Theory Essentials: An Integrated Approach to Harmony… · THEORY ESSENTIALS An Integrated Approach to Harmony, Ear Training, and Keyboard Skills Connie E. Mayfield Cerritos College

THEORY ESSENTIALS

THEORY ESSENTIALS An Integrated Approach to Harmony, Ear Training, and Keyboard Skills

Connie E. Mayfield Cerritos College

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Theory Essentials: An Integrated Approach to

Harmony, Ear Training, and Keyboard Skills,

Second Edition

Connie E. Mayfield

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Table of Contents Preface x

Musical Examples xii

Tables xviii

CHAPTER 1 The Basics of Reading Music Theoretical Skills 1

Definition of Theory 1, Music Notation 1, Naming Notes 3, The Grand Staff and Ledger Lines 5, Octave Identification 7, Half and Whole Steps 7, Accidentals 8, Enharmonic Names 10, Music Manuscript 1 1 , Music for Analysis 1 2

Aural Skills 13 Melody 13, Rhythm 13, Pulse and Meter 14, Rhythms for Practice 16

Keyboard Applications 17

CHAPTER 2 Major Scales and Key Signatures Theoretical Skills 18

Tonality 18, Major Scales 18, Introduction to Intervals 20, Key Signatures with Sharps 21, Key Signatures with Flats 23, Identifying Keys and Key Signatures 25, Music for Analysis 27

Aural Skills 29 Melody 29, Rhythm 31, Rests 32, Dots and Ties 33, Rhythms for Practice 35

Keyboard Applications 36 Looking Ahead 37

CHAPTER 3 Intervals Theoretical Skills 38

Intervals 38, Intervals of the Major Scale 39, Minor Intervals 41, Altering Perfect Intervals 42, Altering Major and Minor Intervals 43, Inversion of Intervals 45, Creating Descending Intervals 47, Compound Intervals 48, Music for Analysis 49

Aural Skills 50 Melody 50, Intervals 50, Rhythm 51, Upbeats 53, Dotted Quarter Notes in f Time 53, Rhythms for Practice 55


CHAPTER 4 Minor Scales and Key Signatures Theoretical Skills 57

Relative Key Signatures 57, Determining Keys 59, Natural Minor Scales 60, Other Forms of the Minor Scale 61, Parallel Key Relationships 63, Scale Degree Names 64, Music for Analysis 65

Aural Skills 67 Melody 67, Rhythm 69, Rhythms for Practice 71


CHAPTER 5 Triads and Figured Bass Theoretical Skills 73

Chords and Triads 73, Qualities of Triads 7 4, Identifying Triad Qualities 79, Inversion of Triads 80, Figured Bass 81 , Music for Analysis 84

Aural Skills 85 Minor Scales 85, Melody 85, Intervals 86, Syncopation 87, Rhythms for Practice 88


Looking Ahead 90

CHAPTER 6 The Basics of Diatonic Harmony Theoretical Skills 91

Diatonic Triads in Major Keys 91, Roman Numeral Analysis in Major Keys 92, Diatonic Triads in Minor Keys 93, Roman Numeral Analysis in Minor Keys 94, Authentic Cadences and Root Movement by Filth 95, Diatonic Progressions in Major Keys 97, Diatonic Progressions in Minor Keys 97, Music for Analysis 1 00


Keyboard Applications 1 05

CHAPTER 7 Part Writing with Root-Position Chords

Theoretical Skills 106 Introduction to Four-Voice Harmony 1 06, Motion between Voices 107, Doubling and Structure 108, Vocal Ranges 1 12, Part Writing with Repeated Chords 112, Additional Part-Writing Considerations 115, Music for Analysis 1 1 8

Aural Skills 119 Melody 119, Chords 120, Rhythm 121, Rhythms for Practice 123

Keyboard Applications 124 II

II I Table of Contents

CHAPTER 8 Root Movement by Fifth Theoretical Skills 125

Part Writing with Root Movement by Filth 125, Half Cadences 1 30, The Subdominant Chord 1 31, Music for Analysis 1 35

Aural Skills 136 Melody 136, Chords 1 36, Rhythms for Practice 1 37, Introduction to Two-Part Rhythms 138, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 1 39


Looking Ahead 141

CHAPTER 9 Root Movement by Second Theoretical Skills 142

Part Writing with Root Movement by Second 142, Deceptive Cadences 146, Irregular Doubling in Deceptive Cadences 148, Music for Analysis 150

Aural Skills 151 Melody 151, Chords 152, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 152


CHAPTER 10 Root Movement by Third and Other Progressions

Theoretical Skills 155 Part Writing with Root Movement by Third 155, The Subtonic Triad 157, Truncated Progressions 157, Retrogressions 159, Music for Analysis 161

Aural Skills 163 Melody 163, Chords 164, Rhythms for Practice 165


CHAPTER 11 Second-Inversion Chords Theoretical Skills 167

Triads in Second Inversion 167, Cadential Six-Four Chords 167, Additional Uses for Cadential Six-Four Chords 170, Passing Six-Four Chords 171, Pedal Six-Four Chords 172, Arpeggiated Six-Four Chords 173, Music for Analysis 17 4

Aural Skills 176 Melody 176, Chords 176, Rhythm 177, Rhythms for Practice 179


CHAPTER 12 First-Inversion Chords Theoretical Skills 181

Triads in First Inversion 181, Neutral Structure 185, Other Structures 1 89, Music for Analysis 191

Aural Skills 192 Melody 192, Chords 192, Rhythms for Practice 194


CHAPTER 13 The Leading-Tone Triad and Other First-Inversion Practices

Theoretical Skills 196 The Leading-Tone Triad 196, Imperfect Authentic Cadences 198, Consecutive First- Inversion Triads 199, Music for Analysis 204

Aural Skills 205 Melody 205, Chords 206, Harmony 206, Rhythms for Practice 207


CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Simple Nonharmonic Tones

Theoretical Skills 209 Nonharmonic Tones 209, Passing Tones 209, Neighbor Tones 211, Changing Tones 214, Music for Analysis 215

Aural Skills 217 Melody 217, Harmony 218, Rhythm 218, Rhythms for Practice 220


CHAPTER 1 S Appoggiaturas, Escape Tones, and Pedal Tones

Theoretical Skills 222 Appoggiaturas 222, Escape Tones 223, Pedal Tones 224, Music for Analysis 226

Aural Skills 227 Alto Clef 227, Harmony 228, Rhythms for Practice 228


CHAPTER 16 Suspensions, Retardations, and Anticipations

Theoretical Skills 231 Suspensions 231, Retardations 235, Anticipations 236, Review of Nonharmonic Tones 237, Music for Analysis 239

Aural Skills 240 Alto Clef 240, Harmony 241, Rhythm 241, Rhythms for Practice 242


CHAPTER 17 Introduction to Seventh Chords Theoretical Skills 244

Seventh Chords 244, Inversion of Seventh Chords 246, Diatonic Seventh Chords in Major Keys 249, Diatonic Seventh Chords in Minor Keys 250, Structure in Seventh Chords 251, Music for Analysis 253

Aural Skills 255 Alto Clef 255, Harmony 256, Rhythms for Practice 256, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 257


CHAPTER 18 Dominant and Leading-Tone Seventh Chords

Theoretical Skills 260 The Dominant Seventh Chord 260, Part-Writing Considerations 261 , The Leading-Tone Seventh Chord 263, Music for Analysis 268

Aural Skills 269 Melody 269, Chords 270, Rhythms lor Practice 271, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 272


Looking Ahead 27 4

CHAPTER 19 Additional Seventh Chords Theoretical Skills 275

The Supertonic Seventh Chord 275, The Subdominant Seventh Chord 276, The Median! and Submedian! Seventh Chords 277, Ninth and Thirteenth Chords 278, Music lor Analysis 281

Aural Skills 283 Tenor Clef 283, Harmony 284, Rhythm 284, Rhythms lor Practice 285


