lel to the plane of the sample and

perpendicular to the beam of light.

The angle between the beam of light

and the plane of the sample is mea-

sured using Screen Protractor soft-

ware (Iconico, Inc.), and the optimal

distance between the light source

and the sample is identified as three

inches. A ruler is used to measure

the distance from the light source to

the sample at each angle of illumina-

tion, and the distances from the light

source to the sample range from 3 to

3.5 inches.

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44 | THE OWL

The images photographed with

the Dino Scope are analyzed using

ImageJ (Research Services Branch,

National Institute of Mental Health).

The butterfly wing remains station-

ary while the light source is adjusted

according to the desired angle. The

data from the analysis of each image

in its entirety is reported in Figure

3. The same circular region of the

sample is isolated in the nine images

taken at varied angles of incidence.

These data are reported in Figure 4.

Results and Discussion

Each photograph taken is ana-

lyzed twice. Figure 3 data is from the

analysis of the circular portion of

the center of the image. This region

clearly demonstrates the change of

the wing’s coloration as the angle of

incidence changes. The data in Fig-

ure 4 are from the analysis of the en-

tire wing. These data are included as

the entire photograph of the winghas

some regions that are in shadow.

Rather than discarding these re-

gions as artifacts, the function of the

shadow in Morpho’s natural envi-

ronment is considered. As suggested

in previously published literature on

Morpho structural color, iridescence

in this butterfly might function as a

defense mechanism; the shadowy re-

gions of the wing as seen at various

angles of incidence might serve the

same function.4

The specimen is placed on the

stage underneath the microscope

and the angle of incidence between

the light source and the specimen is

varied. The specimen is imaged at

various angles of incidence, and the

corresponding angle is measured

and recorded. The intensity values of

red, green, and blue (reported in gray

scale values) are measured in each

image and compared as a function of

the angle of incidence. Though the

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distance of the light from the surface

of the specimen varies some as the

angle is adjusted, the light source is

consistently between 3-3.5 inches

from the sample. It can be seen that

the intensities of red, green, and blue

vary as the angle of incidence is ad-

justed (See Figure 2 and Supplemen-

tal Video 1).

A graph providing the Dino

Scope camera’s relative spectral re-

sponsesto the colors blue, green,

and red is available on microscope

manufacturer’s website; this graph

indicates that the maximum spec-

tral responses for these three wave-

lengths are 470, 540, and 615 nm, re-

spectively. The intensities observed

in the data reported in both Figures

3 and 4 indicate that blue is the most

intense color observed in the images

taken at an angle of incidence less

than 41o. This observation is consis-

tent with previous characterizations

of Morpho iridescence.2, 26The rela-

tive intensities of green and red are

different between the two figures.

In the analysis of the circular re-

gion of the image indicated in fig-

ure 2, as presented in Figure 3 data,

the intensity of green generally in-

creases as the angle of incidence is

increased. The intensity values mea-

sured at lower angles of incidence

are also consistent with its striking

blue color, which is easily observed

when looking at the Morphobutter-

fly’s wings.

In the analysis of the circular

portion of the wing, the peak in-

tensity value for red is observed

between 0-40 o, whereas the peak

intensities for blue and green are ob-

served at higher angles of illumina-

tion. In the analysis of both figures

3 and 4, it can be seen that blue and

green generallyhave similar intensity

measurements. Red intensity values

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46 | THE OWL

remain comparatively constant be-

tween the two figures.

As animal iridescence has been

suggested as a way for animals to

communicate with each other and

to defend themselves against preda-

tors, it is conceivable that Morpho

iridescence might be an evolved de-

fense or communication method;

Frederiksen and co-workers provide

an analysis of the Morpho’s optical

properties that might explain the

observed trends between the data

presented in Figures 3 and 4.27 The

co-development of the coloration

systems of predator and prey imply

their interconnected nature and in-

terdependence; the characterization

of iridescence further develops an

understanding of the fundamental

biological relationships and mecha-

nisms responsible for the construc-

tion of these evolved structural

details.

In bright light, the blue-green

iridescence of the Selaginellawillde-

nowii becomes reddish brown. This

observation is consistent with the

shift in coloration of the Morpho

data reported in this experiment.13

The lower angles shine light more

directly on the specimen than the

higher angles. The diversity of natu-

ral photonic structures in the anima

and plant kingdoms indicates the

degree to which light functions as

a significant selective pressure in

various species. Vukisic and Sambles

propose arm that the sensitivity to

shadow observed in the iridescent

ossicles in a light-sensitive species

of brittlestar (Ophiocomawendtii)

functions as a warning in the pres-

ence of predators.5 Perhaps the same

is true in the Morpho.

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1 H. M. Whitney, M. Kolle, P. Andrew, L. Chittka, U. Steiner, B. J. Glover, Science 2009, 323, 130.

2 G. S. Smith, American Journal of Physics 2009, 77, 1010.

3 P. Vukusic, Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 2010, 30, 435.

4 S. M. Doucet, M. G. Meadows, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S115.

5 P. Vukusic, J. R. Sambles, Nature 2003, 424, 852.6 E. Bradshaw, P. J. Rudall, D. S. Devey, M. M.

Thomas, B. J. Glover, R. M. Bateman, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 2010, 162, 504.

7 R. O. Prum, T. Quinn, R. H. Torres, Journal of Experimental Biology 2006, 209, 748.

8 M. D. Shawkey, N. I. Morehouse, P. Vukusic, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S221.

9 A. E. Seago, P. Brady, J. P. Vigneron, T. D. Schultz, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S165.

10 B. D. Wilts, H. L. Leertouwer, D. G. Stavenga, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S185.

11 L. Poladian, S. Wickham, K. Lee, M. C. J. Large, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S233.

12 S. M. Lee, J. Üpping, A. Bielawny, M. Knez, Acs Applied Materials & Interfaces 2011, 3, 30.

13 K. R. Thomas, M. Kolle, H. M. Whitney, B. J. Glover, U. Steiner, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2010, 7, 1699.

14 R. L. Rutowski, Journal of Comparative Physiology 1977, 115, 61.

15 R. L. Rutowski, Journal of Comparative Physiology 1977, 115, 75.

16 R. E. Silberglied, O. R. Taylor, Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 1978, 3, 203.

17 D. J. Kemp, Evolutionary Ecology Research 2006, 8, 515.

18 P. P. Bitton, R. D. Dawson, Journal of Avian Biology 2008, 39, 446.

19 B. J. Glover, H. M. Whitney, Annals of Botany 2010, 105, 505.

20 T. D. Schultz, G. D. Bernard, Nature 1989, 337, 72.

21 T. D. Schultz, Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 1986, 32, 142.

22 L. Feng, Y. A. Zhang, M. Z. Li, Y. M. Zheng, W. Z. Shen, L. Jiang, Langmuir 2010, 26, 14885.

23 C. Hebánt, D. W. Lee, American Journal of Botany 1984, 71, 216.

24 Z. Shenmin, et al., Nanotechnology 2009, 20, 315303.

25 S. Kinoshita, S. Yoshioka, K. Kawagoe, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 2002, 269, 1417.

26 P. Vukusic, D. G. Stavenga, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2009, 6, S133.

27 R. Frederiksen, E. J. Warrant, J ExpBiol 2008, 211, 844.

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48 | THE OWL

APPENDIX

Figure 1: Figure 1 shows how each angle of incidenceis defined and where the camera is

positioned relative to the sample. The arrow indicates the position of the camera, which is

not altered throughout the course of this experiment.The angle between the beam of light

and the surface of the wing is defined. In the following experiments, the “angle” is defined

as the point where the beam of light meets the plane of the surface of the wing. The wing is

held stationary by a microcentrifuge tube, which is resting on the edge of the specimen.The

microcentrifuge tube is 3.81 cm long.

(a) (b)

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(c) Blue 39.808 (d) Blue 82.38

(e) Green 39.618 (f) Green 87.926

(g) Red 83.279 (h) Red 20.702

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50 | THE OWL

Figure 2: Here, the wing can be seen imaged at two different angles of incidence; (a) 17.94o

is on the left, and (b) 57.62o is on the right. These two angles are chosen because they clearly

demonstrate the changes in color of the wing with the changing angles of incidence. The

images are split into blue, green, and red channels (Figure 2 c-h). The intensity corresponding

to each channel is provided below each image (reported in gray scale values). The difference

in the intensities of each color at different angles of incidence can be seen in this figure.

The circular region indicated in the first of these images corresponds to the region that is

analyzed in Figure 3 data. Supplemental video 1 shows all nine images analyzed arranged in

order of increasing angle of illumination.

Figure 3: These data demonstrate the changes in intensity of the colors red, green, and blue

observed as the angle of incidence is varied. The circular portion of the image of the wing

indicated in Figure 2 (a) is analyzed in this figure.

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Figure 4: These data demonstrate the changes in intensity of the colors red, green, and blue

observed as the angle of incidence is varied. The entire image of the specimen (Figure 2) is

analyzed in these data. Figures 3 and 4 are both included as they compare the analysis of

a small portion of the image with that of the entire image. The intensity values of blue and

green fluctuate more than those of red between the two figures.

