Theme Parks Leisure Centres Zoos & Aquaria

THEME PARKS LEISURE CENTRESZOOS & AQUARIA


PREFACE

Leisure provides an opportunity to widen the experience of everyday life, from simple relaxation and non-competitive sport, to the appreciation of a significant issue presented in an approachable format.

Within the context of the theme park, zoo or visitor attraction, opportunity is provided for visitors to enjoy facilities in an undemanding ambience. As opposed to entertainment and sports buildings, leisure facilities provide for individuals to choose their own level of experience, relaxation or activity. The facilities range from situations based on caricature and good humor, to serious informative subjects centred on the world of nature, cultural and historic landscape surroundings are of prime importance.

A high quality of surroundings can not only enhance time devoted to relaxation but can also influence attitudes towards domestic and working conditions. The quality of the environment has become an important factor in attracting employment opportunities to a particular location. At the same time, provision for leisure is not only a force to improve the built environment but also encourages the conservation or cultural roots and natural world.

Concern for endangered habitats of our fellow creatures is conveyed in the leisure ambience of zoos and marine animal parks where the environmental needs for animals can be expressed. Similarly, the appreciation of man’s historic or cultural roots, otherwise endangered by progress and change, is evident in visitor attractions and theme parks either in a popular idiom or realistically re-created.

Although the enclosed park or leisure centre setting provides an escape from daily pressures, with features and facilities that provide non-competitive activity in a social context, there is a dependence on commercial viability. The projects must be attractive to potential visitors and efficient in running costs. They must be carefully planned for the numbers of visitors anticipated and designed to secure a unique magic or convincing realism.


As retirement years, leisure time, money available for leisure and desire for therapeutic or healthy activities all increase, the need to provide an extensive range of leisure facilities becomes a matter of concern for both the private and public sect.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LEISURE PARKS AND VISITORS

• Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen• Knotts Berry Farm• Buena Park, California• Parks and Recreations Department, San Antonio, Texas• Ford Powell and Carson, San Antonio, Texas• Baltimore Economic Development Association, Baltimore, Maryland• Zeidler Roberts Partnership, Toronto, Ontario• Busch Entertainment Organization, Tampa, Florida• Fleishman Hillard Inc., St Louis, Missouri and London• Parc Asterix, Plailly, France• Duell Corporation, Los Angeles, California• De Efteling, Kaatsheuvel, The Netherlands• Europa Park, Rust, Germany• Granada Studios Tour, Manchester, England• La Villete, Paris• Commonwealth of Virginia Jamestown - Yorktown Foundation• Jamestown Settlement, Williamsburg, Virginia• Sung Dynasty, Hong Kong• Ocean Park Corporation, Aberdeen, Hong Kong• Leigh and Orange, Hong Kong• Polynesian Cultural Centre, Laie, Hawaii• Tang Dynasty, Singapore• Jorvik Centre, York, England• A.R.C. York, England• Sarner International, London• Bracknell Forest Borough Council, Bracknell, England• Andrews, Downie and Partners, London• Sargent and Potiriadis, London • The Dome, Doncaster, England• The Walt Disney Company


• FaulknerBrowns, Killingworth, England

ZOOS

• Safari Parks International, Hawkhurst, Kent, David Hunt• The Arizona-Sonora Museum, Tucson, David Hancocks• London Zoo• Regents Park, London• San Diego Zoo, California, USA• Marquis Associates, San Francisco, USA• Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust• Central Park Zoo, New York• Dinkeloo and Associates, Connecticut, USA• Emmen Zoo, Holland• Potomac Group, Washington DC, USA• Apenheul, Apeldoorn, Holland• Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, USA• Drusillas Zoo Park, Alfriston, Sussex• Los Angeles Zoo, California, USA• Grist Associates, Pasadena, California, USA• Riener Nielsen Jnr• Larson Company, Tucson, Arizona• Art and Technology Inc. Burbank• Cologne Zoo, Germany• Krefeld Zoo, Germany• Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, USA• Jones and Jones Seattle, USA• Zoo Atlanta, Georgia, USA• Robinson Roesch, Philadelphia, USA• Singapore Zoo• The Bronx Zoo, New York• Burgers’ Bush, Arnhem, Holland• The Zoological Society of London• The American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria• Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland


MARINE ANIMAL PARKS AND AQUARIA

• Ocean World, Aberdeen, Hong Kong• Sea Life Park, Waimanalo, Hawaii• John Graham and Company, Seattle, Washington, USA• Reynolds Polymer Technology Inc., Seattle, Washington, USA• Sea Life Centre Technical Ltd• Thorn Lightning Ltd., Borehamwood, England• Sea Life Centres, Wimborne, Dorset• Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California• Dodge and Davis, San Francisco, California• Great Barrier Reef Aquarium, Townsville, Queensland, Australia• Joseph A. Wetzel Associates, Boston, Massachusetts• National Aquarium Baltimore, Maryland• Cambridge Seven, Boston, Massachusetts• James R. Grieves, Baltimore, Maryland• The Aquarium of The Americas, New Orleans, Louisiana• Safari Parks International, Hawkhurst, England

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION

The structures concerned with leisure have provided significant architectural forms through the centuries. In Europe, traditions include the great Roman baths and country villas, the exclusive leisure gardens or Renaissance, Georgian spa facilities, the Victorian ballrooms, restaurants and seaside piers, the exclusive clubs of Pall Mall and the leisure centres of today.

The Islamic view of paradise included a garden of pleasure with cool springs and fountains. Ecology sensitive Chinese Taoism led to a close association between building and naturalistic landscape. Ancient cities of China included an extensive leisure content. The Japanese created pleasure gardens with a naturalistic atmosphere of wildlife, running water, groves of trees, carefully designed rock formations and pavilions. The development of the Tea Ceremony with pavilion and a garden space provided guests with an opportunity to dissociate from the mundane world.


THE ECLECTIC AND EVOCATIVE

The desire to re-construct a favoured environment has also historic roots throughout the world. For Hadrian, the villa Tivoli provided an opportunity to simulate buildings that had been visited during his travels and conquests. The development of the Japanese garden was an interpretation or revered Chinese landscape, the components of the landscape having significant meaning. The romantic tradition in architecture, with its origins in eighteenth-century England, provided an avenue for caprice and fantasy.Eclectic architecture became the exercise of distinguished architects who designed theme residences, gardens and follies.

For ordinary people, elation through the evocative was conveyed in the grandeur of imposing nineteenth-century ballrooms, pavilions, theatres and hotels. There was a response to an increase in wealth and leisure time and a desire to provide an escape from the inhuman mundane environment of the industrial urban world. In more recent times, the Italianesque village of Portmeirion in Wales was developed by Clough William-Ellis as a contrast to contemporaneous suburban sprawl.

Through the period of two world wars, changes in social attitudes and the rise of popular images and music through record, radio and film provided a new escape. The cinema created the visual fantasy which to indulge, including the fantasy of cartoons and characters. The California theme park, Knotts Berry Farm, encapsulated a “wild west” made evocative by film. The first Disney theme park, in Anaheim, transformed the cartoon film experience into themed rides with animated characters, film sets, reassuring commentary and evocative music.

In the years following World War II, contrary to the purist attitude encouraged by the modern movement (to dissociate from historic styles),the commercial appeal and esteem status conveyed by eclectic design continued.


Revivalism and stylistic pluralism are now playing a significant part in contemporary architecture. The Mediterranean holiday town of Port Grimaud conveys a humanity and sense of enjoyment not normally associated with the austere lines of the modernist movement or the engineering dexterity of high-tech design. The Getty Museum at Malibu, USA, a copy of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum, provides a sympathetic ambience for the antiques displayed.

The desire to communicate diverse cultures or visual images of other countries, cultures or history, either as a caricature in a theme park or re-created in a live museum, is a justifiable indulgence in historic simulation. The modern day techniques for reproducing landscape, buildings and artefacts can create a reality that has been previously the preserve of film and theatre.

From the end of the nineteenth century, concurrent with the establishment of amusement parks and leisure attractions, the technology of experiential presentations, mechanical rides and feature structures were developed with the opportunities provided by the World Expositions.

EXPOSITIONS

For the international community, Expositions and World Fairs have provided not only an exhibition of world-wide commerce and industry, with diverse design styles juxtaposed, but also experience in managing large numbers of visitors. Theming was adopted to convey national character and, in recent decades, to achieve a cohesive idea for each Exposition.

Automation and electro-mechanical devises were adopted and developed into thrill rides and transportation systems. Audio-visual techniques have been used imaginatively to communicate information, to display features and to provide a vivid experience. Innovative leisure buildings of many Expos have been retained as a nucleus to subsequent development. Paris, Montreal, Seattle, San Francisco, San Antonio, Okinawa and Toronto have all benefited.


CULTURAL ROOTS

The themed environment endeavours to capture an experience otherwise not available, or to interpret the fantasy world of a childhood enchantment. In recent years, with the traditional cultures being over-shadowed by all embracing social-economic patterns, an attempt has been made to preserve or re-capture essential historic and ethnic cultural qualities in theme parks. These parks are not a fantasy but an educational experience; not an escape but an aim to provide a contact with cultural roots. This is illustrated by the Polynesian Cultural Centre in Hawaii and the Chinese culture parks in Hong Kong and Singapore.

At the same time, actual historical locations or buildings have been skillfully re-created to convey a historic image nearing reality. The interpretation is placed in a popular format not dissimilar to a theme park, to make the subject more approachable. Reference is made later to Jorvik, York and Jamestown, Virginia.