CHAPTER 20 Diatonic Modulation Theoretical Skills 288

Introduction to Modulation 288, Closely Related Keys 289, Finding Common Chords 290, Diatonic Modulation 292, Establishing a Key 293, Part Writing Diatonic Modulations 295, Music for Analysis 297

Aural Skills 298 Melody 298, Rhythms lor Practice 299, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 300


CHAPTER 21 Introduction to Secondary Dominants

Theoretical Skills 302 Review of Dominant-Type Chords 302, Resolution of Dominant-Type Chords 302, Tonicization and Chromatic Chords 304, Secondary Dominants 306, Music for Analysis 308

Aural Skills 31 0 Solfege lor Altered Tones 31 0, Rhythm 31 1, Rhythms for Practice 31 2


Table of Contents I II CHAPTER 22 Secondary Dominants of the

Dominant Theoretical Skills 315

Introduction to Secondary Dominants of the Dominant 315, Altered Scale Degrees 317, Position in the Chord Progression 318, Voice-Leading Considerations 320, Music for Analysis 322

Aural Skills 323 Intervals 323, Melody 323, Chords 324, Harmony 324, Rhythms for Practice 325, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 326


CHAPTER 23 Secondary Dominants of the Supertonic and Subdominant

Theoretical Skills 328 Introduction to Secondary Dominants of the Supertonic and the Subdominant 328, Altered Scale Degrees 331, Progressions and Voice Leading 333, Music lor Analysis 337

Aural Skills 339 Intervals 339, Melody 339, Chords 340, Harmony 340, Rhythm 341 , Rhythms for Practice 342


CHAPTER 24 Secondary Dominants of the Mediant and Submediant

Theoretical Skills 344 Introduction to Secondary Dominants of the Median! and Submedian! 344, Altered Scale Degrees 346, Progressions and Voice Leading 348, Secondary Dominant Sequence 350, Music for Analysis 353

Aural Skills 355 Intervals 355, Melody 355, Chords 356, Harmony 356, Rhythms for Practice 357


CHAPTER 25 Chromatic Modulation Theoretical Skills 359

Modulation Using Secondary Dominants 359, Method 1 360, Method 2 362, Method 3 363, Music lor Analysis 365

Aural Skills 368 Melody 368, Harmony 369, Rhythm 370, Rhythms lor Practice 371


II I Table of Contents

CHAPTER 26 Borrowed Chords Theoretical Skills 373

Mode Mixture 373, Altered Scale Degrees and Chord Qualities 37 4, Borrowed Supertonic and Subdominant Chords 375, Borrowed Submedian! Chords 377, Borrowed Leading-Tone Seventh Chords 378, Music for Analysis 380

Aural Skills 381 Intervals 381, Melodies 381, Chords 382, Harmony 382, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 383


CHAPTER 27 Neapolitan Triads and Other Altered Chords

Theoretical Skills 385 The Neapolitan Triad 385, Progressions and Voice Leading 388, Chromatic Augmented Triads 389, Minor Dominants 392, Music for Analysis 393

Aural Skills 394 Intervals 394, Chords 394, Harmony 395, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 396


CHAPTER 28 Additional Modulation Techniques Theoretical Skills 398

Modulation Using Mode Mixture 398, Modulation Using Neapolitan Triads 401, Modulation by Common Tone 402, Music for Analysis 404



CHAPTER 29 Introduction to Augmented Sixth Chords

Theoretical Skills 411 Augmented Sixth Chords 411, Identifying Augmented Sixth Chords 413, Music for Analysis 416

Aural Skills 417 Intervals 417, Melodies 417, Chords 418, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 41 8


CHAPTER 30 Augmented Sixth Chords in Context Theoretical Skills 421

Augmented Sixth Chord Types 421, Voice Leading in Augmented Sixth Chords 425, The Enharmonic German Sixth 428, Music for Analysis 430

Aural Skills 432 Chords 432, Harmony 432, Rhythm 433, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 434


CHAPTER 31 Enharmonic Modulation with German Sixths

Theoretical Skills 437 Introduction to Enharmonic Modulation 437 Aural Properties of the German Sixth Chord '437, Modulation Using V7 and the German Sixth 438, Modulation Using Secondary Dominants 441, Music for Analysis 444

Aural Skills 446 Melody 446, Harmony 447, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 448


CHAPTER 32 Enharmonic Modulation with Fully Diminished Seventh Chords

Theoretical Skills 450 Symmetrical Properties of the Fully Diminished Seventh Chord 450, Enharmonic Modulation with vii07

Chords 454, Enharmonic Common-Tone Modulation 458 Music for Analysis 459 '



CHAPTER 33 Introduction to Modes Theoretical Skills 466

Overview of Modes 466, The Modes in the Middle Ages 466, The Modes in the Renaissance 469, The Modes in the Twentieth Century 470, Constructing the Modes 470, Modal Harmony 47 4, Music for Analysis 475

Aural Skills 477 Singing Modes 477, Melody 478, Rhythm 479, Rhythms for Practice 480


CHAPTER 34 Impressionist Techniques Theoretical Skills 482

Impressionism 482, Parallelism 482, The Modes in Impressionism 484, Other Scales 486, Music for Analysis 489



CHAPTER 35 Jazz Theory Theoretical Skills 496

Introduction to Jazz Concepts 496, Scales and Modes 496, Additional Scales 498, Jazz Harmony 500, Tritone Substitution 502, Music for Analysis 504

Aural Skills 505 Harmony 505, Rhythm 506, Rhythms for Practice 507


CHAPTER 36 Techniques of Nontonal Music Theoretical Skills 509

Atonality 509, The Octatonic Scale 509, Other Scales 512, Pandiatonicism 513, Other Compositional Techniques 514, Music for Analysis 517

Aural Skills 518 Fixed-Do Solfege 518, Melody 519, Rhythm 519, Rhythms for Practice 521


CHAPTER 37 Nontertian Harmonic Techniques Theoretical Skills 523

Quartal Harmony 523, Secunda! Harmony, Clusters, and Other Interval Music 525, Microtones and Sound Mass 527, Music for Analysis 530



CHAPTER 38 Pitch Class Set Theory Theoretical Skills 535

Introduction to Set Theory 535, Naming Sets 537, Inversion of Sets 539, Interval Vectors 540, Music for Analysis 542



CHAPTER 39 Serialism Theoretical Skills 548

Twelve-Tone Technique 548, The Tone Row 549, The Matrix 551, Analyzing Twelve-Tone Music 553, Music for Analysis 556

Aural Skills 557 Melody 557, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 558


Table of Contents I II CHAPTER 40 Avant-Garde and Electronic Music Theoretical Skills 560

The Avant-Garde Period 560, Indeterminacy and Aleatoric Music 560, New Systems of Notation 566, A History of Electronic Instruments 566, Electronic and Electroacoustic Music 568, Music for Analysis 572

Aural Skills 573 Melody 573, Two-Part Rhythms for Practice 57 4


Composer Index 577

Index 581

II

Preface The second edition of Theory Essentials differs in some respects from the first edition, but the primary intent of the book remains unchanged. Just like the first edition, this textbook is intended to be user-friendly and easy to read. If you are starting your musical studies without an extensive background reading and performing music, this book will assist you to develop a firm foundation in music fundamentals so that you can move on to the more complicated study of theory. For those who already read music and understand some components of theory, you will discover new ideas and concepts as you read.

Theory Essentials combines all of the elements of a typical two-year college music theory curriculum. These include fundamentals, harmony, analysis, ear training, and keyboard harmony. Although you may be enrolled in separate courses for some of these subjects, they are essentially varied applications of the same topics.The book provides regular evaluations of your progress called Practice Boxes. These appear in the text after the presentation of each major concept. You can judge your own progress and understanding by completing these exercises. If everything in a Practice Box is easy and makes sense, you can be confident of your mastery of that topic. If not, read the text again and ask questions.