52 | THE OWL

Poem Beginning with a Quote from Wittgenstein

In a certain sense we cannot make mistakesbut in many senses, we can. Shattered salad

bowls don’t happen on their own and someonehas to hammer the nails into the wood

to make it split and strip screws like cuticlesor flecks of flesh. Knees don’t scab themselves

and the logical expression of coffee grounds is coffee,or vice versa. Once upon a time and it was a very nice time—

haven’t we heard this before? Someone has to chop down the sycamore tree to make the chairs.

Michael Shea

Organic Series: Untitled III,by Danielle Delph

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54 | THE OWL

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY IN SPACE: PRESIDENTIAL

LEADERSHIP AND THE FUTURE OF OUTER SPACE

BRIAN DENNYFaculty Advisors: Jonathan Rogers & Vilma Fuentes§

2Florida State University, Department of Political Science, Tallahassee, FL

This work juxtaposes the history and current state of America’s involvement in militarizing outer

space against the peaceful ideals that frame the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, which was dramatically

shaped by the United States and the space race mentality of the Cold War. This work seeks to shed

light on the actual objectives and intentions of American outer space policies, past and present.

Attention is focused on the influence of the office of the president and the prevailing attitudes towards

the weaponization of space that seemingly contradict the peaceful ideals set forth in the Outer Space

Treaty of 1967. By analyzing the early years of American space exploration, a distinct pattern of

American exceptionalism can be seen. This pattern, when viewed in light of more recent American

space policies that have consistently chipped away at the international agreements concerning the

weaponization of outer space, clearly predicts the eventual withdrawal of the United States from the

Outer Space Treaty in favor of strategically unilateral defensive posturing.

The 1967 Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of

States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and

Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty), was initiated by the United

States in order to prevent the Soviets’ early leading position in the space race

from evolving into a distinct military advantage. Regardless of the peaceful

ideals set forth in the Outer Space Treaty, the Cold War mindset that fostered

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its creation was the compelling force

behind the early space endeavors of

the United States and perpetuated

the notion of an arms race in outer

space. This same mindset may be

partly to blame for the “American

exemptionalism” that has been the

impetus for the slow, but steady,

devolution of the Outer Space Treaty

and the ideals that it espouses.

American exemptionalism has been

defined as the “ways in which the

United States actually exempts itself

from certain international law rules

and agreements, even ones that it

may have played a critical role in

framing.”1 Despite being the initiator

of the Outer Space Treaty, the United

States is now by far the world’s leading

power in space-based weapons

and defense systems. Analyses of

the international political climates

surrounding key U.S. benchmarks

in space exploration will show how

early attempts to garner national

pride have progressed to military

posturing. The United States’

comprehensive weaponization of

outer space and eventual withdrawal

from the Outer Space Treaty can be

predicted by examining more recent

events and U.S. military policies.

Although outer space may seem

like a unique arena for the conduct-

ing of international politics, it shares

its defining features and governing

principles with two earthly realms:

Antarctica and the high seas. As the

world’s lands were divided by the

sovereign states of the Westphalian

system, the high seas and the entirely

unsettled Antarctic region remained

outside of the territorial system that

had taken form. It wasn’t until dis-

putes over these areas began in the

20th century that the unique subset

of modern international laws was

established.2,3 The common aspect

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56 | THE OWL

shared by outer space, Antarctica

and the world’s oceans is a principle

in modern law called the Common

Heritage of Mankind.4 The main

purpose of this principle, which is

based on the five essential mandates

that follow, is to ensure that regions

shared by the world’s population re-

main perpetually untarnished. The

first element dictates that common

areas are to remain free from ap-

propriation. No entity, government,

corporation or peoples can lay claim

to ownership of these areas. Second-

ly, management of these areas is to

be shared by all people. This requires

that those making decisions in re-

gards to these regions act as repre-

sentatives of all mankind rather than

of their respective nations. Exploita-

tion of shared areas is not specifical-

ly forbidden, however; the third el-

ement requires that these resources

benefit all mankind and not solely

the exploiting nation. The fourth el-

ement, which figures prominently in

this paper, preserves these expanses

exclusively for peaceful purposes.

The installation of military bases and

the conducting of weapons testing

and other related activities are pro-

hibited. Scientific research, accord-

ing to the final element, is acceptable

but the local ecologies are to remain

undamaged. These five elements of

the Common Heritage of Mankind

principle ensure maximum benefit

for the current generations, while

preserving these benefits for all fu-

ture generations as well.5 Although

the Common Heritage of Mankind

principle is espoused in the Outer

Space Treaty, it seems that the intense

competition of the Cold War over-

shadowed the peaceful and diplo-

matic intentions articulated therein.

A closer look at the history of space

exploration reveals possible ulterior

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motives for establishing outer space

initiatives under such a regime and

also explains certain ambiguities

contained within its doctrines.

FOUNDING FATHERS OFOUTERSPACE EXPLORATION

The foundation of the United

States’ space program was put into

place under the leadership of Presi-

dent Dwight D. Eisenhower in the

1950s. Conventional wisdom of the

time awarded great notoriety and in-

fluence to the first country to enter

space.6 Eisenhower was determined

to prevent communist regimes from

gaining this advantage. He aimed

to accomplish this while simultane-

ously renouncing the very idea of

a “space race” between the U.S.S.R.

and the United States, so as to less-

en perceptions of aggression by the

American military.7 In order to ac-

complish this dual task, he relied on

the guise of civilian research projects

as cover stories for reconnaissance

and the testing of rockets and satel-

lites. Hiding his agenda’s true nature

would not only ease tensions, but it

would also allow the United States to

quietly set a precedent for “freedom

of space” without drawing world at-

tention to the accomplishment. The

establishment of this precedent was

one of the main initiatives set forth

by Eisenhower’s Technological Ca-

pabilities Panel (TCP), a group led

by the president of the Massachu-

setts Institute of Technology.8 The

TCP was put together to ascertain

America’s ability to counter Soviet

attacks using the latest technologies.

Determining the Soviets’ military

capabilities would require intel-

ligence reconnaissance, but flying

over the airspace of another country

without permission violated inter-

national laws and was likely to be

perceived as an act of aggression.9

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58 | THE OWL

However, up until that time, the

term “airspace” had remained unde-

fined, so Eisenhower’s team sought

to establish the upper bounds of the

Soviets’ airspace by launching a very

small satellite that would orbit at a

much higher altitude than any air-

craft that was available at the time.

This satellite was designed simply to

set the precedent for international

airspace that would allow a larger

intelligence satellite to fly over the

region in the future.10 Despite this

initiative, the American military

was not able to produce a satellite as

quickly as Eisenhower had hoped,

so an alternate plan was created. In

January 1956, hundreds of balloons

equipped with photographic equip-

ment were set to drift high over the

Soviet Union as part of a scientific

study of clouds. The balloons were

rigged to sink to a much lower alti-

tude at night so as not to provoke the

Soviets into rapidly devising a high-

altitude weapons system that could

interrupt future American recon-

naissance programs. Shortly after

the launch, however, the Soviets held

a press conference, displaying doz-

ens of American spy balloons that

had been shot down at night, and

lambasted the supposedly peace-

ful program as a violation of their

sovereignty.11

Despite this embarrassing set-

back, the plans for another reconnais-

sance mission were nearing comple-

tion. The U-2 spy plane, which was

being portrayed as yet another civil-

ian weather program, would fly over

the Soviet Union a few months later

at nearly 70,000 feet, taking pictures

of the landscape in search of military

installations. It was quickly detected

by the Soviets, but no objections

of airspace violation were raised.

Rather than reveal their inability to

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shoot down an object at that high an

altitude, the Soviets remained silent

and allowed the “civilian weather

program” to continue without ac-

knowledging the situation.12 This ac-

quiescence was a promising sign for

the future of Vanguard, America’s

first satellite program. Because the

U-2 civilian cover story was effec-

tive, despite the Soviets’ awareness of

the espionage, the National Security

Council declared that the Vanguard

program should also be framed as

a civilian project.13 This time it was

the International Geophysical Year

(IGY), modeled after two previous

periods of concerted international

research of the Earth’s polar regions,

dubbed Polar Years, that would serve

as the cover story for gathering in-

telligence using America’s first satel-

lite. 14 Despite the implied consent

that would be given to the passage

of international scientific satellites

during the IGY, a legal adviser to the

Department of State at the time stat-

ed, “The United States Government

has not recognized any top or upper

limit to its sovereignty.”15 In fact, he

continued, the United States “has

plainly asserted its complete and ex-

clusive sovereignty over the airspace

above its territory,” and did not for-

feit any portion of its sovereignty “in

the higher regions of space.”16 In ad-

dition, it was made clear to several

Congressional committees that for-

eign satellites flying above Ameri-

can territory would not constitute

precedence.17

A great shock came in October

1957 when Sputnik I, the first satel-

lite to enter space, was launched by

the Soviet Union. The Americans

had been beaten to outer space and,

according to many, the political val-

ue of this feat was immense. About

a month later, Sputnik 2, a much

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60 | THE OWL

larger satellite carrying a live dog,

launched and was viewed by many

as a sure sign of Soviet military su-

periority. In December of that year,

the American attempt to send up the

Vanguard satellite resulted in a tele-

vised failure as it exploded on the

launch pad.18 The space race was not

off to a promising start for America.