PRESERVING THE NATURAL WORLD

The changing world wishes to preserve that which is vulnerable to extinction; cultural roots, moments in time from childhood fantasy to significant moments in history. This wish to preserve applies with even greater importance to the natural world which is at the mercy of Man’s expanding dominance of limited terrestrial space and natural resources. The nature reserves, safari parks, zoos, marine animal parks and bio-parks share the responsibility of preserving endangered species and habitats, making people aware of the right of existence that is due to animals and terrestrial wildlife.

The menagerie and restricted cages have been gradually superseded by a respect for animals and the habitats concerned. The need to respect and preserve the ecology of an animal in its natural habitat is the message of the modern zoo. A bio-park which relates animals to their territorial space, with compatible landscaping, ground surfaces, water space or rock formation, provides the complete picture of the animal in a natural context. Endangered species are preserved, allowed to breed and are then rehabilitated. Endangered habitats are


clearly identified to make the public more sensitive to the continuous loss of the space that is vital to bio-diversity.

The built environment for themed areas or animal enclosures has been radically improved by the quality of rock simulation, replica artefacts, and landscaping techniques. Environmental control and life support systems have advanced with new techniques in air-conditioning, water treatment and methods of maintaining water clarity. Conveying the experience and information has been improved through audio-visual techniques utilized in World Expositions.

Space standards for animals have been related to the free and natural movement of the individual species and their territorial criteria. A complete ecological entity, a biode, is the objective of some zoological and aquatic enclosures. The techniques for ecological re-interpretation are sufficiently comprehensive to encourage such major experiments as Biosphere 2 in Arizona, which aims to provide a complete and independent ecological system to support human existence.

FEATURES AND ATTRACTIONS

Transportation around a park or attraction provides not only a feature in itself, but also a means of controlling the flow of visitors. To provide a feature interest or a diversion, hard and wet rides are consistently being made more attractive by innovative engineering. Standards of public safety have responded to the new complexity of rides. New materials and the numbers of visitors involved.

Transportation within a park can provide a visual feature, an overview of the park, a means of reducing footwork and a method of controlling the movement of visitors. Transport must allow for the handicapped, elderly and small children.

At the same time, a particular transportation system can transform an existing location into an adventure ride such as a system dedicated to convey tourists through a historic or conservation area, or a ride through a safari park. The trams in San Francisco, on a grid plan that defies topography provide a


tourist attraction as well as a civic amenity. The graceful bateaux mouches on the Seine in Paris, the “dining” barges on the Paseo del Rio in San Antonio, the gondolas in Venice and the Bluebell Train in Sussex all compound an existing tourist attraction with a pleasurable experience. In Bendigo,Victoria, Australia, historic Biney trams have been preserved, to enhance visitors’ enjoyment of the legacy of Victorian buildings in the city.

TRADITIONAL LEISURE PARKS AND ZOOS αρχιτεκτονική της ευτυχίας

In Europe, the development of popular pleasure parks reflected the move towards humanizing urban life. The aristocracy and wealthy took pleasure in exclusive private gardens and parkland. By the eighteenth century, leisure (and subsequently health) had become a fashionable pursuit, resulting in a range of permanent buildings designed for entertainment, fantasy and relaxation: theatres, opera houses, pleasure gardens, assembly rooms and coffee houses. Malls and avenues were created for elegant promenading.

The style of the elaborate public pleasure gardens that were initiated in London, such as Vauxhall, Ranelagh and Cremone, became a popular feature throughout Europe. The parks included pavilions, walks, facilities for orchestral music, dining and entertainment. Some included botanical or zoological displays.

The Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew started as a pleasure garden with a small botanical collection. In the mid nineteenth century, the Botanical Gardens were handed over to the State, the gardens were extended and new buildings were added. The new buildings, which included the Palm House and theTemperate House, both designed by Decimus Burton, were early examples of buildings in which interior conditions were specifically controlled for the inhabitant plant species.

The development by Nash of Regents Park provided a location for the Zoological Gardens. The gardens included terraces, aviaries, dens and ponds, where the animals could be inspected by the learned fellows of the Zoological Society. Many of the features were designed by Decimus Burton.


Regents Park also provided entertainment buildings that included innovative leisure buildings. A Colosseum, with its dome roof structure and a giant panoramic representation of London were viewed from galleries within the dome. In another building, a Diorama illusion was provided by two landscapes each 40ft wide. The spectators were slowly rotated on mechanical turn-table which gave the impression that the scenery itself was moving. This type of visitor attraction pre-empted the imaginative visual effects adopted in Expos. In the 1840s, Madame Tussaud, who had experienced imprisonment in Paris during the French Revolution when her wax work skills were used to make death masks of freshly executed heads, and having toured Britain for 33 years with her collection of wax work models, established a permanent exhibition in Baker Street, London.

RESORTS AND LEISURE

The elegant eighteenth-century spa towns had established a style for relaxing and socializing with facilities for promenading, assembly rooms, buildings for concerts and amusement, which were emulated by the nineteenth-century seaside resorts.

With the advent of mass transport by packet boat and eventually the railway, access was provided to the resorts for the more gregarious working class public. The resorts changed from the “spa” character to become places for fun and enjoyment. The refined ambience succumbed to the provision of popular facilities and the beach and promenade were turned into seasonal fairgrounds adopting the character of popular pleasure gardens. Permanent structures catered for the new requirements and aspirations: prestigious hotels, winter gardens, piers and pavilions. Buildings such as the Tower at Blackpool provided several facilities in one building.

In the USA, themed resorts such as Coral Gables and Palm Beach with Venetian style canals, boulevards and Spanish architecture were developed in the early part of this century. These provided Americans with an escape into a more exotic atmosphere.


TIVOLI GARDENS, COPENHAGEN

Although some seaside resorts have survived, few Regency and Victorian style pleasure parks remain. However Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen retain the essentially European pleasure garden character. Tivoli Gardens were started in 1843 by Georg Cartensen on open land acquired from the military authorities outside the walled city by the west gate. The site included part of the ancient fortifications, the pattern of which remains evident in the present layout of the gardens.

Cartensen had seen the “Vauxhalls” in England and the Tivoli Gardens developed as a centre of daytime and lavishly illuminated evening dining and entertainment. Over the years the original character has been respected and some of the nineteenth-century buildings remain: the Peacock(Pantomine) Theatre (1874), the original Grand Bazaar was opened in 1863, the Pagoda or Chinese Tower (1900) and the later Moorish “Bazaar”.

Rich landscaping, floral displays and mature trees (with some hawthorns now more than 200 years old), the central avenue, the lake, pools and fountains all convey the original ambience. Although the park suffered severe damage during World War II new buildings have been constructed and features added that maintain the original character and scale. The park, which covers 8.3 ha, has 25 major attractions and 29 restaurants. Copenhagen has expanded well beyond the historic city walls leaving Tivoli in a central position to provide a human counterpart to the commercial hub of the city.

USA AMUSEMENT PARKS

In the USA the family amusement park achieved particular significance. Developing from picnic areas built by the transport companies (as an attraction at the end of a trolley line) to the Conley Island style park with extravagant rides and garish mechanical amusements. The names were indicated: “Wonderland”, “Dreamland”, “Luna Park”. The parks provided an artificial life, placing the mechanical qualities of everyday life in a more exciting context.


In recent decades, the American amusement park has become a market for investment. Improved highways, increased spending power and an improved image provided by new and imaginative theme parks have reinforced the role of regional parks. Patronage has been drawn from an extensive catchment area, such as those established by Six Flags and Anheuser-Busch. Some parks have achieved a wide reputation by identifying a particular theme or subject such as Knotts Berry, Magic Mountain, the Disney parks, Opryland, and the Sea World marine animal parks. The theme park format has been adopted by countries outside the USA, competing with traditional leisure resorts.

KNOTTS BERRY FARM, CALIFORNIA

Knotts Berry Farm, Buena Park, California, originated in 1920 from a boysenberry stand on the 4 ha of Walter Knott, which was extended to include a chicken dinner restaurant in the 1930s. In the 1940s, the first buildings of the Old West Town were constructed to provide a diversion to entertain the queuing dinner guests. The buildings were constructed from authentic stores and saloons of the period, and were developed to replicate a prosperous gold town. The structures included a mine, traditional craft buildings, stores, printers, assayer’s office, laundry, barber, saloon, Sheriff’s office, town jail, blacksmith, post office, church and chapel, with the addition of stagecoaches and a western style railway train centered on Calico Square. In 1966, an exact replica of the Independence Hall, Philadelphia, was built, and visitors can hear presentations of the historic debates. In 1970 “Fiesta Village” was completed, based on traditional Spanish settlements in California. In 1975, the “Roaring 20s” section of the Park was added which included a thrill corkscrew ride with Theatre and a Sky Tower. More recently a “Snoopy Corner”, a themed area geared to small children was added.

Walter Knott wanted to preserve the historic buildings of America’s pioneering days and many of the buildings continue both to be used (within the theme park context) for their original function and to maintain crafts. The original Old West Town continues to convey the American character of self-reliance and independence, tempered by some law abiding behavior. It is not only re-created an historic town (that would have been worthy conservation) but also captures an important element of western cine culture. However, as a theme park it is necessary continually to replenish Knotts Berry Farm with new


attractions. The park has become a sequence of themed areas conveying cultural and historic images familiar to the American Visitor.