The second edition of Theory Essentials is now published as a combined, single volume versus the two volumes of the first edition. The shorter length of the second edition is balanced by the accompanying Web site that supports both students and instructors with ancillary materials that are not included in the print version. For example, sidebars in each chapter point to supplementary Web materials. All of the dictation exercises that were originally included in the print edition now appear on the Web site. This will allow students an opportunity to practice their dictation skills outside of class and to repeat exercises as much as needed to attain mastery. In addition, the Web site will include audio versions of the examples in the book and answer keys for the Practice Boxes, items that formerly appear with the print edition.

The second edition is organized into forty comprehensive chapters. Chapters 1-5 cover the fundamentals of reading music, scales, key signature, intervals, and chords. The study of tonal music fills Chapters 6-32. The chapters on tonal music are further divided into diatonic harmony (Chapters 6-20) and chromatic harmony (Chapters 21-32). The final chapters of the book cover modal music (from the Middle Ages to the present), jazz, and contemporary music (from the twentieth century to the present). Each chapter contains three elements: theoretical skills, aural skills, and keyboard applications. The elements of each section are coordinated with the chapter, so that as you study seventh chords, for example, you will also be singing them and playing them at the keyboard. Each chapter also includes an anthology of musical examples for analysis.

The study of music theory is a rite of passage for all music majors. Mastery of the subject matter is a cumulative process. Every piece of information is necessary to understand the next concept. All serious musicians should embrace the study of music theory because it combines abstract and intellectual thought processes with the practical realities of musical performance. Music theory will increase your understanding of and appreciation for the art that you love, and I hope that this book will inspire you to enjoy your studies.

Acknowledgments

Many aspects of my life have changed since I wrote the first edition of 1heory Essentials. Seven years ago I became a Dean at Cerritos College in California, and now I teach classes only occasionally. My interactions with students are more apt to be related to enrollment issues rather than musical ones. However, my appreciation for students has not lessened; on the contrary, it has deepened. I now understand so many more of the challenges that they face than I did when I was in the classroom full time, and I find that I have a deeper understanding of the unswerving dedication and optimism that they bring to their studies.

Instead of dedicating this new edition only to my own students, I want to acknowledge all the students, from many walks of life and pursuing a wide variety of majors including music, who have touched my life. You constantly inspire me, not only to be a better musician and writer, but also to be a better person, leader, mentor, and teacher.

I also want to acknowledge the inspiration I receive every day from my colleagues at Cerritos College. I have never experienced such a wonderful community of people, and it is a privilege to work at this institution. As I prepared this edition, my colleagues gave me help, support, and encouragement as I juggled my writing commitment with my role as an administrator.

Two colleagues from my former institution, Kansas City Kansas Community College, also deserve special mention. Dr. Ian Corbett provided expert technical assistance in recording the audio files for the book, and Jim Mair provided the voice-over introductions for the audio. I remain in their debt for the help they provided.

In the years between the first and second editions, I studied with one of the premiere writing coaches in southern California, Mike Sirota. He gave me a crash course on becoming a better writer, really a six-month boot camp. He is one of the toughest (and kindest) critics I've ever worked with, but I learned more from him about writing than I ever believed possible. Thanks, Mike.

My publisher, Clark Baxter, has been instrumental in the success of this book, and I am grateful for all the great advice and guidance that he has provided through the years. I also want to thank the staff at Cengage Learning who worked with me through the process of developing the print and Web components of the second edition. A special thanks goes to everyone at A-R Editions who brought their enormous talent to bear on making this edition excellent on every level. In particular, I wish to acknowledge the contributions of three people. Ann Peter served as the A-R Editions Project Manager, coordinating all aspects of the production, including vast amounts of email correspondence. She truly kept everyone on the same page, both literally and figuratively. Ellen Fast did a brilliant job copyediting the book and helped me make better sense out of everything I wrote. Lastly, Graham Lee typeset the book and managed to place every small detail on the page while still maintaining the beauty of the design. I am in their debt.

Finally, I want to thank my parents for providing me with every opportunity for success in life. It is a disappointment to me that, since passing away several years ago, my father will not be here to see the second edition of this textbook. My mother, who came to live with me in California two years ago, has given me moral support and many neck massages as I sat hunched over a computer for the last year. Mom, I couldn't have done this without your help.

Preface I II

II

Musical Examples Example 1.1 Example 2.1 Example 2.2 Example 3.1

Example 4.1 Example 4.2 Example 4.3 Example 4.4 Example 4.5 Example 5.1 Example 6.1 Example 6.2 Example 6.3 Example 7.1

Example 7.2 Example 7.3 Example 8.1 Example 8.2 Example 8.3

Example 8.4 Example 8.5

Example 8.6 Example 9.1

Example 9.2

Example 9.3

Example 9.4 Example 9.5 Example 9.6 Example 10.1 Example 10.2 Example 10.3 Example 10.4 Example 10.5 Example 10.6 Example 10.7 Example 10.8

Johann Sebastian Bach, little Prelude, BWV 924

Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, Minuet in G Major, mm. 13-20 Cecile Chaminade, "The Silver Ring," mm. 63-73

Bela Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book VI, no. 140, "Free Variations," mm. 14-24

John Henry Hopkins, Jr., "We Three Kings of Orient Are," mm. 1-8

Ludwig van Beethoven, Sonatina no. 5, 1st movement, mm. 61-71 J. S. Bach, Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach, Polonaise, mm. 10-16

Johannes Brahms, Hungarian Dance no. 5, mm. 95-104

Franz Schubert, Waltz, op. 9, no. 3, mm. 1-8

Arcangelo Corelli, Sonata I, op. 6, Largo, mm. 15-18

Richard Wagner, Lohengrin, "Wedding March," mm. 29-36 Muzio Clementi, Sonatina, op. 36, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4

Friedrich Kuhlau, Sonata, op. 20, no. 2, 3rd movement, mm. 1-4

William Kethe (attr.), "All People That on Earth Do Dwell" (Old 1 OOth), mm. 1-6 William Owen, "Look, Ye Saints! The Sight Is Glorious," mm. 1-4

William Havergal, "Lamp of Our Feet," mm. 1-4

J. S. Bach, "Des neugeborne Kindelein," mm. 13-16

Fanny Hensel, Three Heine Duets, no. 2, mm. 39-47 Robert Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, op. 26, 3rd movement, mm. 68-74

Frederic Chopin, Grande valse brillante, op. 34, no. 1, mm. 17-20 Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, Variations on "Ah, vous dirai-je, Moman," mm. 1-5

Schubert, Waltz, op. 9, no. 3, mm. 1-8

R. Schumann, Album for the Young, "little Romance," op. 68, no. 19, mm. 1-4

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 1st movement, mm. 208-13

Mozart, The Magic Flute, Act II, no. 17, "Ach, ich fiihl's, es ist verschwunden," mm. 25-27

R. Schumann, Papillons, op. 2, no. 7, mm. 1-4 Felix Mendelssohn, "Aibumblatt," op. 117, mm. 1-7

J. S. Bach, "An wasserfliissen Babylon," mm. 1-2 Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, op. 19, no. 6, mm. 1-7

J. S. Bach, "Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist," mm. 1-2

Brahms, Klavierstiicke, op. 118, no. 2, mm. 36-38 J. S. Bach, "Herzlich lieb hab' ich dich, 0 Herr," mm. 1-2 J. S. Bach, "Nun lob', mein Seel', den Herren," mm. 1-4

lan Corbett, "Check-In To Go"

Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 333, 1st movement, mm. 1-4 R. Schumann, Album for the Young, "The Poor Orphan," op. 68, no. 6, mm. 1-8

Example 10.9 Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart, "Blue Moon," mm. 1-5

Example 10.10 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 2nd movement, mm. 1-2

Example 11.1 Schubert, Moment Musical, op. 94, no. 3, mm. 8-10 Example 11.2 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 2, no. 3, mm. 66-68

Example 11.3 J. S. Bach, Partite V in G Major, Praeambulum, mm. 1-4

Example 11.4 Mozart, Sonata for Violin and Piano, K. 306, 2nd movement, mm. 10-13