Immediately after the launch of the

first Soviet satellite, Senator Lyndon

B. Johnson, chairman of the Pre-

paredness Investigation Subcommit-

tee, organized an investigation to de-

termine the best way for the U.S. to

build a preeminent space program.19

Special committees had also been

formed by the House of Represen-

tatives, the Department of Defense,

Department of State, Bureau of the

Budget, and the Executive Branch.20

All of these committees agreed that

the creation of a new agency was

needed to spearhead America’s

efforts in space exploration.21 It was

also agreed that a civilian agency

would better secure prestige for the

United States, despite Eisenhower’s

contention that outer space remain

under the domain of the Depart-

ment of Defense.22,23,24 The National

Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,

which effectively created the NASA

space program, declared that “it is

the policy of the United States that

activities in space should be devoted

to peaceful purposes for the benefit

of all mankind.”25 Just a few weeks

after the formation of NASA, John-

son proposed to the United Nations

the creation of an Ad hoc Commit-

tee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer

Space, saying:

[I]f nations proceed unilateral-

ly….we know that the advances into

space may only mean adding a new

dimension to warfare. If, however,

we proceed along the orderly course

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of full cooperation, we shall by the

very fact of cooperation make the

most substantial contribution yet

made toward perfecting peace.26

Several countries, most notably

the U.S.S.R., initially opposed the

committee, based on its call for ma-

jority voting; however, it was even-

tually agreed upon that decisions

would be made by consensus.27 This

new United Nations committee, cre-

ated at the behest of the United States

in 1958 and concerned with the pro-

tection of outer space from potential

conflict, would be the setting for the

eventual creation of the Outer Space

Treaty in 1967.28 In just a few years,

the realm of outer space had ad-

vanced from a propagandized goal

among the Cold War superpowers

to a supposedly peaceful realm sup-

ported by an international treaty. De-

spite the proclamation of outer space

as a peaceful environment, however,

Eisenhower’s silent merging of the

military establishment with the sci-

entific community would arguably

become his legacy.29 Indeed, his fare-

well speech in 1961 warned against

the very military-industrial complex

that he helped to create in response

to the Soviet threat of preeminence

in space:30

A vital element in keeping the

peace is our military establishment.

Our arms must be mighty, ready

for instant action, so that no po-

tential aggressor may be tempted to

risk his own destruction…We have

been compelled to create a perma-

nent armaments industry of vast

proportions…This conjunction of

an immense military establishment

and a large arms industry is new in

the American experience…We rec-

ognize the imperative need for this

development. Yet we must not fail to

comprehend its grave implications.

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62 | THE OWL

Our toil, resources and livelihood

are all involved; so is the very struc-

ture of our society. In the councils of

government, we must guard against

the acquisition of unwarranted influ-

ence, whether sought or unsought,

by the military-industrial complex.

The potential for the disastrous rise

of misplaced power exists and will

persist. We must never let the weight

of this combination endanger our

liberties or democratic processes.

We should take nothing for granted.

Only an alert and knowledgeable cit-

izenry can compel the proper mesh-

ing of the huge industrial and mili-

tary machinery of defense with our

peaceful methods and goals, so that

security and liberty may prosper to-

gether. Akin to, and largely respon-

sible for the sweeping changes in our

industrial-military posture, has been

the technological revolution during

recent decades.31

As John F. Kennedy took office,

he did not appear to be as knowl-

edgeable about or concerned with

American space policy, despite the

momentous happenings of the pre-

vious administration.32 The deci-

sions made during his presidency,

however, would have a tremendous

impact on the direction the U.S.

space program would take. Dur-

ing his campaign, Kennedy was a

staunch critic of the lead in the space

race Eisenhower had given to the So-

viets.33 This American disadvantage

was exacerbated when the U.S.S.R.

managed to send the first astronaut

to outer space just three months into

Kennedy’s presidential term. The

failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion

one week later did little to help im-

prove Kennedy’s perceived track re-

cord against the Soviet Union.34 The

president issued a memo to then-

Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson

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calling for a monumental space feat

that would not only serve as a politi-

cal diversion from the blows to his

early credibility but would also have

a unifying effect upon the general

public:

Do we have a chance of beating

the Soviets by putting a laboratory in

space, or by a trip around the moon,

or by a rocket to land on the moon,

or by a rocket to go to the moon and

back with a man? Is there any oth-

er space program which promises

dramatic results in which we could

win?35

The same day that this memo

was given to Johnson, Kennedy

was quoted by reporters as saying,

“If we can get to the moon before

the Russians, we should.”36 Kenne-

dy’s naming of Johnson as the new

chairman of the President’s Space

Council, along with Kennedy’s proc-

lamation of a newly revived space

race, firmly established America’s

aggressive course in space explora-

tion that would persist throughout

the 1960s.37 The official announce-

ment of the Apollo program in May

of 1961 meant that NASA would

have to revise the long-range goals

that were established during the

Eisenhower administration.38 These

orderly plans involved building a

reusable spacecraft that would help

make space operations more routine

and the construction of a perma-

nently inhabited space station. Only

after these goals were accomplished

did NASA intend on sending a man

to the moon.39 Although Kennedy’s

desire to demonstrate American su-

periority had little practical merit

outside of its propaganda value, the

Apollo missions would greatly in-

crease the size, scope, and budget of

NASA during the early 1960s.40 In

1965, the funding for NASA claimed

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5.3 percent of the overall federal

budget, a significant margin above

the typical one percent for all NASA

budgets since.41

DETERIORATION OF THE COMMON HERITAGE OF

MANKIND

President Ronald Reagan began

the process of undermining the phil-

osophical basis of the Common Her-

itage of Mankind principle when the

United States became the only major

power to vote against the U.N. Con-

vention on the Law of the Sea due

to the “deep seabed mining part of

the convention [that did] not meet

United States objectives.”42 Reagan’s

focus on economics and market

forces directly resulted in a depar-

ture from international cooperation

that had continued for decades and

promised to be the undoing of the

Outer Space Treaty. His reinterpre-

tation of the Anti-Ballistic Missile

(ABM) Treaty of 1972 also served to

fracture America’s record of interna-

tional cooperation.43 The ABM Trea-

ty was an essential U.S.-Soviet arms

control policy during the Cold War

that reinforced the model of mutual

deterrence by prohibiting the con-

struction by either country of defen-

sive shields.44 The Strategic Defense

Initiative, often referred to as the

“Star Wars” program, was an elabo-

rate and costly program that stood

in opposition to the ABM Treaty.

This program, the largest peacetime

defense project in U.S. history45, was

lauded by Reagan in the early 1980s

and called for the extensive use of

space weaponry.46 The administra-

tion’s argument for reinterpreta-

tion of the ABM Treaty hinged on

semantics and was denigrated by

the Senate Foreign Relations Com-

mittee as “the most flagrant abuse

of the Constitution’s treaty power

in 200 years of American history.”47

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The Strategic Defense Initiative was

eventually squelched by Congress

and never materialized during Rea-

gan’s Presidency.48

Another distinct shift in U.S.

policy came when President Bill

Clinton allowed the military testing

of a Mid Infrared Advanced Chemi-

cal Laser against an active Air Force

satellite.49 Although no treaties were

in place to prevent anti-satellite war-

fare, space-faring nations had been

reluctant to develop systems that

could jeopardize the sizeable global

network of intelligence and private

communication satellites.50 The test-

ing of this laser was met with intense

disapproval from Congress and Rus-

sian President Boris Yeltsin.51 Fur-

ther reinterpretation of the ABM

Treaty continued during the Clinton

administration and included actual

construction of defensive infrastruc-

ture, while the decision to utilize the

foundation was “deferred to the next

administration,” that of George W.

Bush.52

Bush’s Space Commission,

chaired by Donald Rumsfeld, issued

a report early in 2001 concluding

that preemption in defense of U.S.

space systems was necessary.53 The

decision to withdraw from the ABM

Treaty was made shortly after the

terrorist attacks on September 11,

2001.54 The American preoccupa-

tion with power, military strength,

and preemptive action that followed

these attacks led to a dramatic in-

crease in acts of American exemp-

tionalism. This is evidenced by the

considerable increase in funding

for space-based weapons systems

that contradict the principles of the

Outer Space Treaty.55 Based on this

recent spending increase, it is not

surprising that the United States re-

fused to discuss space security at the

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2002 U.N. Conference on Disarma-

ment. Eric Javits, the U.S. ambassa-

dor to the conference, explained that,

“there simply is no problem in outer

space for arms control to solve.”56

The United States, under Bush, also

voted against two U.N. resolutions:

the already-established resolution

on the Prevention of an Arms Race

in Outer Space and a new resolu-

tion put forth by Russia that would

create increased transparency in re-

gards to states’ space activities.57 The

administration’s aggressive approach

is most evident, however, in the U.S.