THE DISNEY ORGANIZATION

The Disney Organization was generated around the skill and imaginative genius of Walt Disney with his capacity to initiate and exploit new techniques. These included not only film techniques and the mastery of cartoon images, but also animation using audio-animatronics. Animatronics consist of electronically operated figures that move and speak; a techniquethat has played an important part in the development of theme park‚ “story” rides.

In 1955, Disneyland, Anaheim, California was created as a new concept in family entertainment based on the principle that the public should not see the real world from within the park and that they should have the sensation of being in another world.

The Disneyland ‚ “Magic Kingdom” theme park was developed with an initial “Main Street, USA”‚ leading to themed ‚”lands”. ”Main Street” endeavours to capture the friendly main street of a small home town at the turn of the nineteenth century. The areas with themes include ‚ ”Adventureland”, which incorporates an adventurous boat ride “Jungle Cruise”; “NewOrleans Square” which represents that characterful city in the 1850s, and includes a story ride "The Pirates of the Caribbean”; “Frontierland” conveying the pioneering spirit of the USA; “Fantasyland” which includes fairy tale and cartoon characters and the themed boat ride ‚”It’s a small world”; "Tomorrowland” looking to the future and incorporating a variety of visitor transport systems; and ‚ “Space Mountain”, a dark thrill ride journey through space.

Disneyland added a new perspective to the leisure park concept. It initiated cleanliness, attractiveness, the use of college students trained in Disney stylehospitality, themed attractions and strategically located rides. The park includes food and merchandising facilities. The general ambience of the park is animated by familiar and engaging Disney characters.


In planning leisure parks, the commercial consideration is to provide attractions that will justify the entrance charge and to create an environment in which visitors will spend money on food, merchandise and special attractions. Features and facilities will have to be continually replenished to maintain public interest. In the larger parks, the movement of visitors from car park or public transport through the various features is not unlike a viscous system except that obstructions to the flow must be intentional and revenue earning.

Space designed for leisure, from passive theme parks to activity based leisure centres, from the preservation of cultural images to the preservation of animal species, allows visitors to choose their own degree of activity, involvement or simple relaxation. At the same time, economic and social development has extended leisure to a wider proportion of the community, with the family group predominant. Although specific leisure facilities are now more selective in terms of activity, age or income groups, theme and leisure parks are socially cohesive, aiming to provide facilities for participation and interaction.

CHAPTER IITHEME PARKS AND LEISURE CENTERS

In describing existing parks and attractions, it would be difficult to do justice to the wide range that are in operation. There are situations in which the leisure facility achieves a high quality of environmental design or contributes to be the improvement of the existing urban environment. Thera are also projects in which a significant human experience is conveyed either as a light-hearted evocation or as a serious historical, scientific or cultural subject. The themed environment is also used to enhance leisure activities based on non-competitive sport.

The following sections are divided into projects relating to urban renewal, fun and fantasy, visitor attractions and activity centers.


URBAN RENEWAL

The need to generate urban renewal is particularly relevant to recent decades. Downtown industrial and residential land has been rendered redundant through changes in transportation technology and social attitudes. Historic locations are often inaccessible to the new scale of road and maritime transport required by new industry and commerce, and historic buildings worthy of conservation are not always adaptable to new business practice.

The current interest in urban space for leisure and the use of leisure as a generator for adaptation and renewal is significant In marketing urban locations for new investment the quality of life is becoming identified with the quality of the leisure environment. Few cities have the close proximity of a leisure park such as Tivoli Gardens in the centre of Copenhagen, or the Zoo at Emmen, Holland.

Many historic locations have a strong architectural character and existing redundant buildings can be adapted to leisure uses. At the same time, urban renewal has been initiated by Trade Expositions with a predetermined legacy of community buildings and leisure facilities. The Hemisfair at San Antonio contributed to the enhancement of the Paseo del Rio river corridor space. The preservation of this section of the San Antonio River as a leisure based area,utilizing the historic ambience, has created a remarkable asset for central San Antonio.

The restoration of the redundant inner harbor at Baltimore, Maryland as a water space surrounded principally by leisure issues, had provided a unique counterpart to the commercial centre of the city. The use of a lakeside site at Toronto has provided a popular leisure park that gives identity to the waterfront area. The disused abattoir and meat market complex at la Villette, Paris has been transformed into an urban leisure park combining the exploration of science and industrial technology with facilities of music.


PASEO DEL RIO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

The story of the Paseo del Rio, the characterful river bend in downtown San Antonio, is an impressive example of the realization of a potential amenity. That has also been instrumental in generating urban renewal. For the tourist, the Riverside walk is a leisure location, cool in the hot summer, a landscaped river corridor that echoes the Hispanic history of San Antonio. A place for sight-seeing, dining, listening to music and cruising slowly along the various waterways. The difference in level from the busy commercial streets results in a temperature at river level 10 F cooler than the streets above. For the city it has achieved an environmental quality that has generated improvement to the adjacent urban areas.

The city of San Antonio grew up on the banks of the meandering San Antonio River. The periodic flooding of the river caused havoc particularly in the downtown section, Paseo del Rio. The reaction was to remove the bend and to re-route the river through a straight channel. However, the idea of loosing the historic tree-lined horseshoe bend was unacceptable to many in the city. A flood control project was adopted that provided a bypass channel, with flood gates and river drains to protect the Paseo del Rio during high water periods. The channel was completed in 1926.

In the late 1930s, the aesthetic potential of the downtown river was recognized. The river gained walkways, staircases down from street level and graceful arched footbridges. An outdoor theatre was created close to the now restored eighteenth-century Spanish village, “La Villita”. The texture and Hispaniccharacter of the riverside buildings reflecting the history of San Antonio became subject to preservation.

In the early 1960s ordinances were established to protect the river walks from over-commercialization. A commission was formed to review proposed construction and appearance, colour and texture of materials, architectural design as well as signs and lighting arrangements of the proposed projects. The commission also promoted the preparation of a master plan for continued development.


Improvements and activity from the private sector followed, to realize the growing tourist potential.

San Antonio’s World Fair, Hemisfair '68, encouraged new business activity, a permanent Convention Centre complex and a river linkage were created.

In 1973 a San Antonio River corridor Development and Management study considered the possibilities of an attractive river corridor acting as the generator of urban renewal. The study asserted the feasibility of realizing many river based opportunities.

THE PASEO DEL ALAMO

The Paseo del Alamo provides a link between two major landmarks in downtown SanAntonio, the Alamo Mission Compound and the RiverWalk.

The Paseo del Alamo, the watergarden that links the Alamo with the river, begins at street level at Alamo Plaza and includes a waterway descendingfrom a fountain through a series of small falls and acequias, to a pool in the atrium of the riverside Hyatt Hotel. This pool appears to be part of the river.

Overlooking the waterway there is a large indoor space for restaurants and cafes, a landscaped plaza and terraces for outdoor seating.

The Hyatt Hotel facing towards the river is planned in a curve around an atrium space, with the side overlooking the river, enclosed by a glass wall. Interior spaces and terraces can view through the glass wall to the activities and ambience of the San Antonio River.

The watergarden of the Paseo del Alamo represents both the original reasons for siting the Alamo mission (a location with its abundant springs used for irrigation) and the actual technique of using aqueducts and small ditches or “acequias” for irrigation. The passage of water through the gardens, which starts with an impoundment at the upper level, is via an aqueduct to supply further impoundments alongside the landscaped walkways, and to feed acequias that water the terraces. The aqueduct near the upper end of the


watergarden extends across the main “stream” just as the Spanish aqueducts extended across the San Antonio River over 200 years ago.

RIVER CENTRE

The River Center, a mixed use shopping, dining, entertainment and hotel complex completed in February 1988 incorporates as a centre feature a cul-de-sac extension of the San Antonio River with space for boats to turn. The City of San Antonio, through a $15.8 million Urban Development Action Grant, created the river extension from Riverwalk, the new Commerce Street Bridge and the pumping system for the turning basin at the head of the river extension.

The River Center is the first example in which the river has been extended as an integral part of a shopping, dining and entertainment experience. The Center also includes more than 125 speciality shops and restaurants, a 42-storey 1000 room Marriott Hotel, Imax Theatre and two parking garages. At river level, there are five full-service restaurants and 11 river cafes. The 500 ft long extended River Walk winds under a steel truss bridge at Commerce Street and continues the landscaping character of the historic Paseo del Rio. The extended river terminates in an “outdoor garden room” and basin (in which cruise boats can turn) which provides space for public gatherings. The space focuses on an entertainment platform and terraced floral displays.

INNER HARBOUR, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

The Inner Harbour, Baltimore, has become a symbol of successful urban renewal. The old harbour that had been made redundant (becoming inaccessible to new large tankers and container vessels) has been converted into a water space which combines leisure and commercial activities. It has been transformed into a focal point in the life of the city and a major tourist attraction.


In 1959, urban renewal started with the Charles Centre project which drew attention to the potential of the historic harbour basin. A redevelopment plan was prepared in 1964 for the 240 acres around the harbour with the objective to establish the waterspace as a “dramatic gateway to the Central Business District”. The plan proposed deflecting a freeway that separated the waterfront from the city to “return the shoreline to the people”. In addition, the redevelopment of McKedlin Square, a major point of access into Inner Harbour provided a bridge over the freeway. The bridge is structured with waterfalls, pools and cascades. The development, a continued combination of private and public investment, has achieved a waterspace with an extensive waterside promenade providing access to a variety of inter-related activities. The historic focal point is Federal Hill, named after the celebrations in 1788 in honour of the Maryland’s General Assembly’s ratification of the Frigate Constitution. The Harbour itself provides a dock for the three-masted US Frigate Constellation, a submarine and light ship, as well as marina space. A tall structure, the Trade Center, acts as an architectural fulcrum, with the distinctive National Aquarium building located on finger piers projecting into the waterspace.