Example 11.5 R. Schumann, Album for the Young, "The Wild Horseman," op. 68, no. 8, mm. 1-4

Example 11.6 R. Schumann, Faschingsschwank aus Wien, op. 26, 1st movement, mm. 252-61

Example 11.7 Johann Christian Bach, Sonata, op. 5, no. 1, 1st movement, mm. 17-22

Example 12.1 Beethoven, Sonatina in F Minor, WoO 47, no. 2, 3rd movement, mm. 18-25

Example 12.2 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 284, 3rd movement, mm. 1-5

Example 12.3 R. Schumann, Album for the Young, "Roundelay" op. 68, no. 22, mm. 1-3

Example 12.4 George Frideric Handel, Messiah, "And the Glory of the Lord," mm. 11-17

Example 13. 1

Example 13.2 Example 13.3 Example 13.4 Example 14. 1 Example 14.2

Example 14.3 Example 14.4 Example 14.5 Example 14.6 Example 14.7 Example 14.8

Example 15. 1 Example 15.2 Example 15.3 Example 15.4


Example 16. 1 Example 16.2 Example 16.3 Example 16.4 Example 16.5 Example 16.6 Example 16.7 Example 16.8 Example 16.9 Example 17.1 Example 17.2

R. Schumann, Album for the Young, "Sizilianisch," op. 68, no. 11, mm. 1-4

J. S. Bach, Erhalt' uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort, mm. 1-2 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 280, 1st movement, mm. 131-38

Haydn, Piano Sonata no. 38, Hob. XVI/24, 2nd movement, mm. 1-5 Mozart, Viennese Sonatina no. 5, 2nd movement, mm. 70-74

Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 81 a, ("Les adieux"), 2nd movement, mm. 77-81

Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 333, 1st movement, mm. 1-4

Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 79, 3rd movement, mm. 1-8

Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 576, 1st movement, mm. 1-4 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 3rd movement, mm. 1-6

Beethoven, Sonatina in C, WoO 51, 1st movement, mm. 9-13 Gioacchino Rossini, The Barber of Seville, "Largo al factotum," mm. 1-15


Schubert, Adagio and Rondo, op. 145, mm. 23-27 R. Schumann, Carnaval, "Eusebius," op. 9, no. 5, mm. 1-4 Pyotr llyich Tchaikovsky, Album for the Young, "ltalienisches Liedchen," op. 39, no. 15, mm. 1-8 Brahms, Waltz, op. 39, no. 1, mm. 1-4

Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 330, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4


Beethoven, Sonatina in F, WoO 50, 1st movement, mm. 1-4 Chaminade, Danse pastorale (Air de ballet, no. 5}, op. 37, no. 5, mm. 28-33

Johann Christoph Bach, "Wir glauben all' an einem Gott," mm. 20-23 J. C. F. Bach, Menuet in A Major, mm. 1-4

J. S. Bach, "0 wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen," mm. 1-3

J. S. Bach, "Von Gott will ich nicht lassen," mm. 3-4 R. Schumann, Carnaval, "Chiarina," op. 9, no. 11, mm. 1-8

J. C. Bach, Sonata, op. 5, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 71-7 4

Handel, Judas Maccabaeus, Part Ill, no. 53, Introduction, mm. 1-7 Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, op. 30, no. 4, mm. 1-10

Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 311, 2nd movement, mm. 1-11 Dave Brubeck, "Going to Sleep," mm. 1-4

Brubeck, "Pick Up Sticks," mm. 30-35

Musical Examples I II

II I Musical Examples

Example 18.1 Tchaikovsky, Album for the Young, "Neapolitan Dance-Tune," op. 39, no. 18, mm. 1-11

Example 18.2 Haydn, Piano Sonata no. 38, Hob. XVI/23, 2nd movement, mm. 1-3

Example 18.3 Beethoven, Sonatina in E-flat, WoO 47, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4 Example 18.4 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 457, 1st movement, mm. 1-8 Example 18.5 Amy Beach, "The Year's at the Spring," mm. 1-6

Example 18.6 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. 1, mm. 1-4 Example 18.7 R. Schumann, Papillons, op. 2, no. 6, mm. 1-4

Example 18.8 Mozart, Piano Concerto, K. 467, 1st movement, mm. 1-8

Example 18.9 R. Schumann, Carnaval, "Chiarina," op. 9, no. 11, mm. 1-4 Example 19.1 R. Schumann, Intermezzo, op. 4, no. 4, m. 1

Example 19.2 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 31, no. 3, 3rd movement, mm. 1-8

Example 19.3 J. S. Bach, "0 Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort," mm. 1-2 Example 19.4 Mendelssohn, Kinderstiicke, op. 72, no. 1, mm. 1-8

Example 19.5 J. S. Bach, "0 Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort," mm. 3-4

Example 19.6 R. Schumann, Papillons, op. 2, no. 6, mm. 18-24 Example 19.7 Chopin, Ballade in F Major, op. 38, mm. 41-46

Example 19.8 R. Schumann, Kinderszenen, "Traumerei," op. 15, no. 7, mm. 1-4

Example 19.9 Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, op. 19, no. 4, mm. 5-9 Example 19.10 Beach, Ariette, mm. 1-16

Example 20.1 Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, op. 38, no. 2, mm. 1-5

Example 20.2 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 331, 2nd movement, mm. 49-60 Example 21.1 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 49, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 1-8

Example 21.2 Haydn, String Quartet, op. 7 4, no. 3, 2nd movement, mm. 1-7

Example 22.1 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. 3, mm. 1-8 Example 22.2 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. 4, mm. 1-4

Example 22.3 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 331, 1st movement, mm. 9-13

Example 22.4 Beethoven, Sonatina, Anh. 5, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4 Example 22.5 Mendelssohn, Rondo Capriccioso, op. 14, mm. 1-4

Example 22.6 Mozart, Piano Concerto, K. 271, 1st movement, mm. 11-16

Example 22.7 Schubert, Drei Klavierstiicke, D. 946, no. 2, mm. 112-16

Example 23.1 Schubert, March in E Major, D. 606, mm. 1-4 Example 23.2 Mendelssohn, Songs without Words, op. 53, no. 1, mm. 3-6

Example 23.3 R. Schumann, Blumenstiick, op. 19, mm. 1-5 Example 23.4 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 1st movement, mm. 1-5

Example 23.5 Schubert, Moment Musical, op. 94, no. 3, mm. 1-1 0 Example 23.6 R. Schumann, Kinderszenen, "Am Kamin," op. 15, no. 8, mm. 1-4

Example 23.7 Hensel, Four Songs for the Piano, op. 6, no. 2, mm. 1-5

Example 23.8 Clara Schumann, Soirees Musicales, "Toccatina," op. 6, no. 1, mm. 1-8 Example 23.9 Chaminade, Minuetto, op. 23, mm. 5-16


Example 24.1 R. Schumann, Kinderszenen, "Wichtige Begebenheit," op.15, no. 6, mm. 1-4

Example 24.2 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 10, no. 3, 4th movement, mm. 5-7

Example 24.3 Schubert, Andante in A Major, D. 604, mm. 1-4 Example 24.4 Mendelssohn, A Midsummer Night's Dream, "Wedding March," op. 61,

no. 9, mm. 54-58

Example 24.5 R. Schumann, Papillons, op. 2, no. 10, mm. 25-30

Example 24.6 Tchaikovsky, Album for the Young, "Morning Prayer," op. 39, no. 1, mm. 1-9

Example 24.7 Schubert, Zwei Scherzi, D. 593, no. 2, mm. 1-14


Example 24.9 Example 25.1 Example 25.2 Example 25.3 Example 25.4 Example 25.5 Example 25.6 Example 25.7 Example 25.8

Tchaikovsky, Piano Concerto no. 1, op. 23, 1st movement, mm. 15-24 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 14, no. 2, 1st movement, mm. 11-17