National Space Policy of 2006, which

was released late on a Friday after-

noon of a holiday weekend, an ap-

proach often used to suppress nega-

tive reactions.58 Although this new

policy begins with a reference to the

United States’ commitment to the

use of space for “peaceful purposes,”

it goes on to claim that defense and

intelligence activities “in pursuit of

national interests” are in harmony

with this principle.59 Yet the fact

that each state determines its own

national interests, combined with

broad wording such as this, seems to

convey an overreaching declaration

of authority. The policy goes on to

proclaim the United States’ right to

deny other countries from develop-

ing the means to compete in space.60

A separate publication from the Of-

fice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff asserts

that “the United States must be able

to protect its space assets and deny

the use of space assets by its adver-

saries.”61 The ambiguity of this state-

ment leaves open the possibility that

any space activity by any state may

be deemed by the president of the

United States as a threat to Ameri-

can interests.62 As a whole, the lan-

guage of the Bush administration’s

National Space Policy is vague at

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best. This is quite troubling as vague-

ness and matters of the law are not

particularly compatible.

No substantive policy chang-

es were made to the 2010 National

Space Policy by the Obama adminis-

tration. There was, however, a seem-

ingly deliberate shift made towards a

“less bellicose” tone by emphasizing

the importance of international co-

operation.63 This is an important first

step towards repairing America’s sta-

tus as a responsible leader in outer

space. However, despite this shift

in rhetoric, some, including Ben

Basely-Walker of the Secure World

Foundation, are convinced that an

“overarching space arms control ac-

cord” is unlikely for the foreseeable

future.64 Given this lack of actual le-

gal reform, it is likely that the Obama

administration’s space policy will, in

effect, result in a continuation of the

status quo.

RAMIFICATIONS OF AMERICAN EXEMPTIONALISM

As we learned during the first

decade of space exploration, unclear

laws, no matter how peaceable, can

be manipulated in order to further

aggressive agendas. Eisenhower cap-

italized on this in his attempts to de-

fine the U.S.S.R.’s territorial airspace

and the “freedom of space” princi-

ple. Many years later, Presidents Bill

Clinton and George W. Bush also

tested the boundaries of internation-

al law with their weakening of and

withdrawal from the ABM Treaty.

Given America’s state of heightened

tension following the September 11

terrorist attacks, eventual withdraw-

al from the Outer Space Treaty on

the grounds of national security and

protection of American assets seems

likely. This would likely be quick-

ened by a perceived act of aggression

towards the United States by any of

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the growing number of space-faring

countries.

Withdrawal from the treaty

would not be difficult. The Vienna

Convention on the Law of Trea-

ties details the circumstances under

which treaties are applicable and de-

clares that the relevant conditions

under which each treaty is ratified

are key to the consent of states to be

compelled by that particular treaty. If

these conditions drastically change,

the states’ obligations to adhere to

the treaty may also change.65 To this

end, there were no weapons in outer

space when the Outer Space Treaty

was put into effect in 1967. The sim-

ple fact that space weapons were not

in use at the time but have since been

developed could be viewed as a basis

on which to defect from the treaty.66

Use of this convenient escape clause

is not even necessary given the fact

that, in the case of conflicting laws,

some laws prevail over others.67

The inherent right to self-defense,

for example, is a peremptory norm

that simply cannot be violated un-

der international law and therefore

prevails over any treaty.68 The Bush

administration’s creative use of pre-

emptive self-defense put forth by

Rumsfeld’s Space Commission, an

approach that relies on “strategic

unilateralism and selective multilat-

eralism” 69 while avoiding conformity

to any international treaties that may

be deemed too constrictive, is char-

acteristic of American exemption-

alism.70 Eisenhower’s attempts to

establish precedence by flying satel-

lites over the U.S.S.R. while denying

the same precedence to the Soviets

during the IGY are earlier examples

of American self-exemption. These

dangerous double standards only

serve to weaken the system of inter-

national laws created in large part

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by the United States in order to safe-

guard American interests.71

By isolating itself from and ig-

noring the system of international

laws that it helped to create, Ameri-

can credibility is diminished and

the ability to guard American in-

terests is hampered. Only by heed-

ing the warning of Eisenhower’s

farewell address will the military-

industrial complex be prevented

from “endanger[ing] our liberties

or democratic processes.”72 Accord-

ing to one current theory, customary

international law is less restrictive

to states’ actions than it is derived

from the status quo.73 This implies

that the future of outer space lies in

the adherence by all space-faring na-

tions to the peaceful principles es-

tablished by the Common Heritage

of Mankind principle. In order for

this doctrine to become an accepted

part of international law, it needs to

be reexamined and placed within a

more concise legal framework.74 In

addition, a strengthened, authorita-

tive third-party mechanism respon-

sible for assuring compliance, rather

than the current self-enforcement

model, would be required.75 Only

through the stated revisions to the

language of the Outer Space Treaty

of 1967 and persistent, cooperative

presidential leadership will the Unit-

ed States be able to avoid the disaster

that would certainly result were it to

either continue introducing weap-

ons into outer space or withdraw

from the treaty altogether.

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§ Santa Fe College, Department of Political Science, Gainesville, FL

1 Harold Hongju Koh, “On American Exemptionalism,” Stanford Law Review 55, no. 5 (2003):1482.

2 Sumit Majumdar, “Institutions for International Co-operation: An Analysis of the United Nations Law of the Sea Conference and Convention,” Economic and Political Weekly 25, no 48/49 (1990) 2682-2683.

3 George S. Robinson and Harold M. White Jr, Envoys of Mankind: A Declaration of First Principles for the Governance of Space Societies (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1986), 196-197.

4 Christopher Joyner, “Legal Implications of the Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind,” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 35, no. 1 (1986): 190

5 Ibid, 191-1926 David Callahan and Fred I. Greenstein, “The

Reluctant Racer: Eisenhower and U.S. Space Policy,” Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership, ed. Roger D. Launius and Howard E. McCurdy (Urbana: Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 1997) 21.

7 Dwayne A. Day, “Cover Stories and Hidden Agendas: Early American Space and National Security Policy,” Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since the Soviet Satellite, ed. Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith (Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997), 162

8 Ibid, 1639 Ibid, 162-16510 Ibid, 16711 Ibid, 171-17212 Ibid, 17313 Ibid, 17314 Eilene Galloway “Organizing the United States

Government for Outer Space, 1957-1958,” Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since the Soviet Satellite, ed. Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith (Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997), 312-313

15 Testimony of Loftus E. Becker, Astronautics and Space Exploration, Hearings before the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, House of Representatives, 85th Cong., 2nd Sess., on H.R. 11881, April 15-May 12, 1958, pp.1269 et seq.; National Aeronautics and Space Act, Hearings before the Special Committee on Space and Astronautics, U.S. Senate 85th Cong., 2nd Sess., on S. 3609, May 6-15, 1958, pp.315 et seq. (reprinted in part in 38

Department of State Bulletin 962 (June 9, 1958)); Relative to the Establishment of Plans for the Peaceful Exploration of Outer Space, Hearing before the Subcommittee on National Security and Scientific Developments Affecting Foreign Policy of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, 85th Cong., 2nd Sess., on H. Con. Res. 326, May 20, 1958, pp. 23 et seq., quoted in O. J. Lissitzyn, “The American Position on Outer Space and Antarctica,” The American Journal of International Law 53, no. 1 (1959): 127

16 Ibid, 12717 Ibid, 126-12818 Day “Cover Stories and Hidden Agendas,” 18419 Galloway, “Organizing the United States

Government for Outer Space,” 30920 Galloway, “Organizing the United States

Government for Outer Space,” 31521 Ibid, 31522 Day, “Cover Stories and Hidden Agendas,” 18623 Galloway, “Organizing the United States

Government for Outer Space,” 31524 Callahan and Greenstein, “The Reluctant Racer,”

3725 Galloway, “Organizing the United States

Government for Outer Space,” 316-31726 Lyndon B. Johnson, Final Report of the Senate

Special Committee on Space and Astronautics, Pursuant to S. Res. 256 of the 85th Congress. 86th Congress, First Session, Senate Report No. 100. March 11, 1959 quoted in Galloway, “Organizing the United States Government for Outer Space,” 319

27 Ibid, 31928 Ibid, 32129 Day, “Cover Stories and Hidden Agendas,” 19030 Ibid, 19131 John C. McAdams, “Eisenhower’s Farewell

Address to the Nation,” http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/ike.htm

32 Roger D. Launius, “Kennedy’s Space Policy Reconsidered: A Post-Cold War Perspective,” Air Power History, (Winter 2003): 20

33 Michael R. Beschloss, “Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon,” Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership, ed. Roger D. Launius and Howard E. McCurdy (Urbana: Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 1997), 56

34 Ibid, 5635 Kennedy, John F. Memorandum for

Vice President. http://www.c-span.org/PresidentialLibraries/Content/Kennedy/JFK_LBJ_Space.pdf

36 Ibid, 57

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37 Ibid, 5738 Launius, “Kennedy’s Space Policy Reconsidered,”

2139 Ibid, 2140 Ibid, 22-2341 Ibid, 23 42 President’s Statement on the Convention of the

Law of the Sea, 18 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 887, 887 (July 9, 1982) quoted in Carlyle E. Maw, “The United States and the Law of the Sea after UNCLOS III,” Law and Contemporary Problems 46, no. 2 (1983): 56