The Harborplace Pavilions with balconies and galleries overlooking the water dominate one corner of the water space. Other new buildings include the Maryland Science Center, the performing arts tent and the Rusty Scupper Restaurant. A few remaining historic buildings have been adapted to new uses: the Custom House, the Power Plant (intended for a family entertainment centre) and the Sewage Pumping Station (opened in 1982 as a Public Works Museum). The historic finger piers projecting into the waterspace are linked by foot bridges protected by awnings.

The parking capacity for the Inner Harbour is 15,324 and there were 7 million visitors in 1988. The commercial buildings of the city centre form an enclosing backdrop to the waterspace. By focusing renewal on the old harbour, the direction of urban improvement from water to hinterland reflects the original development of the city.


ONTARIO PLACE, TORONTO

Ontario Place waterside pleasure park was developed to revitalize the Toronto City waterfront, utilizing the former National Exhibition grounds.

The project consists of a lagoon enclosed by 46 acres of man-made islands and a marina village. On the west side of the lagoon, the west island marina is centred around an entertainment plaza. On the east side of the lagoon, one island has a Children's Village and water play area, and a second island has the main forum for spectator entertainment. On the lake side of the lagoon, a marina harbour provides for quayside restaurants.

Within the lagoon the five exhibition buildings or “pods” interconnected by box lattice bridges are constructed on piles. The exhibition buildings are raised 11m (35ft) above the water to allow small craft to sail under the 25 m (85 ft) square pavilions. The buildings are supported by central column structures built up from caissons set into the lake and the columns extend through and rise above the structures to provide masts for flags and lighting. The raised exhibition buildings allow views at water level from islands and the shore. The structure also permits visitors to walk at various levels, including at roof level, to view the coast and lake.

The number of visitors to Ontario Place has reached a maximum of 3 million in one year.

FUN AND FANTASY

The light-hearted fun element that uses cartoon characters and caricature architecture supplemented by food outlets and rides has deep-rooted origins and a storehouse of images and forms. The leisure park, theme park or destination attraction (supported by hotels) encapsulates the facilities of a traditional resort promenade within a protected controlled zone, clean, organized and with assured safety.


Parks vary in size from Small regional operations with 200,000 visitors a year to international parks supported by 2-8 million visitors a year. In terms of the technology, management and marketing leisure parks, there are close links with the experience gained from World Expositions. Expos have been planned to handle vast numbers of visitors and to provide innovative and themed attractions. Few resorts have developed the mega scale of the Walt Disneyworld Resort and Epcot Center in Florida or the Euro Disney Resort in Paris. The Euro Disney Resort will cover an area of 1943 ha(one-fifth the size of Paris) and employs 12.000 cast members.

In creating Walt Disney World, Orlando, Florida, the Disney Organization not only created an extensive family resort but also made a significant Impact on the Orlando region by providing attractions and accommodation where visitors can stay for several days to enjoy a wide range of leisure facilities.The “Magic Kingdom” theme park with 45 adventures in a 100 acre site and based on Disneyland, in Anaheim, California, was completed in 1971, EPCOT, a 260 acre international exposition was opened in 1982 and Disney MGM Studios Theme Park was opened in 1989.

These attractions are supported by extensive accommodation and recreational facilities; a resort village with seven hotels (approximately 3500rooms), Disney Village Resort with 576 villas, a 730 acre Camp ground and further accommodation is planned. The recreation facilities include five PGA championship golf courses and two large water theme parks, River Country and Typhoon Lagoon.

Orlando also has many other major attractions such as Sea World and Wet’n Wild and numerous resort hotels, that compound the tourist interest in the region.

As there is an obvious commercial link between theme parks and accessible hotels in the development of Euro Disney Resort, Paris, the DisneyOrganization has built five hotels and a campground in phase I of the project. The Disney Parks are based on an established and well marketed product, familiar through successful cartoon and real-life films. The Florida complex combines the innocent adventure rides “through cartoon film stories” of the Magic Kingdom, with informed and educative rides through encyclopedic subjects in the Epcot Center.


There is a strong tradition of amusement and family parks in the USA ranging from those featuring cohesive themed areas, such as the original Knotts Berry Farm, to parks featuring mainly thrill rides and amusements, such as Magic Mountain, Los Angeles. The Six Flags and Anheuser-Busch parks combine rides and themed areas. With the popularity of music festivals and the universal access to recorded music, the idea of a music theme park is particularly appealing. Opryland at Nashville, Tennessee fulfills this role for popular American Country music.

Similarly, in Europe, parks have been developed and convey a diversity of characteristics. In Britain, Blackpool Pleasure Beach, operating since 1895 and now receiving 6. 5 million visitors a year, provides mainly rides. Dobwells Family Amusement Park, Cornwall includes an extensive “scaled down” railway system. Flambards, Cornwall, has a Victorian village and a representation of “Britain in the Blitz”, both conveying a re-creation of the conditions of the time concerned. Chessington. with one million visitors a year, formerly a zoo, has been re-established as theme park by the Tussauds Group. A section of the original zoo has been retained and thrill rides are well integrated into seven themed areas.

De Efteling, Holland, originated as a walk through a fairy story book, in recent years has extended to thrill rides. In France, substantial parks have been developed, some based on popular cartoon characters. Asterix, a Gaullic traveller through Europe and through time, is able to generate a cohesive theme for the areas within the Asterix Park near Paris. In contrast, Smurf is used at Wallaby Smurf, Hadondage as a centre theme surrounded by a range of independent and diverse concepts. In Germany, Europa Park, Rust, provides caricature and re-creation of the architecture of various European countries in a historic chateau setting.

Parks in Australia and Japan also use historical and European themes for feature areas. Pioneer World at Armadale, Western Australia and Sovereign Hill Goldmining Township, 70 miles from Melbourne, both demonstrate the life of the gold-rush years of the 1850s. The themed communities operate with crafts, shops and town transport as they would have been at the time, conveying a picture of a significant episode of Australian history. Wonderland near Sydney combines a leisure park of themed areas


representing goldrush Australia and medieval England with water fun and a 10 acre wildlife park.

In japan, the Nikko Edo-Mora village near Tokyo, and close to Toshugu Shrine, re-creates the buildings, culture and customs of the community that preceded Tokyo over the Edo era (1603-1867). At the same time there are several theme parks in Japan that convey aspects of European culture and history. The Germany of the Grimm brothers is carefully reproduced in the Gluck Kingdom theme park at Tokachi. The park, created by a German immigrant farmer, Wilhelm Grabow, re-creates the buildings associated with the Grimm fairy tales and the two authors. including reproductions of the statue of the Grimm brothers, the church of Saint Catherine in Steinan and the Buckeburg Castle in Hessen. The appropriate skills, crafts, food and merchandise are operated by German staff.

BUSCH GARDENS, WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

The Busch Entertainment Corporation is the family entertainment subsidiary of Anheuser-Busch Companies Inc. and is the second largest theme park operator in the world, with ten parks in the USA. The Company’s family entertainment activities began in 1959 with Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida, an animal park with an African theme. Since then it has established the Busch Gardens, the European-themed park in Williamsburg, Virginia; “Sesame Place” in Philadelphia, a children’s play park; “Adventure Island” in Tampa, a tropical themed water fun park; in 1989 the Company acquired the four Sea World marine life parks and Cypress Gardens and in 1992 Anheuser-Busch purchased Water Country USA, a water fun park in Williamsburg, Virginia. For all the parks, Anheuser-Busch receives 19 million visitors per year and employs 15,000 people at peak season. They are also involved in projects in Spain and Japan.

Busch Gardens, Williamsburg is a 360 acre family entertainment theme park with both thrill rides and featured areas. It opened in 1975 within a 360 acre tract of wooded Virginia countryside owned by the company. The location is well supported with hotel accommodation and other tourist attractions nearby.


Within the park, the nine feature areas representing European hamlets relate to England (Banbury Cross and Hastings), France (Aquitaine), Germany (Rhinefeld and Oktoberfest), Scotland (Heatherdowns), Italy (San Marco and Festa Italia) and Canada (New France). The buildings in each area are grouped to enclose a space embracing a cohesive ambience. The entertainment and food service within each area is compatible with the country portrayed.

The English section, “Banbury Cross”, which is the point of entry into the park, consists of tudoresque buildings with one building extending over the circulation route. Entertainment is provided in a replica “Globe Theatre”. There is also a pastry shop, an animal petting zoo with miniature animal breeds, and a “Big Ben” clock tower. The Scottish section “Heatherdowns” provides one of the park's roller-coaster rides, the “Loch Ness Monster”. It also houses the world-famous Anheuser-Busch Clydesdale dray horses. Hastings, the second English area, has motion picture entertainment, audio animation and flight simulator. There is a stage show and “The Enchanted Laboratory”, a computer animated show. Nearby, there is “Threadneedle Faire”, a medieval games area where visitors can test their skill at thirteenth-century games of crossbow, Jacob’s ladder and slingshot.

The French style “Aquitaine” captures the character of a small town “centre ville” with appropriate delicatessen food outlets and a doll shop. The ride associated with this area is “Le Mans Raceway”. The Royal Palace Theatre, an adjacent open air concert theatre, can accommodate 5000 guests.