R. Schumann, Piano Concerto, op. 54, 3rd movement, mm. 9-15

Mendelssohn, Kinderstiicke, op. 72, no. 6, mm. 7-14 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 27, no. 2, 3rd movement, mm. 15-23

Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 31, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 13-16

R. Schumann, Symphonic Etudes, op. 13, mm. 1-8 R. Schumann, Papillons, op. 2, no. 4, mm. 34-49

R. Schumann, Kinderszenen, "Der Dichter spricht," op. 15, no. 13, mm. 13-20

Example 26.1 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. 4, mm. 87-104

Example 26.2 Tchaikovsky, Album for the Young, "Sweet Reveries," op. 39, no. 21, mm. 1-6

Example 26.3 R. Schumann, Intermezzo, op. 4, no. 4, mm. 7-9

Example 26.4 R. Schumann, Carnaval, "Valse noble," op. 9, no. 4, mm. 1-4

Example 26.5 R. Schumann, Carnaval, "Reconnaissance," op. 9, no. 14, mm. 1-8 Example 26.6 Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp Minor, op. posth., mm. 55-64

Example 27.1 Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp Minor, op. posth., mm. 12-20

Example 27.2 Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 20, mm. 1-4 Example 27.3 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 31, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 5-8

Example 27.4 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 31, no. 2, 2nd movement, mm. 59-65

Example 27.5 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 2nd movement, mm. 5-6 Example 27.6 C. Schumann, Soirees Musicales, "Notturno," op. 6, no. 2, mm. 1-7

Example 27.7 Chaminade, Arabesque No. 1, op. 61, mm. 1-4

Example 27.8 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 27, no. 2 ("Moonlight"), 1st movement, mm. 1-5

Example 28.1 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 332, 2nd movement, mm. 1-6

Example 28.2 Brahms, Ballade, op. 118, no. 3, mm. 32-43 Example 28.3 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 31, no. 1, 2nd movement, mm. 31-41

Example 28.4 Mozart, Don Giovanni, "Madamina, il catalogo e questa," mm. 124-36 Example 28.5 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 90, no. 2, mm. 21-32

Example 29.1 Mozart, Fantasy inC Minor, K. 475, mm. 1-2

Example 29.2 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 78, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4

Example 29.3 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 81 a, ("Les adieux"), 1st movement, mm. 1-4

Example 29.4 Haydn, String Quartet, op. 76, no. 2, 4th movement, mm. 139-49

Example 29.5 Hensel, Two Pieces for Cello and Piano," Fantasia in G minor," mm. 7-10

Example 30.1 Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp Minor, op. posth., mm. 1-4

Example 30.2 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 109, 3rd movement, mm. 1-8

Example 30.3 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 57, 2nd movement, mm. 1-8 Example 30.4 R. Schumann, Davidsbundlertanze, op. 6, no. 1, mm. 6-18

Example 30.5 Mozart, Piano Sonata, K. 284, 1st movement, mm. 11-19 Example 30.6 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 53, 2nd movement, mm. 1-9

Example 31.1 Mozart, Fantasy in C Minor, K. 475, mm. 18-25 Example 31.2 Beethoven, Andante favori, WoO 57, mm. 17-26

Example 31.3 Chopin, Nocturne, op. 27, no. 1, mm. 46-52

Example 31.4 Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 79, 2nd movement, mm. 18-22

Example 31.5 Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. 4, mm. 181-89

Example 31.6 Chopin, Nocturne, op. 9, no. 1, mm. 42-48 Example 32.1 Chopin, Mazurka, op. 7, no. 4, mm. 33-40

Example 32.2 Chopin, Nocturne, op. 9, no. 1, mm. 48-50


II I Musical Examples

Example 32.3 Example 32.4 Example 32.5 Example 32.6 Example 33.1 Example 33.2 Example 33.3 Example 33.4 Example 33.5 Example 33.6 Example 34.1 Example 34.2

Beach, Ballade, op. 6, mm. 89-92 Schubert, Waltz, op. 9, no. 14, mm. 13-21

Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 2, no. 2, 4th movement, mm. 137-48

Chopin, Mazurka, op. 17, no. 3, mm. 37-51 "Spiritus Domini" (Liber Usualis, p. 878)

Agnus Dei Ill (Liber Usualis, p. 25) "Dies irae," 1st section (Liber Usualis, p. 181 0)

Hildegard of Bingen, "0 pastor animarum," 1st section

Kyrie IV (Liber Usualis, p. 25) "Puer notus est nobis" (Liber Usualis, p. 408)

Claude Debussy, Preludes, Book I, "La cathedrale engloutie," mm. 62-68

Debussy, Preludes, Book II, "La terrasse des audiences du clair de lune," mm. 25-27

Example 34.3 Debussy, L'isle joyeuse, mm. 67-70

Example 34.4 Maurice Ravel, Jeux d'eau, mm. 1-3

Example 34.5 Debussy, Trois chansons, no. 1, mm. 1-4 Example 34.6 Debussy, Preludes, Book I, "Voiles," mm. 1-5

Example 34.7 Debussy, Estampes, "Jardins sous Ia pluie," mm. 56-59

Example 34.8 Debussy, Estampes, "Pagodes," mm. 1-6 Example 34.9 Debussy, Preludes, Book I, "lessons et les parfums tournent dans I' air du

soir," mm. 35-36

Example 34.10 Debussy, Preludes, Book I, "La fille aux cheveux de lin," mm. 24-28 Example 34.11 Ravel, Sonatina, 1st movement, mm. 1-5

Example 35.1 Mike Metheny, "Attitude Blues"

Example 35.2 George Gershwin, Girl Crazy, "I Got Rhythm," mm. 27-34 Example 35.3 Joseph Kosma and Johnny Mercer, "Autumn leaves," mm. 1-8 Example 35.4 Duke Ellington, "In a Sentimental Mood," mm. 1-8

Example 36.1 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book IV, no. 101, "Diminished Fifth," mm. 1-11 Example 36.2 Igor Stravinsky, Petrushka, 2nd Tableau, mm. 9-15

Example 36.3 Stravinsky, Petrushka, 1st Tableau, "Dense russe," mm. 1-8

Example 36.4 Samuel Barber, Excursions, no. 3, mm. 1-4 Example 36.5 Pierre Boulez, Structures Ia, mm. 3-6

Example 36.6 William Schuman, Three-Score Set, 2nd movement, mm. 1-4

Example 36.7 Alberto Ginastera, Danzas argentinas, "Danza del viejo boyero," mm. 7-14

Example 36.8 Stravinsky, Symphony of Psalms, 1st movement, mm. 1-8

Example 36.9 Stravinsky, Petrushka, 1st Tableau, mm. 42-49 Example 36.10 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book VI, no. 140, "Free Variations," mm. 52-56

Example 37.1 Ernst Krenek, Piano Piece, op. 39, no. 5, mm. 1-8

Example 37.2 Paul Hindemith, Six Chansons (1939), "A Swan," mm. 1-5

Example 37.3 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book VI, no. 144, "Minor Seconds, Major


Sevenths," mm. 1-6

Charles lves, Concord Sonata, "Hawthorne," 94th system

Henry Cowell, Tiger (1928), mm. 73-77 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book V, no. 135, "Perpetuum Mobile," mm. 1-4

Bartok, Violin Concerto no. 2 (1938), 1st movement, mm. 303-8 Krzysztof Penderecki, Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima, final page of score

Example 37.9 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book VI, no. 146, "Ostinato," mm. 5-12

Example 37.10 Cowell, Advertisement, mm. 59-63 Example 38.1 Bartok, Fifteen Hungarian Peasant Songs, no. 1, mm. 1-6

Example 38.2 Aaron Copland, Piano Sonata, 2nd movement, mm. 54-58

Example 38.3 Arnold Schoenberg, Drei Klavierstiicke, op. 11, no. 1, mm. 1-5 Example 38.4 Schoenberg, Drei Klavierstiicke, op. 11, no. 2, mm. 9-13