43 Antonia Chayes, “How American Treaty Behavior Threatens National Security,” International Security 33, no. 1 (2008): 69

44 Ibid, 6945 James F. Lee. Star Wars: The Strategic Defense

Initiative. Ottawa: Library of Parliament, Research Branch. (1990): 1-6

46 James Clay Moltz, “The Past, Present, and Future of Space Security,” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 14, no. 1 (2007): 190

47 S. Rep. No. 164, 100th Cong., 1st sess. (1987); 133th Cong. Rec. S12,498 (daily ed. September 22, 1987); and 82 ICJ, p.151 quoted in Chayes, “How American Treaty Behavior Threatens National Security,” 70

48 Moltz, “The Past, Present, and Future of Space Security,” 190

49 Col. John E. Hyten, USAF, “A Sea of Peace or a Theater of War? Dealing with the Inevitable Conflict in Space,” Air & Space Power Journal, (Fall 2002): 81

50 Sami Fournier, “U.S. Test-Fires ‘MIRACLE’ at Satellite Reigniting ASAT Weapons Debate,” Arms Control Today 27, (October 1997)

51 Hyten, “A Sea of Peace or a Theater of War?” 8152 Eric Schmitt and Steven Lee Meyers, “Clinton

Lawyers Give a Go-Ahead to Missile Shield,” New York Times, June 15, 2000 quoted in Chayes, “How American Treaty Behavior Threatens National Security,” 70-71

53 Hyten, “A Sea of Peace or a Theater of War?” 7954 Moltz, “The Past, Present, and Future of Space

Security,” 19055 Ibid, 19156 Eric M. Javits, “A U.S. Perspective on Space,”

Future Security in Space: Commercial, Military and Arms Control Trade-Offs, ed. James Clay Moltz (Monterey, CA: Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 2002) 52, http://www.cns.miis.edu/pubs/opapers/op10/op10.pdg quoted in Moltz, “The Past, Present, and Future of Space Security,” 191

57 Ibid, 191

58 Joan Johnson-Freese, “The New U.S. Space Policy: A Turn Toward Militancy?” Issues in Science and Technology (Winter 2007): 33-34

59 Ibid, 33-3460 Ibid, 3461 Ibid, 33-3462 Ibid, 33-3463 Jeff Foust. “A Change in Tone in National

Space Policy.” The Space Review. Last modified July 6, 2010. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1660/1.

64 Ibid.65 Michael Bourbonniére and Ricky J. Lee, ‘Legality

of the Deployment of Conventional Weapons in Earth Orbit: Balancing Space Law and the Law of Armed Conflict,” The European Journal of International Law 18, no. 5 (2007): 876

66 Ibid, 87667 Ibid, 87868 Ibid, 87869 Koh, “On American Exemptionalism,” 149970 Chayes, “How American Treaty Behavior

Threatens National Security,” 4771 Koh, “On American Exceptionalism,” 150172 McAdams, “Eisenhower’s Farewell Address to

the Nation”73 Jack L. Goldsmith and Eric A. Posner. The

Limits of International Law. New York: Oxford University Press. (2005): 1-13.

74 Joyner, “Legal Implications of the Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind,” 198

75 Goldsmith and Posner. The Limits of International Law. 83-84.

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YEMEN: AL-QAEDA’S NEXT FORTRESS

TERRY RYDZFaculty Advisor: Peter Garretson1

Office of International Affairs & Department of History1

For many Americans, the United States’ war with Al-Qaeda began on September 11, 2001 and focuses

on the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, in the eyes of Al-Qaeda, the war against

the U.S. started nine years earlier in Yemen. Al-Qaeda has never lost sight of its strong connection to

Yemen and the U.S. has slowly learned a valuable lesson from this: Al-Qaeda in Yemen possesses an

equal, if not greater, direct threat to the U.S. and its allies than Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan or Pakistan

currently does. This paper examines the rise and evolution of Al-Qaeda in Yemen. Specifically, it

investigates the crumbling socio-economic and political conditions in south Yemen that have allowed

for Al-Qaeda to flourish there, and presents potential counter-terrorism policies the U.S. can take to

undermine the group’s ability to function globally or within Yemen itself.

Yemen (Figure 1) is quickly joining the ranks of Afghanistan

and Pakistan and may soon even surpass them as the renowned forefront in

the war against Al-Qaeda. For Al-Qaeda, Yemen is both its geo-political and

socio-economic strong hold. It is a country riddled with poverty, dominated

by tradition, and infused with social clashes, all of which Al-Qaeda contin-

ues to take advantage of to advance its agenda in both the nation and re-

gionally. This paper examines the rise and evolution of Al-Qaeda in Yemen.

Specifically, it investigates the crumbling socio-economic and political con-

ditions in south Yemen that have allowed for Al-Qaeda to flourish there, and

Pictured: William Hudson Rogers lecturing in 1954

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74 | THE OWL

presents potential counter-terrorism

policies the U.S. can take to under-

mine the group’s ability to function

globally or within Yemen itself.

Al-Qaeda’s ties to Yemen

In order to grasp the deep and

layered connection between Al-

Qaeda and Yemen, it is necessary

to first understand the role Yemen

plays to the foundations of Al-Qaeda

itself. Despite being born and raised

in Saudi Arabia, Osama Bin Laden’s

father and ancestry is Yemeni, from

the Hadramawt province in South

Yemen. It is a connection that Bin

Laden has never lost. In a 1998 in-

terview with Al-Jazeera, when asked

about Al-Qaeda’s links to Yemen,

Bin Laden replied, “In Yemen, we

have strong and old links, by the

grace of god Almighty, besides the

fact that my roots and my father’s

roots go back there” (Lawrence 88).

However, Al-Qaeda’s ties to

Yemen go beyond Bin Laden’s per-

sonal sentimental attachment. Ye-

men also plays an important strate-

gic role for Al-Qaeda. It is estimated

that Yemenis make up the third larg-

est contingent of all Al-Qaeda fight-

ers globally (186). Today, 40% of all

captured Al-Qaeda operatives who

are prisoners in Guantanamo Bay

are Yemeni (Boucek). This makes Ye-

men a natural resource of potential

new recruits to join the ranks of Al-

Qaeda. Furthermore, this indicates

that there is a substantial chunk of

Yemeni society that is sympathetic

to Al-Qaeda’s cause.

For an organization that takes

public pride in its victories, Yemen

has come to represent for Al-Qaeda

the place of some of the group’s earli-

est successes. In 1992, Al-Qaeda det-

onated a bomb meant to kill U.S. sol-

diers who had stopped in Aden on

their way to Somalia where the U.S.

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was leading a multinational U.N.

force. While no American soldiers

were hurt in the attack, Bin Laden

still viewed the attack as a success.

His reasoning behind this stems

from the U.S. reaction to the attack.

Within days of the bombs going off,

the U.S. presence in Yemen quickly

evaporated. Bin Laden took person-

nel pride in this and explained to

the newspaper The Daily Pakistan

that, “the United States wanted to

set up a military base for U.S. sol-

diers in Yemen so that it could send

fresh troops to Somalia…the United

States received our warning and gave

up the idea of setting up its military

bases in Yemen. This was the first

Al-Qaeda victory scored against the

Crusaders” (Anonymous 135). How-

ever, Al-Qaeda did not truly gain the

attention of the U.S. until 2000 with

its much larger, more sophisticated

successful attack on the U.S.S. Cole

(Figure 2), stationed in the Port of

Aden, which left 17 sailors dead. This

attack marked the first of a three-

stage war in Yemen between the U.S.

and Al-Qaeda (Gardner).

Stage One: A New Friend In Yemen

This first stage began in October

2000 with the attack on the Cole and

continued until 2003. According to

Greg Johnson, an expert on Al-Qae-

da in Yemen, these early years of the

U.S. war on terror are defined by a

high cooperation between the U.S.

and Yemen. Prior to this 2000 attack,

Al-Qaeda in Yemen operated large-

ly unchallenged and was primar-

ily a recruiting center for Al-Qaeda

(Boucek). Following the Cole attack,

the U.S. began to exert heavy pres-

sure on Yemeni President Saleh (Fig-

ure 3) to hunt down the perpetrators

of the attack. The Yemeni govern-

ment arrested five men, including

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Abu Jandal. Jandal was an Al-Qaeda

lieutenant and personal bodyguard

to Bin Laden (Heffelfinger 240). The

entire ordeal was a preview of what

was to come in the U.S.-Yemeni rela-

tions in dealing with Al-Qaeda.

Following the September 11th at-

tacks, Saleh visited Washington, D.C.

In a meeting with President George

W. Bush, Saleh assured Bush that the

U.S. had the full support of Yemen.