In contrast, “New France” captures the character of a Canadian fun trapper village with aromatic barbecues and restaurants serving smoked meats. Theme are country music shows and a log flume ride. There are also craft shops, pottery, wood carving and leatherwork, blacksmith and a tintype photography studio.

Rhinefeld features an antique carousel manufactured in 1819. There are cruises on the “River Rhine”, a children’s play area (“Grimms Hollow”), and German confectionery, beer and gift shops. The German spirit is further captured in the “Festhaus”, a 2000 seat German style festivity hall with band, dancers and Burgermeister. The associated rides include a suspended roller coaster “Big Bad Wolf “ that travels through a “Bavarian” village and plunges


80 ft to skim the river below, a wave swing ride and bumper cars. Also located is the Drachen Fire roller coaster with looping spirals and corkscrews.

San Marco develops the Italian theme with Italian food, wine and gifts. The “Da Vinci’s Garden of Inventions” with five rides relating to the artist’s work is based on the fertile imagination of Leonardo. “Bel Canto Italiano” provides an enclosed piazza with terraces for dining overlooking a stage with a classical structure. The Festa Italia area re-creates an old Italian street carnival with rides including “Roman Rapids”, a white water rapids ride with rafts.

The major roller coaster rides are located on the periphery of the park and are directed through mature woodland. This is particularly effective, both in reducing the visual intrusion of the substantial structures, and also providing an experience of the landscape as part of the ride.

Within The themed areas, costumed street characters perform and intermingle with visitors. The merchandise is relevant and in most cases imported from the countries featured. There are displays of European artists/crafts such as the work of sculptors and painters. The food outlets are also appropriately themed.

Transportation around the park is provided by an “Aeronaut Skyride” with gondolas, a stream locomotive that Circles the complete complex on a 1.5 mile course and a computer operated sky bus that link the park with the Anheuser-Busch Hospitality Center.

The location of the theme park within the heavily wooded rolling environment in which streams, lakes and the river appear all part of the natural landscape, provides the park with a separateness that encourages enjoyment. Each of the featured areas, some with an authentic quality, others strictly a caricature of the country concerned, self-contained. The objective is entertainment, but there is also an element of education in the different European themed areas, the high-tech games, and the display of craft skills.


PARC ASTERIX, PARIS

Parc Asterix is a substantial theme park in France geared to family amusement. It is located at Picardie on one of the principal north-south routes for holiday traffic 30 km north of Paris and 180 km south of Lille.

Parc Asterix has been designed as a French theme park based on the famous comic strip of Gauls and Romans created by Rene Gosciny and Albert Uderzo, with areas of the park identified with particular situations. The originator Uderzo was involved in the design and development of the park.

The Los Angeles design company, Duell Corporation was retained by Parc Asterix in April 1985 to guide their team of French architects and engineers through the illustrations, planning and development process. The company was also responsible for negotiation contracts for all the rides. A feasibility study projected revenues, annual attendance, maximum capacity and a programme of activities, including the number and type of rides, shows, attractions, food, merchandise and service facilities. French architects developed the project.

The overall size of the development area in the 155 ha was established at 20 ha (50 acres). The minimum size for projected attendance was established at 1.8 million visitors per year. During the first 2 years (1989 and 1990) the attendances were 1.35 and 1.45 million respectively.

The park is geared to 24,000 visitors a day, which could represent an in-flow of 3000 per hour. The total capacity of the rides and shows is 23,500 visitors per hour, and the percentage of rides to shows is 60:40. The restaurant capacity (45 food outlets) is 4000 seats and there are 20 retail outlets. Staffing is 800 with a permanent staff in winter of 130.

The plan of the park is based on a loop configuration with a “main street” as the lead-in. The main street, “Via Antiqua”, provides for snacks and for window shopping by visitors when they enter the park, and for buying merchandise as they leave. Via Antiqua also provides a holding area for guests arriving prior to the opening of the rest of the park.


The theming and building facades in Via Antiqua are derived exclusively from the Asterix comic books, representing the many countries visited byAsterix. Merchandise matches the theme. The street and sequence of spaces created by the irregular layout of buildings forms a caricature of architecture of all ages which conveys a light-hearted mood and humor, preparing visitors for the atmosphere of the park. The street is overlooked by a figure of Asterix elevated on a rocky pinnacle 43 m high.

The second area, Cite Romaine, represents antique Rome using classical motifs. A humorous touch is achieved by playing with the scale of the elements making small things big and vice versa. The area includes a themed carousel or merry-go-round, an area for gladiatorial shows, chariot rides, a river ride and a “Roman camp” transformed into a children’s adventure play area. The galleries and towers within the camp provide structures for slides, climbing nets, bridges, catwalks and climbing ropes. The structure appears consistent with the military outpost theme and the children can play out the legions’ activities.

The primary theme area is the centrally located Village d’Asterix which conveys recognizable images from the Asterix books. The 16 huts were designed by Uderzo, each one portraying an animated episode - the fishmonger’s house, the blacksmith, the chief 's house - with figures setting the particular scene. As the area is directed towards children, the scale of the structures is kept small. The village is surrounded by a river which provides a river ride. The sides of the river have 27 Asterix scenes with 64 animated figures - three-dimensional representations of pages in the comic strip.

The themed areas continue with the Rue de Paris which represents post-Gaullic Paris from the middle ages through to the nineteenth century. The total sequence of sets is over 200 m long. The street spaces are approached through a caricature medieval gateway. Some sections of the street are totally roofed over to provide protection from the weather so that a series of theatrical performances, with controlled lighting, can be performed. Lighting techniques draw out the interior of the shops and the side alleyways in a particularly effective way. A dozen permanent artisans demonstrate old-time crafts and trades and practise their skills in the Rue de Paris.


Returning to the rocky pinnacle statue of Asterix, visitors pass a curved building representing the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and then through the Place de Georgovie which includes a roller coaster and a log flume ride.

Throughout the park there are entertainment areas and thrill rides. The spectator entertainment includes a dolphin show (2000 seats) and a gladiatorial “slap stick” (1200 seats) theatrical. The roller coaster and other rides are kept on the periphery of the park to avoid an intrusion on the character of the various themed areas.

The food facilities include six large restaurants with cuisine related to the themed areas in which they are located. One restaurant, “Arcimbolo”, is covered in giant fruit and vegetables. The largest restaurant seats 1000. There are also sandwich shops, food stalls, two pubs and a pastry shop.

The general facilities include tourist information of the Region, group reception area, a bank with foreign exchange, multi-lingual hostesses and school monitors, provision for left luggage, pushchairs for children and wheelchairs for the handicapped. There is a rest area for coach drivers, a medical centre and telephones. There are also kennels for dogs.

Asterix is an attractive theme park in which the good humor of the characters on which the park is based is conveyed through the design and the entertainment. Although the park is not limited to one theme, the principal Asterix theme is predominant and provides a strong cohesive element.

DE EFTELING, HOLLAND

The initial construction of de Efteling as a nature park took place in the early 1950s and it has since developed into a major theme park with family attractions. A central area is a “fairy tale” forest with animated sets showing popular fairy tale episodes. The work of the artist Anton Pieck, familiar to many children, was transformed into life-sized, three- dimensional characters and settings. De Efteling contains 42 fairy tales. In the 1980s, roller coasters, river rides, a bob sleigh and other thrill rides including dark rides were added. The park has 2.5 million visitors per year (of whom 22% are from outside


Holland). It has parking spaces for 7000 cars and 200 coaches, and a themed hotel.

The latest themed area, the Laaf People, was created by the Artistic Director Ton Van de Ven. The area consists of buildings, displaying the activities of the Laaf People. The sets are animated and are supported by synchronized sounds and music. The creative idea started with “a land of milk and honey” with a gourmet theme. This developed into the indulgent Laaf People. The episodes include a Laaf nursery, school room, brewery and bakery.

Visitors can be directed around the Village of the Laaf People by cassette tape summary and they can travel by elevated cycle monorail. The illustrations show the transformation from design concept to actual buildings. The total area has a cohesive ambience that animates a fairy tale with fantasy characters.

EUROPA PARK, RUST, GERMANY

Europa Park in the Black Forest, Germany, was opened in 1975, developed adjacent to and including the historic Balthasar Castle built in 1442. The park benefits from the mature trees and landscaping of the historic chateau.

The castle in now used as a 450 seat restaurant. The adjacent gardens include a gentle water ride along a 200 m canal lined by colorful indigenous plants and through a 45 m long conservatory full of exotic plants and animal caricatures. The themed areas of the park each capture the character of a particular European country: Italy, France, Switzerland, Holland, England (Victoria Square) as well as Chocoland, Wickieland and Adventureland. The Italian market square is formed of Italianesque buildings, including a 800 seat baroque style theatre with ceiling frescoes and walls covered with damask. There is also a fairy tale gondola ride through Schlaraffia Land,which consists of four seated gondolas moving past sets with mobile puppets, and it can handle 1400 people per hour. The Italian area also has a 400 seat electronic bird show.


The French quarter is designed around a 7 m long lake with bridges and waterside seating. The quarter combines traditional “metropolitan” buildings with the high-tech spherical form of the “Eurosat” capturing the present-day mood of Parisienne “Grands Projets” the Eurosat 45 m high globe accommodates a roller coaster dark ride conveying visitors through space, complete with images of space stations and space travel. The French Quarter also includes a 75 m high panorama observation tower which allows views of the Rhine Valley. The cabin is fully glazed with an elevating speed of 1.5 m s and rotates when ascending and descending.