Example 38.5 Bartok, Mikrokosmos, Book IV, no. 115, "Bulgarian Rhythm," mm. 1-12

Example 39.1 Schoenberg, Suite for Piano, "Intermezzo," op. 25, mm. 1-3 Example 39.2 Luigi Dallapiccola, Quaderno musicale di Annalibera, no. 1, "Simbolo,"

mm. 1-6

Example 39.3 Schoenberg, Wind Quintet, op. 26, 1st movement, mm. 1-7

Example 39.4. Dallapiccola, Quaderno musicale di Annalibera, no. 1, "Simbolo," mm. 1-17

Example 39.5 Schoenberg, Suite for Piano, "Gigue," op. 25, mm. 1-8

Example 40.1 John Cage, Music of Changes, 4th movement, mm. 15-21

Example 40.2 Mark Applebaum, 56 1/2 ft: A Labyrinth for Chamber Orchestra, mm. 33-37

Example 40.3 Tom Johnson, Celestial Music for Imaginary Trumpets, 197 4

Example 40.4 Cathy Berberian, Stripsody, 1966, page 9 Example 40.5 Tom lopez, Espaces Pointilles, mm. 1-1 0

Example 40.6 lopez, Espaces Pointilles, mm. 45-53

Example 40.7 Mike McFerron, lntermedio 2


Tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20

Table 21 Table 22 Table 23 Table 24 Table 25 Table 26 Table 27 Table 28 Table 29 Table 30 Table 31 Table 32 Table 33 Table 34 Table 35 Table 36 Table 37 Table 38 Table 39 Table 40 Table 41

Dates and names of major style periods of music history

Explanation of the bottom number of various time signatures

Sharps used in major key signatures

Flats used in major key signatures

Size of intervals in relationship to staff lines and spaces

Relationships between qualities of intervals

Inversions for all interval sizes

Inversions for all interval qualities

Simple meters

Scale degree names

Triad qualities and component interval qualities

Figured-bass symbols for triads

Circle of fifths chord progressions

Compound meters

Chord substitutions in the circle of fifths progression

Nonharmonic tones

Figured-bass symbols for suspensions

Nonharmonic tones with their patterns of approach and resolution

Figured-bass abbreviations for 7th chords

Included and omitted chord tones for four-part harmony using 9th and 13th chords

Diatonic chords in C major and A minor

Common chords between C major and A minor

Dominant-type chords

Dominant-type chords and resolutions

Possible chords of resolution for secondary dominants

Chromatic solfege for common altered tones

Standard altered tones for secondary dominants

Altered tones used in borrowed chords

Common chords through modal modulation

Altered tones and their associated chromatic chords

Possible functions of a single vii07 chord

All possible notes of resolution from spellings of the B-D-F-AI> chord

Beaming rhythmic groups in common time

Comparison of modes with known scales

Key signature alterations for the modes

Beaming rhythmic groups in! and ! time

Beaming rhythmic groups in g time

Jazz chord qualities and symbols

List of pitch class sets with Forte numbers

Numerical representation of intervals

Interval equivalence

The Basics of Reading Music

I Definition of Theory Music theory is the study of patterns and formulas that make up musical languages. It is also a study of the way in which those patterns and formulas are put together to create real music. It is called theory because, although the patterns and formulas are predefined, the manner in which they can be used together is as varied as any composer cares to make it.

In the study of music theory, as indicated by the definition above, the starting place is to understand the building blocks. One must be able to read music, know how to write it on paper, and know most of the basic formulas such as scales, intervals, and chords. Then the student of theory is ready to look at real music and study how all the various elements can be combined and how they are related to one another.

Western music has been recorded on paper since about the ninth century. Almost as soon as musicians developed a way to notate musical sounds, they also began to write about music. They speculated about the way in which the elements were put together to create certain effects, they wondered why it worked the way it did, and they pondered what formulas made the music good (or bad). People who write about music in this manner are called theorists. Theorists have been trying to explain music from the ninth century right up to the present day. The styles of music have changed, but the desire to explain music has always been present among curious musicians.

This textbook is primarily concerned with the study of tonal music, which is often called music of the Common Practice Period. This span of music history includes three major style periods, roughly covering the years 1600-1900. Table 1 shows a time line that will help you understand where this time fits into the larger picture of music history. Can you name any of the composers who lived during these time periods?

Music Notation The most basic symbol of musical sound is called a note. Its shape is simply an oval, as shown in Figure 1.1. This symbol tells a performer to make one musical sound, such as striking any key on the piano one time. Several notes written one after the other tell the performer to make successive sounds.

0 0 0

Notes can have lines, called stems, attached to them. Flags may be attached to the stems, and the oval can also be shaded black. These alterations in the appearance of notes are shown in Figure 1.2. A change in the appearance of a note affects the duration of its sound.

r

TABLE 1. Dates and names of major style periods of music history.

450-1450 Middle Ages

1450-1600 Renaissance

1600-1750 Baroque*

1750-1820 Classical*

1820-1900 Romantic*

1900-present Contemporary

*denotes Common Practice Period (1600-1900)

WEB CHAPTER 1 >- Composers from each style period

Figure 1.1. Oval note shapes

WEB CHAPTER 1 >- Medieval and Renaissance notafion

Figure 1.2. Notes with stems, flags, and shaded note heads a

II CHAPTER 1 I The Basics of Reading Music

Figure 1.3. Staff

Figure 1.4. Line and space notes on a staff

Figure 1.5.

0

line note

The musical alphabet on the piano keyboard

Figure 1.6. A regular dock compared to a "musical" dock

The note alone gives us little information about the musical sound that is to be created. The note must also indicate two other aspects of musical sound: pitch and rhythm.

Pitch is the aspect of sound that distinguishes high sounds from low sounds. If you play piano keys at the far right side of the keyboard, you will hear high sounds. Keys played at the extreme left side will result in low sounds. Even when two white keys side by side on the keyboard are played, it is possible to distinguish which one is higher.

A staff (Figure 1.3) is a graphic symbol used to distinguish high notes from low ones. It is a series of five horizontal parallel lines and can be thought of as a musical ladder. Just as each rung of a ladder takes the climber one step higher or lower, the placement of notes on the staff lines takes the pitch higher or lower. (Note: The plural of staff is staves.)

Notes can be placed on a staff in only two ways, on a line and between two lines. These are called, respectively, line notes and space notes. As you can see in Figure 1.4, the direction of notes is easy to discern as they are read from left to right. Notes that climb toward the top of the staff become higher in pitch; those that move toward the bottom become lower in pitch.

I) 0 C) 0 I) C) 0 II 0 C) C)

space ascending mofion descending mofion note (geffing higher in pitch) (geffing lower in pitch)

Musical sounds are named using the letters A through G of the alphabet. These seven letters are called the musical alphabet. On a full-size piano keyboard, the key that is farthest to the left is A. The key to its right is B, the next is C, and so on. Mter using each letter of the musical alphabet, the names start over with A again. Therefore, there are many As on the piano, many Bs, and so on. See Figure 1.5.

left edge of on acoustic piano keyboard

When thinking of the musical alphabet and the manner in which the seven letters repeat, it is helpful to think in terms of a clock. When you think of a clock's face, it seems normal that the numbers "12" and "1" are side by side. Similarly, on the musical clock (See Figure 1.6), the letters G and A are next to each other. Going up in pitch signifies that you are going clockwise around the musical clock. Going down in pitch signifies counterclockwise motion.

It is important that you be able to say the musical alphabet backward as easily as you can say it forward. One way to practice this is to build it up a letter at a time. Repeat C-B-A several times. Then repeat D-C-B-A several times, then E-D-C-B-A, and so on until it becomes easy.

Naming Notes

When you refer to a specific sound such as the lowest A on the piano keyboard, you are referring to a single pitch. When you discuss all of the As on the keyboard, you are referring to a pitch class.The term pitch class is a collective term that associates together all the musical sounds that bear a single name. The pitch C that is closest to the center of the piano keyboard is known as middle C.