This was a shift in Saleh’s policies

that often turned a blind eye to Al-

Qaeda. Following the September 11

attacks, however, Saleh decided to

not make the same mistake he had in

the 1990 Gulf War. During the first

Gulf War, Saleh supported Saddam

Hussein. This led to the excommu-

nication of Yemeni migrant workers

across the Arabian Peninsula, spe-

cifically Saudi Arabia. This political

miscalculation was a heavy loss for

Yemen. Migrant workers had been

a lifeline in the Yemeni economy. It

is estimated that Saudi Arabia drove

out around 1 million Yemeni work-

ers (Kapiszewski). This situation de-

prived Yemen of some $3 billion in

foreign exchange. In addition, the

Saudis and several Gulf states ended

$2 billion in foreign aid to Yemen for

its support of Hussein who posed

a real and immediate threat to the

sovereignty of Saudi Arabia and the

Gulf States. As a result of these for-

eign aid cuts unemployment in Ye-

men reached 30% (Yemen Country).

Following Saleh’s Washing-

ton, D.C. visit, he began backing

his words with actions. He had any

and all known Al-Qaeda operatives

and affiliates in Yemen arrested. In

addition, Saleh worked closely with

U.S. intelligence officials by sharing

information acquired from captured

and interrogated operatives. This

U.S.-Yemeni attack on Al-Qaeda

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in Yemen pinnacled in 2002 with

the assassination of Al-Qaeda’s top

commander, Abu Ali al-Harithi, via

a U.S. drone attack (Boucek). His

replacement, Mohammed Hamdi

al-Ahdal, was also soon arrested.

With the elimination of Al-Qaeda’s

top two commanders in Yemen, and

increased intelligence reports that

showed that the majority of jihad-

ist in Yemen were leaving to fight in

Afghanistan and Iraq where tangible

American targets were located, the

U.S. and Yemeni officials came to be-

lieve that the war with Al-Qaeda in

Yemen was largely over (Boucek).

Stage Two: Reversal in Fortunes for Saleh

The second stage in the war on

Al-Qaeda in Yemen began in late

2003 with this view from U.S. gov-

ernment and Sanaa that Al-Qaeda

had been soundly defeated and had

collapsed under a lack of leadership;

this continued until 2005. During

this gap period, Yemen began to

reshift its focus and resources from

fighting Al-Qaeda to what Saleh

deemed the real threats to his gov-

ernment; a Houthi Rebellion in the

north (Boucek). (Houthis are a Shi-

ite minority found only in Yemen;

they are a minority in Yemen and

make continuous claims of govern-

ment oppression). Throughout this

gap year of quelling the rebellion,

however, Saleh suffered several ma-

jor setbacks.

In November 2005, Saleh visited

Washington, D.C. again. Saleh had

been expecting an increase in aid

from Bush in light of the successful

cooperation between U.S. and Ye-

men. Instead, during a meeting with

Bush, Saleh was informed that Ye-

men was to be completely removed

from the U.S. aid program. In addi-

tion, the following day, the World

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78 | THE OWL

Bank informed Saleh that it would

be cutting his aid by 66%. In two

days, Saleh lost $160 million in aid

(Boucek). Both Bush and the World

Bank accredited the cuts to rampant

corruption in Yemen. Adding to

Saleh’s problems was a continuing

decrease in oil revenue. Oil revenue

accounts for 25% of Yemen’s total

gross domestic product (GDP), ap-

proximately 70% of government rev-

enue, and more than 90% of foreign

exchange earnings. According to the

U.S. Energy Information Adminis-

tration’s Country Brief on Yemen, in

2001, oil production peaked at ap-

proximately 440,000 bbI/d (barrels

per day). According to Yemen’s Min-

istry of Oil and Minerals, oil produc-

tion in 2009 was projected at 290,000

bbI/d. (Country). This number is ex-

pected to continue decreasing every

year, and in 2017 oil production in

Yemen is expected to be no longer

economically feasible. Only adding

to these economic problems, it is ex-

pected that Yemen may soon be the

first nation in the world to run out of

clean drinking water (Boucek).

Saleh responded to this loss of

national income by implementing

governmental budget cuts. These

cuts have and continue to center on

the military and, more specifically,

South Yemen. The reason for this is

largely based on the fact that Saleh

himself is from North Yemen. Prior

to 1990, the nation of what is today

Yemen was two separate nations of

North and South Yemen. The deci-

sion for the two nations to unite

came almost solely from the discov-

ery of oil along the North South Bor-

der (Spencer 202-203). Saleh fired

many South Yemeni military officers

and has cut the pensions of those

who remain. Since taking office in

1990, Saleh has diverted the majority

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of profits away from the south and

towards the capitol in the North. In

an interview with the Christian Sci-

ence Monitor, a former colonel in

the Yemeni army told the reporter,

“Most of what we have is what the

British built when they were here.

We haven’t gained anything from

unification. I would rather have had

the British here for 400 years than be

ruled by Saleh” (Horton).

Stage Three: The Resurgence of Al-Qaeda

The third stage in the fight with

Al-Qaeda in Yemen began in 2006

with the prison break of twenty-

three high-ranking Al-Qaeda op-

eratives and continues to the pres-

ent. Of these original twenty-three,

only three remain at large. The rest

have either been captured or killed

since 2006. Astonishingly, the few

commanders that have survived

have been extremely successful at

revitalizing Al-Qaeda operations in

Yemen (Boucek). Many of the es-

capees had close ties to Bin Laden

himself and were experienced fight-

ers from Afghanistan. More impor-

tantly, however, this new group of

commanders has brought with it a

new ideology, pertaining to how Al-

Qaeda should be organized and con-

duct its operations.

The previous Al-Qaeda lead-

ers in Yemen had been organized

in a top-down, corporate-themed

hierarchy, similar to what existed in

Afghanistan. This new generation

of Al-Qaeda leaders in Yemen has

learned from past mistakes and re-

organized in Yemen. This reorgani-

zation focuses on the ability to have

increased mobility and flexibility in

case of leadership change were an

Al-Qaeda commander be killed or

captured (Boucek). This restructur-

ing has played a key role in making

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80 | THE OWL

Al-Qaeda in Yemen deadlier then

ever. It allows the group the unique

dual opportunity to plan strategic

operations requiring a high level of

coordination, or attack while on the

run.

In addition to this new lead-

ership structure, the political and

economic conditions in Yemen, spe-

cifically South Yemen, have changed

since 2003 when Al-Qaeda was last

organized. Since the early 1990s,

South Yemen has been an Al-Qa-

eda’s stronghold. However, recent

socio-economic developments in

South Yemen have left the south

deteriorating. These include as this

paper has shown, a continuing lack

of infrastructure development in

the south, disgruntled military of-

ficers, and increased job loss. These

factors are culminating in creating

an environment (specifically in the

Abyan, Lahij provinces and the city

of Aden) that views Al-Qaeda in an

ever more favorable light. Yemeni

dissatisfaction with the central gov-

ernment has erupted in mass street

protest. On January 27, 2011, 10,000

protestors took the streets in Sanaa,

Yemen’s capitol (Bakri). Saleh’s ini-

tial reaction to these rallies and calls

of secession has been to use gov-

ernment forces and police, firing a

mix of tear gas, rubber bullets, and

live ammunition into large crowds

(Police).

Al-Qaeda has taken full advan-

tage of this chaotic environment in

South Yemen. According to Greg

Johnson, Al-Qaeda has painted a

narrative amongst South Yemenis’,

in which the corrupt pro-west cen-

tral government under Saleh and

the U.S. cannot and will not cater

to the South’s needs. Al-Qaeda has

and is continuing to make a com-

pelling case where Islamic Law and

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Al-Qaeda are the answer to South

Yemen’s problem (Boucek).

Deadlier Than Ever: the New Al-Qaeda Demonstrates Their

Ambitions

With this new ideology, leader-

ship, and fresh recruits, Al-Qaeda

in Yemen has once again become a

potent force. Since the 2006 prison

break, there have been attacks on

oil and gas facilities in Yemen. In

2007, the chief criminal investiga-

tor in Yemen was assassinated and a

suicide bomber killed several Span-

ish tourists. A year later, Al-Qaeda

detonated two car bombs outside of

the American Embassy, killing ten

people (Knickmeyer).

In January 2009, Al-Qaeda

branches in Saudi Arabia and Ye-

men united to form a regional block

known as Al-Qaeda in the Arabian

Peninsula (AQAP) (Figure 5) (No-

vak). This region-wide branch had

been an Al-Qaeda goal since the

1990s when Bin Laden suggested

the creation of a “Gulf Battalion”

(Gunaratna 188). Yet this new re-

gional group seems to have minimal

influence coming from Bin Laden;

rather they are being spearheaded

by Sheikh Anwar al Awlaki (Figure

4). Awlaki is an American-born Ye-

meni who was recruited for Al-Qa-

eda in the early 1990s. In addition

to being the group’s spiritual leader,

Awlaki has utilized the Internet as a

means to take his preachings global.

What makes Awlaki stand out from

other jihadists who have also tried

to use the Internet to spread their

ideology is that Awlaki specifically

speaks in English. This allows him

to reach a wider audience in the

United States and England and help

foster the growth and development

of domestic terrorists. For this, Aw-

laki has been extremely successful.

Awlaki’s tapes and recordings were

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82 | THE OWL

found to have influenced Al-Qaeda

agents involved in the 7/7 London

Bombings, Toronto 18, Fort Dix

Plot, Virginia Jihad Network, and

Fort Hood shooting (Zimmerman).