The Swiss area includes a 500 m long bobsleigh ride. The station, with a granite slab roof, is built in the style of the Swiss Wallis region.

Victoria Square includes a glazed mall with restaurant and shooting gallery. also a 150 m ride representing a Formula 1 Monza Track. There is a carousel and a three-dimensional cinema for 500.

The Dutch Village incorporates characteristic buildings including a round tower and windmill. A central roofed space provides for the “Whirling CoffeeCups” ride, a last moving carousel with 12 large Delft patterned cups that move around a large coffee pot. There is also a 300 seat electronic theatre, a Euromouse show enacted with electronically controlled puppets. The Dutch Village includes many areas for children and a dark ride that explores a historic Dutch colony, Batavia. Visitors ride in boats through the harbour and canal areas, lined by animated sets. The building housing the ride covers6000 sq. m. Each of the 20 boats carries 16, and the overall capacity of the ride is 2500 visitors per hour.

Adventureland is centred on a lake with Mississippi style paddle boats and “Finnish” rafts to take visitors on rides. A 500 m long flume passes through a cave of simulated stalactites and prehistoric animals.

The Grottenblitz Mountain Coaster is a 70 km/h railway coaster that moves through rocky scenery, trees and caves.


Lila Chocoland has a central 35m high conical building (a monorail station) and a shopping mall with a chocolate laboratory where children can experiment with chocolate. The “Milka Express” monorail carries visitors around the park on a 700 m long track. A 900 seat electronic revolving theatre the “Lila Secret” combines a six segment auditorium revolving around six stages on which production of chocolate is imaginatively demonstrated.

Wickieland is an adventure area for children including a Viking Ship and Viking Village, an extensive playground with towers, slides, tunnels and play facilities.

A new area concerned with Scandinavia is centred on an authentic Stav Church, carefully re-created by Norwegian craftsmen. The Scandinavian area overlooks a rapids river ride.

The total park includes seven restaurants seating 4500 visitors and various snack bars. Parking includes 6000 cars and 300 coach places. The park is operated by 800 staff in season and 150 during winter. The environmental quality is of particular importance to Europa Park. To reduce pollution, power for the park is generated by a turbine operated by the Elz Rive (which passes through the park) to provide 120 KVA.

VISITOR ATTRACTIONS - SCIENTIFIC, CULTURAL AND HISTORIC

Theme parks based on scientific, cultural or historical subjects move towards the role of a museum, but animate the subjects by simulating original artefacts. This is achieved by the use of audio-visual presentations and interactive devices.

An explanation of modern technology is necessary in order to understand both its application, such as television and computers, as well as the more academic principles. As the younger generation become more attuned to computer technology and animated visual interpretations, visitor attractions require more imaginative and innovative features to secure interest and approval.


The technology of film and television production is the basis of several film studio theme parks in Florida and California. At the Granada Studios Tour, Manchester, England, both the techniques of television and the sets for popular serial productions are there to be explored.

At La Cite des Sciences et Industrie, La Villette, Paris, the techniques used to convey scientific information (hands-on devices and audio-visual techniques) provide a vivid educational experience.

At Futuroscope, Poitiers, the close association between research technology and leisure techniques is being developed using innovative presentations to cover a wide range of audio-visual techniques. These include Kaleidoscope presentation with 10 screens of various sizes (one is spherical): Showspan,70mm film shown at 60 frames per second (more than twice the normal speed of projection); 70mm onto a 6500 sq.ft. screen; Cinema Dynamique usingthe “Dynamic Cinema” technique developed by Intamin; Cinema Circulaire, circular cinema with nine 35 mm projectors; Omnimax, 70mm projection onto a semi-spherical screen; and Cinema in Relief, 70mm projectors with visitors wearing polarized glasses to experience an illusion of three-dimensional images. The park is part of a more extensive development which includes an industrial complex based on telecommunications and a research centre for innovative development.

It is not always possible to retrieve a historic town from the ravages of time (achieved at Williamsburg in Virginia, USA), but it is possible to simulate historic cultural image. The Knotts Berry Farm re-creation of the West, with costumed characters carrying out the “ordinary lives” of a small goldbrush town, aims to transport visitors in time to another era.

The “Chinese” cultural parks in Hong Kong and Singapore (Middle Kingdom, Sung Dynasty and Tang Dynasty) aim to convey a living interpretation of historic China to people who have lost contact with their cultural roots. Equally, the Polynesian in Hawaii can find a representation of the various traditions in the Polynesian Cultural Centre, while his or her aspirations may be geared to the modern American way of life.


The re-construction of a historic location as a tourist attraction or ‚”Heritage Centre” in a realistic way that transports visitors in time and makes them aware of the contingencies of another age, is an interesting way of sustaining conservation. Techniques for creating a vivid experience range from static scenes, to sets animated by interpreters or by audio-visual techniques. The archaeological dig at York, revealing the Viking World, could have remained as a few exposed foundations and timbers supplemented by showcases of artefacts. In fact, a living everyday scene is simulated at the Jorvik Centre to interpret the reality revealed in the excavated remains of the Viking Town. The simulated Viking settlement has pioneered an imaginative approach to the display and explanation of archaeology.

The Jamestown Settlement in Virginia is a re-creation of a historic settlement that captures an important episode in the history of the New World. The vulnerable existence of the seventeenth-century settlement is conveyed by the fort, buildings, jetty and boats, all attended by “interpreters” in costume. The Jamestown Settlement is not an archaeological excavation or a renovation, but a re-creation based on the best information available.

History and mythology can also be conveyed by audio-visual and sensory techniques in the form of dramatized presentations. The Last Labyrinth, Lands End, Cornwall, is an audio-visual experience that conveys the character of an important geographical location, the south-west of England, exposed to the mercy of the Atlantic.

GRANADA STUDIOS TOUR, MANCHESTER

The inquisitiveness of the public in what was visible from the street of the “Coronation Street” television set, led Granada Television Company to explore the idea of allowing the public into the studios. The television theme park that has been created provides a comprehensive explanation of the television process and access into the scenery sets of popular television dramas. Visitors can walk through the familiar surroundings of fiction to make them more recognizable when the sequel is next seen on TV. The exhibits have been expanded to include both historic and advanced cinematographic techniques.


The tour entrance is formed with a tension canopy enclosing information and ticketing points. This leads to a free flow area consisting of a paved forecourt, part of which is a set of “downtown New York”.

The organized tour starts in the production control room, and continues through a typical TV studio with special effects, stage, make-up, wardrobe departments and props room. A free walk-about provides access to “Coronation Street”‚ “Baker Street”‚ “Downing Street”, the “House of Commons”, a room furnished with giant scale furniture, and a simulated tropical forest. Each conveys the familiar setting for a popular TV programme and the visitor relives the programme ambience. The scenery is extended beyond a mere backcloth and has depth of construction and spaces, such as the shops in

Baker Street used as cafes and for retail. The visitor can participate in a House of Commons debate in a set made for “First Among Equals”. On Mondays the sets are used for filming and no visitors are allowed in the studios.

The later features include “Projections”, which explores the history of cinemas starting with the reconstructed entrance foyer of the Granada Cinema at Tooting, a record of early cinema opulence.

In the foyer there is cinematographic memorabilia including cameras, projectors and a Wurlitzer organ. The cinema techniques start with a classic black and white movie of the 1930s and move on to the Motionmaster cinema with 70 mm projection, six channel sound, and computer controlled seats that move, synchronized with the screen action. Further cinemas have been added: Imax and 3D projection.

Adaptation and innovation continue. The Baker Street set is being transformed to house a Sherlock Holmes Museum of Criminology. A new 300 seat theatre will accommodate live shows. There is a masterplan for a 15 acre media city which would extend the complex to include further leisure, retail and business facilities.

The 3 acre site for the studios had been a derelict railway goods yard and included 50,000 sq.ft of existing buildings to be utilized for the tour facilities. The studio areas are supplemented with restaurants, food outlets and retail space.


Each feature within the tour takes 7 minutes. The total guided tour takes one-and-a-half hours and the six free flow attractions each take about half an hour. Thus the visit to all the feature areas will take from 4 ½ to 5 hours (excluding refreshments and shopping) to a full length stay which could be 7 hours, representing a full day’s outing.

The overall “park” is designed for 1 million visitors a year with a capacity for 3500 visitors daily. The total investment has been £13 million. Total staffing is approximately 250 to allow for shift work with 22 guides available at peak times.

LA CITE DES SCIENCES ET DE L’ INDUSTRIE, LA VILLETE, PARIS

La Villete is one of the Grand Projects of Paris that utilizes otherwise redundant urban land for a significant public use. The 35 ha of former abattoir and cattle market, at the intersection of the Canal de to l’ Oureg and the Canal St Denis, has been developed as a cultural centre and leisure park, with new buildings, landscaping (with themed areas) and play areas. The main new buildings are the massive Cite des Sciences et de L’ lndustrie, an extensive “discovery” exposition of Science and Industry; a Music Faculty; the Zenith, a concert hall to seat 6400; the Geode housing an Omnimax theatre; the House of La Villette, a study centre of local history; and several red painted follies or facility buildings. The main market building has been renovated to provide a Great Hall.

The park has a lineal walk that includes a bridge over the Canal de l’ Oureg to link the market building section with the Cite des Sciences et de l’ lndustrie, and the Geode. The Geode and Cite have water surrounding each building. The themed gardens include two central meadows, water gardens, energy and experiential gardens. The follies or facility buildings that punctuate the area include a restaurant and a bar.

