Theories of Growth and Development

Child Development

The study of a child from conception to age 18.

The five stages of development are:Infancy: birth-1 year

Toddler: 1-2 years

Preschool: 3-5 years

School age: 6-12 years

Adolescence: 13-18 years

Growth

A child’s physical increase in size or amount that is easily observed.

Development

The ability of a child to do things that are complex and difficult.

Growth and Development

Each child grows in his/her own unique way!!!!!!

The sequence of development is generally the same for all children.

Children’s growth and development is studied in five areas: physical, cognitive, social, emotional and moral.

Physical Development

Growth: size and proportion

Includes muscle coordination and control

Examples◦ A child rolling over, lifting its head or sitting up

BODY

Cognitive Development

The ability of the brain or mind to take in and process information.

Examples◦ A child recognizes their name, or recognizing a parent, recognizing that when they shake a rattle it will make a noise.

MIND

Social Development

A child learning and discovering the expectations and rules for interacting with others.

Examples◦ A child smiling at mother, a child learning to share a toy with a friend.

PEOPLE

Emotional Development

The ability to recognize and understand feelings and how to respond to them appropriately.

Examples◦ A child feeling jealousy due to a new baby in the family, a child feeling love for another person, or a child being afraid of the dark.

FEELINGS

Moral Development

Identifying personal values.

Examples◦ Right or wrong, behaving according to what others need or want, respecting human rights, developing principles to guide behavior.

RIGHT & WRONG

History of CD Theories

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of history.

Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth.

Interest in the field of child development began early in the 20th-century and tended to focus on abnormal behavior.

Many theorists have discovered a great deal concerning how children develop. Their theories add insight and information to the study of child development.

The following are just a few of the many child development theories and theorists that have been proposed by theorists and researchers.

Types of Theories

Behaviorist• Ignore undesirable behaviors: pouting or temper tantrums.

• Praise desirable behaviors: listening to teacher or cleaning up toys.

• Give Reinforcements

Maturationist• Requirements must match child’s

developmental level• Children can’t learn until they are old enough

Constructivist• Construction of knowledge with social contact• Learner constructs his own learning, experiments• Children learn through interacting with their environment

Theories Quiz

A. Behaviorist B. Maturationist C. Constructivist

_____1. Emily’s father argues she must be given immediate consequences for hitting.

_____2. Jeremy’s dad argues you have to wait until children get old enough to teach them how people feel.

_____3. Everyone makes fun of John’s backpack, so eventually he leaves it home.

_____4. Teacher ignores Stacey’s temper tantrum, but gives her a smile when she stops her tantrum.

_____5. John puts his toys away and teacher says, “Great job.”

_____6. You must wait until a child can understand a concept before presenting it to him/her.

_____7. Jane figures out some animals are dogs and some are cats.

_____8. In order to apply to our school you must first pass this developmental test.

_____9. Jane gets what she wants by spitting.

_____10. John behaves positively to avoid sitting by the teacher.

_____11. Jane fits all furry animals into the category of cats.

_____12. A child throws a ball for reinforcements or prizes.

_____13. A child throws a ball to practice aim and angle.

_____14. A child throws a ball according to his/her age.

_____15. The child gains knowledge through interacting with the environment.

Sigmund Freud

The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not yet been able to answer, despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, is "What does a woman want?"

Sigmund Freud

Theory of Psychosexual DevelopmentThe theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood

events and experiences and how they affect later life. He felt that personality is mostly established by the age of five.

Freud's theory of personality development in which the psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior and exists in the unconscious mind.

In his later work, Freud proposed that the psyche could be divided into three parts:

◦ The ID is the impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences. Present at birth.

◦ The SUPER-EGO is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation.

◦ The EGO, attempts to exact a balance between the id and super-ego; rational portion of the psyche usually, reflected most directly in a person's actions.

Sigmund Freud

According to Freud, personality is mostly established by what age?◦ 5◦ 10◦ 15◦ 20

The central concept in Freud's Psychosexual theory is◦ Operant conditioning ◦ Classical conditioning ◦ The unconscious mind ◦ Behavioral analysis

According to Freud, which of the following are present at birth? ◦ id◦ ego◦ superego◦ reality principle

Maria is continually worrying about whether her actions are socially acceptable. Freud would say that ____________ is controlling her personality?

◦ id◦ defense mechanisms◦ ego• superego

Which part of the personality is responsible for most of our actions and behavior?◦ id◦ defense mechanisms◦ ego◦ superego

Erik Erikson

“Someday, maybe, there will exist a well-informed, well considered and yet fervent public conviction that the most deadly of all possible sins is the mutilation of a child’s spirit.”

Erik Erikson

Theory of Psychosocial/HumanDevelopment

Theory is divided into 8 stages of development

Erikson believed that each stage of development is focused on overcoming a conflict.

Success or failure in dealing with conflicts can impact overall functioning.

Erik Erikson

Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust (babies)

◦ The first stage occurs between birth and one year of age.

◦ Infant is completely dependent, the development of trust is based on quality of the care.

◦ Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (toddlers)

◦ Focus is on children developing a greater sense of personal control & independence.

◦ Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt (preschoolers)

◦ Children begin to assert their power and control over the world and take charge.

◦ They do not want to listen to others

◦ Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.

Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority (school age)

◦ Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

◦ Children who are encouraged and commended by parents/teachers develop feelings of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.

Erik Erikson

Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion (adolescence)

◦ Teens are developing a sense of self.

◦ Those who receive proper encouragement will develop a strong sense of self-confidence.

◦ Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will be insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)

◦ People are exploring personal relationships, either friendly or intimate.

◦ Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.

◦ Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation (adulthood)

◦ During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

◦ Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.

◦ Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair (old age)

◦ At this stage people are reflecting back on life.

◦ Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity (they have lived their life to their satisfaction

◦ Others may feel despair as they look back and think they did not accomplish what they hoped to in life.

Erik Erikson

At each stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, people experience a(n) _________ that serves as a turning point.

A. EpiphanyB. ConflictC. Paradigm shiftD. Turmoil

Jane, a preschooler, strongly insists on dressing herself each morning for school, even though she generally selects mismatching outfits, misses buttons, and wears her shoes on the wrong feet. When her mother tries to dress Jane or fix her outfit, Jane brushes her mother off and insists on doing her own way. What stage of psychosocial development best describes Jane’s behavior?

A. Trust vs. MistrustB. Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtC. Initiative vs. GuiltD. Industry vs. Inferiority

The stage that occurs between birth and one year of age is concerned with:

A. Trust vs. MistrustB. Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtC. Initiative vs. GuiltD. Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson believed that people move through a series of _______ psychosocial stages throughout the lifespan.

A. FourB. EightC. TenD. Twelve

Eight-year old Steven has a difficult time making friends at school. He has trouble completing his schoolwork accurately and on time, and as a result, receives little positive feedback from his teacher and parents. According to Erikson’s theory, failure at this stage of development results in _____________?

A. Feelings of inferiorityB. A sense of guiltC. A poor sense of selfD. Mistrust

Jean Piaget

"The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done.

Jean Piaget

Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults.

His research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children.

Sensorimotor

• Birth – 2 years of age

• Knowledge is limited to sensory perceptions

• Infants are born with reflexes

• Preoperational

• 2-6 years of age

• Children beginning to learn language

• Children are egocentric, unable to take the point of view of another person

• Can not understand concrete logic

• Concrete Operational

• Seven to eleven years of age

• Children begin thinking logically about concrete events

• Still have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts

• Formal Operational

• Age twelve to adulthood

• Develop the ability to think about abstract concepts

• Logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning

Timing of these sequences may vary, but the sequence

does not.

Jean Piaget

The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during the:

A. Concrete Operational Stage

B. Sensori-motor Stage

C. Formal Operational Stage

D. Preoperational Stage

According to Piaget, the stage in which children begin to learn language, and are still egocentric is:

A. Concrete Operational Stage

B. Sensori-motor Stage

C. Formal Operational Stage

D. Preoperational Stage

The stage in which children begin thinking logically is:

A. Concrete Operational Stage

B. Sensori-motor Stage

C. Formal Operational Stage

D. Preoperational Stage

The child’s knowledge of the world being limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities occurs during the:

A. Concrete Operational Stage

B. Sensori-motor Stage

C. Formal Operational Stage

D. Preoperational Stage

B. F. Skinner

A failure is not always a mistake, it may simply be the best one can do under the circumstances. The real mistake is to stop trying.

Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.

B. F. Skinner

The Theory of Behavior

The idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again.

In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedules of reinforcement:

Variable-ratio schedules - Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. - Example: Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a

variable ratio schedule. Never know when you get the reward but take the chance.- Most difficult to extinguish/stop

Fixed-ratio schedule- Behavior is rewarded only after a specific number of responses.- You know there is a regular reward.

Fixed-interval schedules - Behavior is rewarded after a specified amount of time has passed. - Example: Job with hourly pay; every 30 minutes you get a piece of candy for being on

task

Variable-interval schedules- Behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

B. F. Skinner

An employee receives a reward every 45 minutes. What type of reinforcement schedule is being used? a) Variable Ratio Schedule b) Fixed Ratio Schedule c) Variable Interval Schedule d) Fixed Interval Schedule

Mowing lawns is an example of which type of reinforcement schedule? a) Variable Intervalb) Fixed Ratioc) Variable Ratiod) Fixed Interval

Which of B.F. Skinner's schedules of reinforcement is the most difficult to extinguish? (Hint: Gambling utilizes this reinforcement schedule). a) Variable Interval b) Variable Ratio c) Fixed Interval d) Fixed Ratio

Abraham Maslow

We are not in a position in which we have nothing to work with. We already have capacities, talents, direction, missions, callings.”

Abraham Maslow

The Theory of Humanism

Maslow saw human beings' needs arranged like a ladder.

The most basic needs were at the bottom

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Safety

Love/Belonging

Esteem

Self-Actualization

Abraham Maslow

• According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, what is the first need that must be met?a. Safetyb. Belongingc. Esteemd. Physiological

• Maslow’s main concept was called the:a. Humanistic Pyramidb. Hierarchy of Needsc. Psychosocial Stages of Development

• Which of the following is a characteristic of the self-actualization level?a. Friendshipb. Self-Esteemc. Creativityd. Security

• Safety needs are a. met only after esteem needs b. aroused in only a small minority of the world's people c. include the security that comes with having enough to eat and drink d. include security, protection, stability, law and order, and freedom from fear and chaos