It was AQAP and Awlaki that were

responsible for the notorious, failed

Christmas Day 2009 attack by Umar

Farouk Abdulmutallab (Figure 6)

(Bernstein). AQAP and Awlaki have

also been found responsible for the

October 2010 placing of bombs

aboard cargo planes destined for

Chicago (Temple-Raston). This

organization has also been excep-

tionally active in Yemen itself. In the

second half of 2010 alone, AQAP

took responsibility for 49 attacks

against Yemeni security forces and

foreign targets (AQAP).

The U.S. Response

The U.S. has not taken these

incidents lightly. Recently, the U.S.

increased the number of Special

Forces in Yemen to over 200 and has

become more aggressive in its use of

predator drones (Dreazen). The

U.S. has reversed its aid cuts to Ye-

men, and has recently been giving

Yemen $170 million in military aid

and may soon be giving $250 million

(Porges). It is also important to note

that President Barack Obama has

approved Awlaki’s name be put on a

CIA hit list (despite his status as an

American citizen), by which he is to

be targeted by missile attack from a

predator drone (Ross). The reason for

the specific attention on Awlaki ver-

sus other AQAP leaders is because as

Attorney General Eric Holder stated

in a press conference, “He [Awlaki]

would be on the same list with Bin

Laden, he’s up there. I don’t know

whether he’s one, two, three, four -- I

don’t know. But he’s certainly on the

list of the people who worry me the

most” (Sheridan).

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In response to this new and

dominant threat from AQAP, the

U.S, Yemeni, and Saudi governments

have acted thus far as a unified front.

In March 2010, Saudi forces made

sweeping arrests across the coun-

try, arresting 113 AQAP militants,

including two suicide bomb teams.

Some of the militants captured had

been planning attacks on energy and

security facilities within the King-

dom (Healy). The Yemeni govern-

ment has taken credit for several air

raids on AQAP. On March 14, it was

reported that a Yemen air raid killed

two top Al-Qaeda commanders in

South Yemen (Johnston).

Paulo Coelho once wrote, “Ev-

erything that happens once can

never happen again. But everything

that happens twice will surely hap-

pen a third time” (184). Al-Qaeda

has twice now emerged as a domi-

nant force within Yemen and will

most likely continue to assert itself

there. While the U.S. continues to

hunt down Al-Qaeda leadership

from the air and provide funding

and training to Yemen, the ques-

tion that still looms over American

and Yemeni leadership is, will it be

enough? There is a real and valid fear

that Yemen could become a mix be-

tween a failed state like Somalia and

an Al-Qaeda-controlled entity like

Afghanistan used to be. If Yemen

were to fall into a state of chaos, the

United States’ ability to intervene or

have an influence against Al-Qaeda

would be greatly limited. This would

represent an immediate threat to the

U.S. and many of its allies. Accord-

ing to John Brennan, assistant to the

president for homeland security and

counterterrorism, AQAP, in its pres-

ent state, already constitutes a “great-

er threat to Americans than Osama

bin Laden’s group based in Pakistan”

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84 | THE OWL

(Shaughnessy). It is for this reason

that AQAP cannot be allowed the

opportunity to exert greater influ-

ence and control in Yemen.

If the central Yemeni govern-

ment under Saleh were to fall, the

U.S. could not directly intervene

on the ground as it has in the past.

Such an action would only unite the

country, provide greater strength

to the narrative that Al-Qaeda has

been painting, and make a combus-

tible situation worse. For example, in

January 2010, a World summit com-

posed of 21 nations was held in Lon-

don to discuss all possibilities in how

to handle Al-Qaeda in Yemen (UK).

Initially, it was rumored that there

were talks about the possibility of

sending troops, either multinational

or U.N. peacekeeping, into South Ye-

men. However, days before the con-

ference, 150 of Yemen’s most influ-

ential clerics held their own summit

and were united in signing a state-

ment that read, “In the event of any

foreign party insisting on hostilities

against, an assault on, or military

or security intervention in Yemen,

then Islam requires all its followers

to pursue jihad” (Yemen ‘must resist

foreign forces’).

It is for this reason that the U.S.

must continue to enhance its efforts

of supporting the Central Yemeni

government under Saleh, and do

everything and anything to prevent

Al-Qaeda from flourishing in Ye-

men. Yet conventional counterter-

rorism policies may not be enough

to stop AQAP. Awlaki and AQAP

have been able to succeed in South

Yemen up to this point not because

they are smarter, better equipped, or

more influential than other terrorist

organizations or leaders. Rather the

foundations of their success lay in

their ability to harness the sympathy

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and support of the local communi-

ties that harbor them. Support for

Al-Qaeda in Yemen has always ex-

isted and most likely will continue.

However, there is a fundamental

difference between Yemenites leav-

ing the country to join the ranks of

Al-Qaeda, and Al-Qaeda having its

headquarters in Yemen.

The Future of Yemen

It is important to note that hope

is not totally lost for Yemen. The

majority of the protest and anger by

South Yemenites against the central

government is not because of an al-

liance to Al-Qaeda, rather it is the

opposite. Their support of Al-Qaeda

has developed out of frustration with

a corrupt, inefficient, and authori-

tative central government under

Saleh that has left those in the south

looking for any alternative they can

find. Following the Tunisian upris-

ing that led to the toppling of the

government, Yemen, like Egypt and

Jordan, has seen massive street pro-

test. While these protests have been

calling for Saleh to step down from

power, the protest leaders have re-

cently began to take a different ap-

proach. The reasoning for this is

two-fold. First, Saleh has, as a means

of calming the protests, promised to

not run again in the next election

and to not have his son take power

after him. Second, according to pro-

test leaders like Hassan Zaid, who

is the general secretary of the Haq

opposition political party, there is a

real fear that Yemen could fall into a

state of turmoil and violence similar

to that in the failed state of Somali

(Cummins). There is also a deep

concern by many opposition leaders

like Khaled Alanesi, a high-ranking

member of the National Organiza-

tion for Defending Rights and Free-

dom, who was one of the organizers

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86 | THE OWL

of the protests, that “The opposition

is afraid of what would happen if the

regime falls. Afraid of the militant

groups, Al Qaeda, the tribes and all

the arms here” (Bakri). This men-

tality demonstrates that there is a

substantial and important chunk of

Yemeni society that, while opposed

to the government, is moderate and

trying to avoid violence and more

importantly a Yemen controlled by

Al-Qaeda. These leaders, above all

else, are demanding greater equality,

redistribution of wealth, and sweep-

ing political and economic reforms.

It is for this reason that the current

Yemeni central government policies

of continued budget cuts and use

of force to quell the popular anger

are flawed at their core. Rather, this

paper is arguing that the U.S., sur-

rounding Gulf States, and Saudi Ara-

bia should utilize the power of the

purse to encourage Saleh to institute

economic and political reforms as

well as engage with southern lead-

ers by directly bringing them into

government. This is a street fight for

the hearts and minds of the people

of Yemen and it cannot be won by a

drone in the sky.

Possible U.S. Counter-Terrorism Actions

For its part, the U.S. must con-

tinue to disrupt AQAP operations

as much as possible. Yet this cannot

be limited in scope to foiling attacks.

For as AQAP has shown that even

failed attempts, like the Christmas

bomb and the Cargo plane bombs,

are twisted and marketed as victo-

ries from which they expand their

support. The U.S. should expand its

counter-terrorist operations to fight

AQAP and, more specifically, Aw-

laki via the Web. As this paper has

shown, Awlaki has taken full advan-

tage of the Web to influence terrorist

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cells globally. The U.S. must not al-

low Awlaki to continue to utilize the

Internet in this fashion. It is the opin-

ion of this paper that, in light of the

failure of U.S. and coalition forces to

kill Bin Laden, capturing or killing

Awlaki will be just as difficult if not

harder since the U.S. has very limit-

ed forces on the ground in Yemen. It

is for this reason that the U.S. should

place more emphasis on hindering

Awlaki’s ability to reach Jihadists

around the world via the Web. While

the U.S. government has already be-

gun to work with YouTube to have

Awlaki’s videos removed, the results

have been mixed. There is an essen-

tial problem with this cyber coun-

ter-terrorism approach the U.S. is

taking. These videos usually first get

online via file sharing sites to Jihadi

Web forums; from there, the videos

are uploaded to YouTube for wider

consumption. What this amounts

to is that even in the event that the

videos are removed from YouTube,

they can easily be and usually are re-

uploaded by a different source back

on YouTube (Ungerleider). In addi-

tion, the U.S. government’s approach

in this cyber counter terrorism has

had too narrow a focus on YouTube.

According to a report from the 304th

Military intelligence Battalion, Al-

Qaeda has also become adept at us-

ing social networking sites, such as

Twitter, to plan and carry out attacks.

According to the report, Twitter is

being used by Al-Qaeda in three sce-

narios. First, one individual or group

of terrorists use Twitter to report re-

al-time information to comrades on

enemy troops movement, location,

and numbers, so an ambush can

be rapidly planned and executed.