When completed and when the trees are mature it will form a major urban park in Paris accommodating facilities combining arts and sciences.


La Cite des Sciences et de l'Industrie is a centre of exhibitions, documentation, communication and research. It is not a museum of static artefacts, but includes Explora, an exposition of scientific exploration and experience achieved through inter-active displays. The displays are to be developed and changed as techniques change.

Multimedia displays, interactive computer exhibits and informative models are designed for visitors to explore the world of science, technology and industry, and aim to promote discovery and reflection

The floors devoted to Explora are concerned with subjects relating to the universe, life, matter and communications. The examples are based on familiar things from daily life; entertainment, games, sensations are all used as a means of exploring, understanding and appreciating the world.

The Inventorium is geared to 3-6 year olds (hands-on sensorial experience) and 6-12 year olds, to discover such topics as light, water, machines, the body, in motion and communication.

The many sections include mathematics with games, hand-on exhibits and audio-visual presentations such as geometry, dynamics, caustics; sound with particular reference to the human voice and hearing; expression and behavior concerned with gestures, expressions, reactions and rituals; computer science concerned with the storage, sorting and use of information and computer languages; space; images, concerned with the structure of films,videos and photographs; materials from natural materials to plastics technology; energy, showing energy sources from wind to the technology of nuclear fusion; ”Cultivate the Earth”, concerned with farming techniques; “Aquaculture”, concerned with farming the seas and rivers; “Meteovision”, concerned with weather; “Planetarium”; the ocean including a life-sized submarine; space, rocks and volcanoes; stars and galaxies; the “Secrets of Life” including genetic engineering, general biology, a small aquarium and mini-zoo; microbes; a family evolution from Neolithic to today; the “Image of Man”; “Light games”; robots; “Air and Wings”; and agricultural biotechnology.


HERITAGE CENTRES

The preserve of man includes the preservation and reconstruction of historic artefacts that convey cultural roots and origins. The major cities of North America have developed almost with a disregard for history, the entrepreneurial spirit motivating innovation and renewal. However, there is an interest in cultural connections displayed in the architectural caricatures of European buildings included in major theme parks, and the more protective reconstruction of historic locations of significance. The historical connection of the west coast and south is retrieved in the conservation of Hispanic traditions as at San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego and San Antonio. The French connection is retained in the close-knit streets of downtown New Orleans. The British interaction with the east coast, from Boston to Savannah, has been the subject of particular conservation and replication. The location of the first settlement, Jamestown, and nearby Williamsburg in Virginia, have received careful attention.

JAMESTOWN AND WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

Jamestown and Williamsburg represent the establishment of a British community and eventual independence of North American States from British colonial rule.

The Jamestown Settlement resulted from three small British sailing vessels, “Susan Constant”, “Godspeed” and “Discovery” (sponsored by the Virginia Company of London) sailing from England and arriving on the North America coast in 1607. It was a 5 months’ journey for the 39 ships’ crew and 105 colonists, and they created the first permanent British colony. The settlers constructed homes within a triangular protective palisade. After many tribulations, the colony was saved by the establishment of tobacco plantations, and the colony expanded. Jamestown served as the capital of Virginia until 1699, to be superseded by Williamsburg.

Williamsburg served as the capital of the colony based until 1784, and during that period it was a cultural and political centre ranking in importance with Boston, New York, Charleston and Annapolis.


The two locations, Jamestown and Williamsburg have been preserved as a historic record of initial colonial settlement and eventual independence.

The “James Fort” and the three ships moored at the landing are re-creations of the originals based on the best available historical and archaeological information. The mooring and fort are not on the exact sites, which have been lost with the changes in the shore line, but suggest the relationship of sea, settlement, and hinterland.

The palisade fort with its protective wall of spiked log posts conveys the isolation of the settlement. The simple thatched structures within the fort accommodate restructured artefacts of the day. The site is staffed by people in Jacobean costume and armor who are informative, interpreting the way of life of the settlers. Some carry out actual skills of the day. There is also an area outside the fort with reconstructed Indian huts to represent the indigenous community with whom the settlers had to come to terms. Again costumed staff interpret the traditions and culture of the Powhatan Indians in the Indian village.

The wattle and daub buildings within the fort are based on sixteenth and seventeenth-century English construction techniques, using pegs and adz in place of nails and modern saws. The storehouse was constructed of white and red oak with pine roof rafters. To secure the tenons, wooden pegs were made out of oak and locust. Framing posts were sunk into the ground and thatching has been carried out by English thatchers. The Indian village houses are reed or bark covered. Other structures have a frame consisting of white oak posts set in the ground, but are tied together at the top, the frames being covered with reed mats.

The three ships were carefully selected for the seventeenth-century expedition: the larger ones for cargo capacity and the small boat for maneuverability in coastal waters. The life-size replicas are a tacit reminder of the courage of the crew and passengers of the day. Archaeological excavations of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century shipwrecks and sixteenth-century records of shipbuilding provided valuable information about ships constructed at the time andserved as a basis for the replica vessels.


A vivid impression is conveyed of human endurance and practical resolve. In addition the records and the historic context of both British and Indian communities are exhibited in a museum and film show located in a nearby building; the museum building and vehicle car park are also well screened from the settlement by trees so as not to impose on the isolation and integrity of the settlement site.

Williamsburg is a community frozen in time and is referred to as a “live museum”. However, a similarity to the best cultural theme parks makes it of particular interest in that context. Until his death in 1960, John D. Rockefeller devoted his personal attention and resources to the development of Colonial Williamsburg as a Foundation. It is a non-profit educational organization concerned with the restoration and interpretation of the historic sections, the conduct of an extensive educational and cultural programme arising from the historic significance of Williamsburg, the operation of visitor accommodation and supportive services, and the maintenance of particular historic and exhibition buildings.

The historic area of Williamsburg covers 173 acres of the original town, including the streets as devised in 1699 with its mile-long tree-lined Duke ofGloucester Street that extends from the College of William and Mary (based on a design by Sir Christopher Wren) to the Capitol or council offices. The area includes 88 original houses, shops, taverns and public buildings. An additional 50 major buildings and many small structures have been rebuilt on original sites. More than 90 acres of gardens and greens have been restored to their eighteenth-century form. The preparation for restoration included removing incompatible buildings, telegraph poles and cables.

The animation is provided by 20 historic trade shops where costumed artisans employ manual techniques and tools of the eighteenth century, to make articles similar to those produced at the time. These include apothecary, basket making, blacksmith, bookbinder, shoemaker, cabinetmaker, cooper, founder, gunsmith, harnessmaker, miller, milliner, printer, post office, silversmith, spinner, weaver, wheelwright and wigmaker crafts. The taverns are hosted by degree student maidens and swash-buckling attendants.


The scale of Williamsburg compared with the Jamestown Settlement has not permitted the exclusion of the motor vehicle. Visitors arrive into the centre of Williamsburg by coaches, and the periphery of the historic area is accessible to motor traffic. Although there are informative displays of military procedure, and the occasional horse or horse-drawn vehicle, the encapsulated historic monument appears incomplete without the continuous sound, smell and sight of horses and livestock. The buildings are immaculate, the vegetable gardens are precise and the trade shops convey the self-sufficiency of a pre-industrialized service to the consumer.

For the British visitor, Williamsburg is more disciplined in layout than the average small country town in England, more in the character of Winchelsea, Sussex. But Williamsburg conveys a cohesive cultural character that is distinctly traditional English. There is a “village” green and the front gardens are fenced.

CULTURAL EVOCATION

The “Chinese” theme parks of Singapore and Hong Kong do not relate to a specific historic location, but aim to convey a picture of a culture, significant in relation to other overriding traditions. They endeavor to establish root connections for a community in which the cultural identity has been overshadowed.

Theme parks based on the classic Chinese history show enclosed and protected worlds of articulate design, highly developed craft skills and sophisticated social life. For the multifarious nationalities that have settled in Singapore and Hong Kong, the cultural links with China are important both to the Chinese communities and to visitors. To the visitor, Singapore and Hong Kong appear to be totally modern cities with few historic connections with China apart from Chinatown in Singapore and the traditional Chinese boat s in Hong Kong harbour.

In a not dissimilar context, the Polynesian cultural Centre in Hawaii aims to reinforce Polynesian traditions in a community that has become subject to a totally different way of life


THE SUNG DYNASTY, HONG KONG

The Sung Dynasty (960-1279 AD) represents a high point in Chinese history Although the capital had to be removed from K'ai-feng to the lakeside Hang-chou due to invaders from the north, the artistic skills of porcelain, sculpture and painting matured to exceptional finesse. The Sung were finally overrun by the Monguls, and the last Sung Emperor fled to a small village which is now part of Hong Kong.

The connection with Hong Kong inspired the creation in 1979 of a representative Sung Village in Kowloon. The project was developed by Mr Deacon Chiu and the village re-creates the buildings and spatial character depicted in the famous Sung Dynasty scroll painting “Spring Festival by the River”.

The village modeled on the Sung Dynasty capital Bian Jing occupies an area of 60,000 sq. ft and the construction costs were 15 million Hong Kong dollars. Artisans and craftsmen were brought in from China to work on the woodcarving and details of the village.