In order to give specific pitches to the notes placed on a staff, another type of symbol is used. It is called a clef sign. There are several different types of clef signs. Each type is named using a letter of the musical alphabet. They are C clef, F clef, and G de£ In addition, all of the clef signs have nicknames, which are commonly used in place of their proper names. These clefs are pictured in Figure 1.7.

liB C clef

olto clef F clef

boss clef G clef

treble clef

All clefs are moveable (up or down) on the staff, although the only clef that is typically moved is the C clef (Figure 1.8). When a clef is moved, it is given a different nickname.

liB liB liB olto clef tenor clef mezzo·soprono clef

The clef sign is used to place one specific pitch on the staff. On the staves in Figure 1.8, the line that is touched by the center of the clef is given the name C. In fact, it is not just any C, but specifically middle C. Therefore, depending on whether an alto, tenor, or mezzo-soprano clef is used, the middle C could be placed on any of the middle three lines of the staff.

The most commonly used clefs are the G clef, or treble clef, and the F clef, or bass clef. All clefs give their real names to one line of the staff(see Figure 1.9). So the treble clef gives its real name, G, to a specific line, the second line from the bottom. This is the staff line that intersects the most times with the curving clef symbol. Likewise, the bass clef gives its real name, F, to the second line from the top. Notice the two dots that call attention to this staffline.

This note is nomad G.

This note is nomad F.

It is important to notice which G and which F these notes represent. They do not stand for just any G or F, but specifically the G that is five notes up from middle C and the F that is five notes down from middle C.

1heoretical Skills II

Figure 1.7. Clefs

Figure 1.8. C clefs

Figure 1.9. Clefs give their names to a staff line


Figure 1.1 0. Naming adjacent notes on the staff

Figure 1.11. Naming treble· and bass-clef notes

WEB CHAPTER I

D

0

~ Note-naming practice for treble and boss clefs

~ Note-naming practice for C clefs

If you know the name of one note on a staff, it is easy to name all the others. A line note and a space note that touch the same line of the staff always represent two adjacent letters of the musical alphabet and also represent white keys of the piano that are side by side. Therefore, in Figure 1.10, the space notes represent the pitches immediately below and above the given line note in the center. Their names are the letters of the alphabet before and after the name of the given line note.

~ 9= I) 0 I)

II 0 I)

G A F G

Adjacent letters of the alphabet are always represented by one line note and one space note. In other words, ifF is a space note, the G next to it on the piano keyboard must be a line note. IfF is a line note, G must be a space note. Figure 1.11 shows how it is possible to use this principle to name all notes on the treble- and bass-clef staves. The letter name in bold is the name provided by the clef sign.

II

I) 0 0

0 I) 0

0 II 0

G A B c D G

C) 0 0

0 II 0 II

0 II 0

G A B D F G A B

If you know one letter name, it is possible to figure out any other name by working forward or backward in the musical alphabet (clockwise or counterclockwise on the musical clock). With practice, you should soon be able to easily name any note on the staff just by glancing at it. Alternatively, you may choose to use the following mnemonic devices. (These are just a few of the many word phrases that can be used.)

The names of the four space notes on the treble staff spell a word: F A C E

The names of the five line notes on the treble staff can be identified this way: E-very G-ood B-oy D-oes F-ine

The names of the four space notes on the bass staff can be identified this way: A-ll C-ows E-at G-rass

The names of the five line notes on the bass staff can be identified this way: G-ood B-urritos D-on't F-all A-part

PRACTICE BOX 1. 1 Name the following notes.

., 0

0 0

0 .,

0 I) II C) I)

C) C) 0

The Grand Staff and Ledger Lines The staff is built with five lines and four spaces, so only nine different pitches can be written on it (or eleven if you count the space notes above and below the staff). Obviously there are many more than nine possible pitches (the piano has fifty-two white keys and thirty-six black keys for a total of eighty-eight). Music for instruments or ensembles using a large range of pitches (such as a piano or a choir) is typically written on a grand staff. See Figure 1.12.

A grand staff is constructed with two staves, two clef signs, an initial bar line (a verticalline that connects the two staves together), and a bracket. Since the piano encompasses both high and low sounds, both a treble clef and a bass clef are typically used. Generally, the pianist uses the right hand to play notes on the treble staff and the left hand for notes on the bass staff. The grand staff can also be used to represent choral music, with the parts for the high voices written on the upper treble staff and the parts for low voices written on the lower bass staff.

However, there is still only enough space on a grand staff for twice as many notes as on a single staff, so ledger lines are used. These short extensions of the staff are used to represent notes that are above, below, or in between the notes of the treble and bass clefs. Middle C (shown in Figure 1.12) is an example of a ledger-line note.

Middle C is written on the first ledger line below the treble staff and the first ledger line above the bass staff. Both of the notes in Figure 1.12 represent middle C. Figure 1.13 demonstrates more ledger line notes.

1heoretical Skills II

Figure 1. 12. The grand staff, with middle C wriHen as a treble-clef note and as a bass-clef note

WEB CHAPTER 1 >- Note-naming practice for ledger lines

II -e- - - -_o_-&_o_-e- Figure 1.13.

ledger lines on the grand staff (

~ ( D E F G -e- u - - -

A B ( D E -e- u --e-

E D ( B A -e- _o_ -e-( B A G F _o_ -

-e- - - -

( . . -e-u-e

n-e-

PRACTICE BOX 1.2 Name the following notes.


Figure 1.14. Rewriting ledger-line notes on the staff

Ledger-line notes that appear above the bass staff can also be written as treble-clef notes. Likewise, ledger lines below the treble staff can be rewritten as bass-clef notes, as shown in Figure 1.14. Each pair of notes represents exactly the same pitch, or exactly the same key on the piano.

G above middle C G above middle C F below middle C F below middle C I

{ -.) -

--e-

-e---

{ . .

The symbol8va may be used to avoid writing ledger-line notes. The symbol stands for the Italian term ottava (in English, "octave") and refers to the distance between two pitches that have the same letter name, for example, A to A. When the symbol is placed above a single note or group of notes, it changes those pitches by the distance of one octave. That means the written note is to be played or sung on the next higher pitch of the same letter name. This symbol is demonstrated in Figure 1.15.

PRACTICE BOX 1.3 In the blank measure following each given note, draw a ledger-line note on the opposite staff that is equivalent to the given note.

,..,

) @) u

) 0 0

Figure 1.1 5. The 8vasign

WEB CHAPTER I ~ Procfice reading Bvo ond 15mo signs

~

~

sva--- 1 -e-

~ C) ~ equals

When written below a single pitch or group of pitches, the 8va symbol signifies that the indicated pitches are to be played an octave lower than written. Sometimes the symbol is written 8ve or 8. All versions of this symbol are interpreted the same way. You may also occasionally see 8va bassa (or rarely, 8vb), which means an octave lower when written beneath the staff.

Occasionally, the symbol15ma is used, referring to the Italian term quindicesima, meaning "at the fifteenth."This symbol is used when the note is to be played two octaves higher than notated, as seen in Figure 1.16.

15=-- 1

equals

Octave Identification Each of the octaves on the piano has a particular designation so that it can be uniquely identified. Because there are so many keys on the piano, this allows specific reference to a single key within an octave. There are several systems of octave identification, but the one that will be introduced here designates the lowest Con the piano as C1

• Designations for each higher octave raise the superscript number. For the notes below C\ the superscript 0

is used. Middle Cis designated as C4• Designations and names for all octaves are shown in

Figure 1.17.

-a- _o_

" _o_ -a-- - -

( ._, -a-

-

Ao- Bo (I - Bi (2 - 82 (3- 83 (4- 84 cs- 85 (6- 86 (I - Bl n

( . .

u -a-

u-a-

Half and Whole Steps The pitches represented by the musical alphabet are not evenly spaced in their distance from one another. When you look at the piano keyboard, you will see that E and F sit beside each other with no black key in between them. But there is a black key in between C and D. The sound represented by this black key makes C and D more distant in pitch thanE and F.