Second, a two-man terrorist team

planning an attack with a remotely

controlled bomb uses Twitter via a

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88 | THE OWL

mobile device to send information

to a comrade holding the detonator

with real-time information of the

perfect time to detonate the bomb

for maximum casualties. Third, Al-

Qaeda operatives exploit Twitter

by following posts from enemy sol-

diers. This information would even-

tually be used for hacking, identity

theft, and even physical abduction

(Penenberg). For this reason, this

paper is arguing that more must by

done to disrupt and hinder Al-Qa-

eda via the Web. This should be ac-

complished via hacking into known

Al-Qaeda websites and forums, dis-

torting information presented, add-

ing false information, presenting

erratic ideology, and using social

networking sites to provide false in-

formation on U.S. troop movements

and operations. By interfering with

this cyber supply line from Awlaki,

the U.S. would be disrupting links

to his support groups, and decreas-

ing the appeal of Al-Qaeda to the

pool of potential terrorist recruits.

In addition, this strategy would help

prevent the ever-growing concern of

domestic terrorism.

Conclusion

Al-Qaeda in Yemen is an orga-

nization defined by ambition and

relentlessness, intelligence and ruth-

lessness, flexibility, and adaption.

Al-Qaeda has already shown it will

not abandon its position in Yemen

without a fight. It is a fight in which,

to this point, it has been exception-

ally successful. This is because in

the eyes of Al-Qaeda, Yemen, un-

like many other places, is a sym-

bolic home. However, despite all its

success, Al-Qaeda cannot yet claim

victory in Yemen. Nor will it as long

as the U.S. has the conviction to be

unyielding in its attack on Al-Qaeda.

Thus, while Al-Qaeda views Yemen

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as their next great fortress, for the

U.S., Yemen represents an opportu-

nity to make Yemen Al-Qaeda’s final

great fortress.

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Zimmerman, Katherine. “Militant Islam’s Global Preacher: The Radicalizing Effect of Sheikh Anwar al Awlaki.” Center for Defensive Studies. 12 March 2010. American Enterprise Institute January 8, 2011 <http://www.criticalthreats.org/yemen/militant-islams-global-preacher-radicalizing-effect-sheikh-anwar-al-awlaki>.

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APPENDIX

Figure 1. Yemen (CIA World Factbook)

Figure 2. U.S.S. Cole after Attack (Slater)

Figure 3. President Saleh of Yemen (Nagpal) Figure 4. Anwar al-Awlaki (Sacks)

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Figure 5. Founders of Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (Soloman)

Figure 6. Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab aka the Christmas Day Bomber (Maquand).

92 | THE OWL

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Regarding the Watch You Gave Me

The wrist wants what the wrist wants, & what the wrist wants is snap

& follow-through—some indication that there is intention behind scoliotic

rhythm, synchopated vein-strums, jazz. As if to be stretched over the drum

of a bass amp would be a better fate, as if a knife weren’t a knife & a vein

weren’t a vein—as if bleeding weren’tbleeding but singing, & together they

were operas, that, instead of sung werewhispered into the ear of a child, a boy

who constructs a watch out of oakbark. In plain Italian, he etches: there arethings you can never know & things thatdisappear in the snow, even when timegusts in with the first thaw of spring.

Jesse Damiani

As a symbol of wisdom, the owl is an animal surrounded by in-

trigue. The piercing eyes of the nocturnal owl enable it to search for prey

amidst the cover of darkness.

Given this quality of discernment, it is no surprise that the owl became

the principle emblem for the seal of the West Florida Seminary. Founded in

1851, as the precursor of Florida State University, West Florida Seminary

utilized the seal of the owl until 1901.

Florida State’s only undergraduate research journal, entitled The Owl,

unites the historical foundations and modern experiences of our university.

The sparks from this exciting fusion of tradition and innovation inspired

our selection for the name and image of The Owl.

THE NAMING OF THE OWL

Pictured: Robert Frost, poet, visits Florida State College of Women in 1941

As an artist, I find that I am very interested in relationships, but par-

ticularly the relationships between humans and nature. In today’s fast-paced

society, more often than not, humans seem to take on skewed perspectives

regarding their connectedness with the natural world.

Most humans claim a “natural” or “organic” ancestry, however, when

describing nature, tend to portray it as “untouched by humans.” I found this

contradiction to be especially interesting.

Another aspect of my work involves rediscovering medical and botani-

cal prints from antique books. I represent these lost images in a digital for-

mat, which reflects the striking relationship that our digital society has with

the physical text.

My goal is to take information, both of man and nature, and blur the

lines so that the first glance of an image might conform to our expectations

either of man or nature. Upon further inspection, I want the observer to dis-

cover that my works are hybrid images, combining elements of both. I hope

to provide a different perspective and show the viewer the connectedness

that we share with the natural world. 

ARTIST STATEMENTDANIELLE DELPH

96 | THE OWL

ARTIST STATEMENTDANIELLE DELPH

The Florida State Undergraduate Research Journal (FSURJ) spotlights

the remarkable research and creative works being produced by passionate

undergraduate students at Florida State University. Devoted to exhibiting

the results of intellectual curiosity at the undergraduate level, The Owl ac-

centuates the capacity of Florida State students from all undergraduate dis-

ciplines to acquire the finest education in the country.

Launched under the vision and direction of Dr. D. Craig Filar and Dr.

Cathy Levenson in the academic year 2009-2010, the first Student Council

for Undergraduate Research and Creativity consisted of ten members: Jer-

emy Bary, Lindsey Davis, Travis Eales, Brian Jirout, Vincent “Vinnie” La-

Barbera, David Mari, Kyle Mauk, Marlee McCleary, Gustavo Munoz, and

Patrice Williams. Hoping to inspire and motivate fellow undergraduates to

pursue research, the first council laid the groundwork for an undergradu-

ate research journal. Crafting a vision for the organization and establishing

submission guidelines, the first council, then, selected new members in the

spring of 2010.

Both Dr. Filar and Dr. Levenson accepted new responsibilities at Flor-

ida State University, allowing Dr. Alec Kercheval and Dr. Kristal Moore

Clemons to fill the positions of director and associate director for the Office

of Undergraduate Research, respectively. The second council consisted of

twelve new and old members: Nowrin Alam, Aviram “Avi” Assidon, William

Philip Boyce, Sean Ennis, Vincent “Vinnie” LaBarbera, David Mari,

A CONCISE HISTORY OF SCURC

Christopher Matechik, Chelsea Morgan, Tarreq Noori, Stephen Pape, Ekat-

erina “Katie” Rybakova, Lauren Terpak, and Patrice C. Williams. Securing

sponsorship and financial backing from FSU’s Student Government Asso-

ciation, under the patronage of Dustin Daniels, the council initiated the pro-

cess of crafting Florida State’s only undergraduate research journal, ex nihilo.

In the fall of 2010, the Student Council for Undergraduate Research

and Creativity issued a call for manuscripts. From the considerable num-

ber of submissions, five undergraduate research papers were chosen for the

journal’s inaugural edition, along with several poems and works of art. The

Owl presents the Florida State University community with a cross-section

of compelling works from the Humanities, Social Sciences, and STEM (Sci-

ence, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) through a printed and

electronic journal.

Named The Owl, after the original seal employed from 1851 to 1901 by

West Florida Seminary, the journal is anchored in the history of our institu-

tion, but showcases our beloved university’s brightest minds of today, with

a sharp eye to the future. The Owl encompasses the research and creative

works of undergraduates from all disciplines.

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JEREMY BARYLINDSEY DAVISTRAVIS EALESBRIAN JIROUT

VINCENT LABARBERADAVID MARIKYLE MAUK

MARLEE McCLEARYGUSTAVO MUNOZ

PATRICE C. WILLIAMS

FOUNDING MEMBERS OF SCURC2009 - 2010

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Nowrin Alam

David Mari

Aviram Assidon

Tarreq Noori

Lauren Terpak

William Philip Boyce

Stephen Pape

Patrice C. Williams

Vincent Labarbera

Ekaterina Rybakova

EDITORIAL BOARD & SCURC MEMBERS 2010 - 2011

Members not pictured: Sean Ennis, Chelsea Morgan, and Shannen Winfield

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FSU SPECIAL COLLECTIONSHERITAGE PROTOCOL

FSU PHOTO LABMALCOLM SHACKELFORD

GANDY PRINTERSSTEPHANIE M. ANDRE

OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCHDR. ALEC KERCHEVAL

DR. KRISTAL MOORE CLEMONSDR. CATHY LEVENSON

DR. D. CRAIG FILAR

THIS IS A STUDENT GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION PUBLICATION

NOTES

Do I dare / Disturb the universe? T.S. Eliot (1888 - 1965)

NOTES

MEET THE COUNCIL

NOWRIN ALAM • AVIRAM ASSIDON

WILLIAM PHILIP BOYCE

SEAN ENNIS • VINCENT LABARBERA

DAVID MARI • CHRISTOPHER MATECHIK

C H E L S E A M O R G A N

TARREQ NOORI • STEPHEN PAPE

EKATERINA RYBAKOVA • LAUREN TAPEK

PATRICE C. WILLIAMS • SHANNEN WINFIELD