The distance between E and F is called a half step. Two half steps naturally occur in the musical alphabet, between Band C and between E and F. The other distances-A-B, C-D, D-E, F-G, and G-A-are called whole steps. The whole steps occur where there are black keys in between the white keys. This information is also demonstrated in Figure 1.18.

Half Whole Whole step step step 1\ /\ /\

I 'UHliU' I lx,Uxl n I 'n I v v Half Half step step

1heoretical Skills II Figure 1. 16. The 7 Sma sign

WEB CHAPTER 1 ~ Octnve identificafion on the piano

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Figure 1 . 18. (left)

Figure 1. 17. Octave identification

Half steps on the piano keyboard. The other distances between white keys are whole steps. Figure 1.19. (right) Half and whole steps using black keys


WEB CHAPTER I ~ Procfice naming notes with occidento~

Figure 1.20. Placing accidentals on a staff

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The half steps are represented with an arrow symbol in the diagram above. Notice the absence of a black key where the half steps are marked. All of the other distances between the white keys are whole steps, because there is an intervening black key between the white keys.

Half steps can also occur between a white key and the closest black key. In other words, a half step is the closest that any two pitches can be placed. A whole step occurs when two pitches are separated by one other pitch; therefore, the adjacent black keys to the right of G and A are a whole step apart, as are B and the black key to the right side of C. See Figure 1.19.

Accidentals The black keys of the piano can take the name of either of the white keys that surround them. In order to name the pitches that are represented by the black keys, we use one of two new terms in addition to a letter of the musical alphabet: flat or sharp. The word sharp is used to represent a pitch that is one half step higher than the chosen letter name (or the key to the right on the keyboard). The word flat is used to represent a pitch that is one half step lower than the chosen letter name (or the key to the left on the keyboard).

The symbol used for the word sharp is #.This symbol is used to raise a pitch by one half step. The symbol used for the word flat is ~.This symbol is used to lower a pitch by one half step.

One additional word is used when you wish to refer to a regular member of the musical alphabet after having discussed the same letter name as a sharp or flat. That word is natural. A natural sign cancels a sharp or a flat. The symbol used for the word natural is q.

For example, using the word natural is a way to ensure that you distinguish between C-sharp and plain C (or C-natural). These three symbols are referred to as accidentals.

When writing or talking about music, the words and written symbols are always placed after the letter names, such as C-sharp, or Q; D-natural, or Dq; and B-flat, or B~. However, when a sharp or flat is placed on a staff next to a note, it must come first, on the left side of the note. Since the sharp or flat symbol affects the note it sits beside, by either raising or lowering it in pitch, it must be written first. See Figure 1.20.

When writing notes on the staff, you must also be careful to place your sharps and flats precisely on the line or space in front of the notes to which they belong. Name the six notes in the following figure:

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1heoretical Skills a PRACTICE BOX 1.4

1. The closest key to the right side ofF is __ . 2. The closest key to the left side of A is __ .

3. The closest key to the right side of C is __ . 4. The closest key to the left side of G is __ .

5. The closest key to the right side of A is __ . 6. The closest key to the left side of B is

Write the following pitches on the staff, with the correct accidental beside them.

' C sharp B flat F natural E Flat G flat E natural

?= G sharp D flat A natural F sharp D natural C sharp

When any accidental (sharp, flat, or natural) is placed in a measure of music, it stays in effect on that particular line or space until the end of the measure, a segment of music delineated by a vertical line (or bar line) crossing all lines of the staff. The accidental does not affect any other line or space on the staff, including other lines or spaces that have the same letter name. It is canceled by the next bar line or by a natural sign within the same measure. This is an important rule to remember when naming notes, because a single accidental can affect several other notes within a measure. Name each note in Figure 1.21.

The first measure of this example contains two F#s. Because the bar line cancels each accidental, it is necessary to repeat it in each subsequent measure to create another Fl

If an accidental is used on any line or space, then a cancellation reminder is often placed next to that note in the next measure to help you remember that it has reverted to its original status. That reminder is called a courtesy accidental. Its use is demonstrated in Figure 1.22.

2= e r F •r r I r F ~r D F# F# D Fl!

D sharp

E flat

A sharp

Gflat

Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.21. The accidental affects 2 notes in first measure

Courtesy accidental in the 2nd measure

m CHAPTER 1 I The Basics of Reading Music

PRACTICE BOX 1.5

Enharmonic Names

All black keys on the piano can be referred to by more than one name. The black key between C and D can be called either C# or D~. It is important to remember that nothing in the definition of the words sharp or flat says that these pitches have to be black keys. The definition simply states that these symbols change a musical pitch by raising or lowering it one half step. Therefore, B# is the same pitch as C. And F\. is the same pitch as E.

When the same pitch can be given two different names, these names are said to be enharmonic. Enharmonic names represent two ways of spelling the same sound. Therefore, F# is an enharmonic name for G~. In addition, all of the F#s and G~s are considered to be the same pitch class. A pitch is a specific letter of the musical alphabet occurring in a specific octave, such as C3

• However, a pitch class refers to any C occurring in any octave and includes all the enharmonic respellings of that note, such as B#.

Give two names for each of the indicated piano keys.

l.I!U In I!U I 3

·1!n In I!U I

5

l!n l.n I!U I

2

·1!n I U I!U I

4

·1!n 1 n "" 1

6

1!nlnln!l Give a single letter name for each of the following accidentals.

E#= __ _ B#= __ _ G= __ _ F~=----

Additional accidentals include the double sharp and the double flat. Double sharps and double flats are not as commonly used as regular sharps and flats. A natural sign will cancel any accidental, including double sharps and double flats.

The symbol used for a double sharp is x.This symbol is used to raise a pitch by one whole step. The symbol used for a double flat is ~.This symbol is used to lower a pitch by one whole step.

Any octave can be divided into twelve equal half steps. The representation of this division on a staff is known as the chromatic scale. A scale is a stepwise series of notes that form a distinctive pattern. The chromatic scale provides an excellent opportunity to make use of the enharmonic names that you have learned. Traditionally, the chromatic scale is spelled with sharps when the scale ascends and with flats when the scale descends. See Figure 1.23.

~J #J J #J J J #J J .w J #J r

~r r ~r J kJ J ~J J J ~J J ~J

Music Manuscript As a theory student, you will be writing a great deal of music by hand. It is important to know how to draw all musical symbols correctly and to be able to do it quickly and legibly. The following rules will be helpful.

1. When you draw notes, it is important to make your notes easily distinguishable as line notes or space notes. Make sure that your line notes are centered around a line and that your space notes only touch the surrounding lines but do not cross them.

2. When you place stems on notes, the notes that are high on a staff generally have stems that go down. The notes that are low on a staff generally have stems that go up. The idea is to draw the stem so that it crosses the maximum number of staff lines. Notes on the middle line of the staff usually have stems that go down. See Figure 1.24.1hese rules may be overridden if there is a specific reason, such as demonstrating which hand should be used to play a particular note in a composition for piano.

J J J J I F r F r r 3. The length of the stem is usually three lines or three spaces. As you look at the example

above, you will see that for line notes, the stem crosses three lines of the staff in addition to the line on which the note is written. For space notes, the stem crosses three spaces of the staff.

4. Clef signs should be practiced until you can make them easily, especially the treble clef, which is somewhat complicated. The treble clef can be drawn in a single motion, starting at the bottom of the symbol, or in two motions, starting with a straight line and then going back to the top and drawing the curved portion of the symbol. The bass clef is not hard to draw, but you should make certain that you do not draw it backward like the letter C.

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1heoretical Skills Ill Figure 1.23. Chromatic scale

Figure 1.24. Normal stemming of notes on a staff

WEB CHAPTER 1 ~ Procffce drawing clefs ond notes

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Theory Essentials: An Integrated Approach to Harmony… · THEORY ESSENTIALS An Integrated Approach to Harmony, Ear Training, and Keyboard Skills Connie E. Mayfield Cerritos College