The village is enclosed by a high wall and access is through an imposing archway with heavy doors. The visitor is then confronted with a village street space. A river passes under an impressive bridge that links the entrance forecourt with the street space, and winds down between the street and small craft buildings. The sequence continues with a small Er-lang Shen temple that can be used by Buddhists, and which is open to visitors, and the street terminates with a manor house. The manor, which provides a picture of well endowed domestic life, has an entrance courtyard and an enclosed garden.

A gateway separates the “market” street of craft buildings from the forecourt in front of a large two-storey building, the Restaurant of Plentiful Joy, which has wide steps leading down to the street. The pillars and beams of the restaurant building are carved and painted in Sung style. Chinese food and drink are served, with classical Chinese music played in the background.


The detail of the buildings, the carved timbers, eaves and roof construction convey the quality and skill of the original historic architecture. The small spaces, the forecourt and garden of the manor house and the alley leading down to the wax work display, convey the more intimate scale that endorses the “living” quality of the village. The attendants and craftsmen dressed in the costumes of the age provide the animation. A segment of historic China is encapsulated to provide an informative experience for the tourist.

TANG DYNASTY CITY, SINGAPORE

Tang Dynasty City is a 12ha theme park in Jurong Singapore near the Chinese/Japanese Garden with its array of bridges and pagodas. Tang Dynasty City is a recreation of Chang-An (Xian), the capital of theTang Dynasty 618 An. Chang-An contained the Imperial Palace, Imperial City and Open City.

The theme park is the first major investment from Hong Kong by Far East Holdings International in Singapore, inspired by the major shareholder ofFEHI, Deacon Chiu, who created the Sung Dynasty Village in Hong Kong and also owns amusement parks in Indonesia.

The total investment for the park will be 100 million Singapore dollars. The project combines three working film studios and a theme park with potential use for incentive group gathering.

The theme park aims not only to convey the unique scenery, landscaping and architecture of the Tang era, but also the life of the ordinary people, the romance and intrigue of the Imperial Court, its wealth and glamour, the commercial activities, cosmopolitan atmosphere and exciting night life, the latter reflecting many of the qualities of present-day Singapore.

The park is enclosed by a massive wall, 0.66 km long and 10 m high, built in bricks similar to those used in the Great Wall of China. The wall, with its moat, gives a fortress appearance from the outside and separates the enclosed restructured Chinese buildings from the surrounding modern city.


Visitors enter through an impressive arched entrance within the enclosing wall at a section where the width of the wall construction accommodates shops and offices.

The forecourt is separated from the “market” buildings by a canalized river lined with willow trees. The arch bridge over the river, based on the Zhaozhou Bridge at Hebei, creates a vista oblique to the main axis of the park. The scattered buildings and narrow streets of the “open city” or “market” contrast with the main route that divides the open city from the large structures of restaurant, theatre restaurant and film studios. In the open city, traditional skills are displayed and there are tea houses, “medical” halls, fortune tellers and ironmongers.

The main route passes through to an archway that leads to the “Emperor’s Palace”. At the side of the entrance to the palace, there is to be a temple with a 10m high Buddha in one section and a Chinese Goddess of Mercy in another. On the other side of the forecourt to the “palace” there is a Heng Yang Pagoda with an underground display of terracotta warriors, horses and wagons. The “Imperial Palace” complex, comprising six palaces, is enclosed by a high wall with a large forecourt between the entrance gateway and the principal building. This first palace is approached by an impressive stairway.

The “Imperial Palace” is a re-creation of Emperor Tang Tai Zong’s imperial offices and household. Household exhibits and artefacts are on display to exemplify the culture and art of the Tang Dynasty. The main building also has a banquet/exhibition hall that can seat 2300 people for dining. There are also smaller halls for entertaining.

Beyond the palace, there is a representation of the uHa Ching Pool which aims to bring to life the countryside immortalized by Chinese painters and poets.

In the same section of the park, there is a Traveller’s “Inn”, a type of building that would have provided accommodation to traveling merchants on their way to the ancient capital. Nearby, there is a replica of the waterfall within the famous Shui-Lian cave.


Within the open spaces of the “city” there will be live entertainment, parades, festivals and dramatized events: a wedding procession, stuntmen, the “victorious general” returns to rousing celebrations, and the pomp and pageantry associated with the life of the Emperor. In the theatre restaurant, Chinese troupes perform authentic Tang Dynasty songs, dances and acrobatics of the period. The theatre has a capacity to seat 450 diners.

The film studios at the side of the theme park provide a tour for visitors to see how films are made. The working studios will be run by Tang Dynasty Motion Pictures, a subsidiary company of the Theme Park.

The park plans to attract 1 million visitors annually of whom 50% would be overseas tourists, and aims to increase the number of tourists to Singapore. The project employed 100 experienced craftsmen from China to ensure that details of construction were authentic. Building materials and planting were imported from China including 2 million green bricks. Willow trees, granite slab, slares, roof tiles and jade colored eaves were also imported from China.

MIDDLE KINGDOM, OCEAN PARK, HONG KONG

The “Middle Kingdom” theme park, located at Ocean Park, Hong Kong overlooking Aberdeen Harbour, was completed in January 1990. The park represents a time tunnel of Chinese history, covering a period of 13 dynasties of 5000 years from 2900 BC to 1911 AD. From the beachside, entrance is through an archway based on a memorial gate in the style of the Ming Dynasty wooden arch at Fushan. The carved animals in front of the gateway symbolize auspicious omens as well as providing decorative features.

The visitor then passes throng a series of spaces each identified with a particular Dynasty. The Qin Dynasty building, displaying early cultural development, is constructed from framework of columns and beams, clay walls and thatched roof. The floor level is raised above ground level in the style of palaces of the period. The Hang Dynasty, a time of particular prosperity, is represented by nine Han style homes which surround an open plaza. The buildings provide display spaces for craftsmen who are dressed in traditional clothing, and who are concerned with the authentic presentation of making paper‚ glass, pottery, wine, forging iron and weaving silk.


The arrival of Buddhism into China is depicted by a functioning Buddhist temple and a pagoda constructed in the style of the one at Songyue Temple, Songshan.

The main central space represents the thriving commercial and artistic life of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with decorated buildings having intricately carved timbers. In this section of Middle Kingdom, shops sell incense sticks and musical instruments; skilled craftsmen demonstrate calligraphy, stone carving and wood block printing. There are displays of grasshopper weaving, clay doll making, wire puzzles, paper cutting and fortune telling. Tea drinking became popular during the Tang Dynasty and there is a tea pavilion located in the centre of the square.

A pavilion overlooking the sea conveys the progressive inventions of the Song and Yuan Dynasties: advancements in agriculture, handicrafts, science and culture, gunpowder and the compass. A special tableau portrays the arrival of Marco Polo at the court of Kublai Khan. Using the space overlooking the sea to convey the impression of a harbour, the Ming Dynasty is symbolized by a replica ship of the explorer Admiral Zheng He.

The great Qing Dynasty, which lasted nearly 400 years up to 1911 AD, is represented by the reproduction of a section of the Beijing Summer Palace. The Emperor’s study room, reception room and bedroom with intricately carved beams and columns, are surrounded by landscaped gardens with a pavilion. Adjacent, and in the same ornate architectural character, there is a 500 seat Chinese open-air theatre modeled on the Empress Theatre in Beijing. Planned for live shows, the theatre is an open courtyard with a roofed stage on one side and roofed seating on three other sides. The columns supporting the roof construction are richly decorated. The main purlins are formed with highly decorated beams, and the overhanging roof corners are supported by ornate brackets. The walls are red and the roof tiles are yellow.

A large Tibetan-type building houses an Exhibition Hall Showing various aspects of Chinese culture, main souvenir shop and restaurant.


Middle Kingdom cost 70 million Hong Kong dollars. The architects Leigh and Orange carried out extensive historic research and were advised by Cantonese scholars on detailed design of the various periods. The design embodies the Chinese concept of planning, consisting of a series of interlinked intimate spaces with a variety of views and vistas.

The capacity of the park at any one time is approximately 1500 with 500 in the theatre, 500 in the restaurant and 500 circulating through the buildings.

POLYNESIAN CULTURAL CENTRE, HAWAII

The Centre is located at Laie on the island of Ohau, the site of a Mormon Temple and the Hawaii Campus of Brighton Young University. The Centre was established for two reasons: to provide jobs close to the College campus for young Polynesian students and to preserve the cultures of Polynesia, a group of tropical islands scattered across 15 million square miles of the eastern and south-eastern Pacific Ocean. The Polynesian Cultural Centre was opened in 1963. It presented the ancient arts and crafts and half forgotten songs and dances embodying the spirit of the Polynesian islands before the explorers changed way of life.

The park consists of a sequence of villages grouped around a landscaped watercourse. Each Polynesian village represents the distinctive regional character and traditions of a particular island: Hawaii, Samoa, Fiji, Aotearoa (New Zealand), Tonga, Tahiti and the Marquesas. The individual traditions include music, ceremonies, crafts and displays. Artisans were brought from particular islands to carry out the timber carving, thatch and timber structural work. The buildings are authentic with ohia logs for roof supports and cut sugar cane for thatching; bamboo rafters lashed together with hand rolled senate twine made from coconut fibers. Shutters were made from hand-woven lauhala mats. The Hawaiian canoe shelters were roofed with pili grass from Maui. The Maori wood carving is in Kao wood. Tongan craftsmen built a replica of the summer home of Queen Salote in Tongatapu.


The park covers 42 acres and features seven villages with a 2700 seat theatre, Imax cinema, restaurant and retail outlets. The folk music of each tradition is also expressed in two live shows: “The Pageant of the Long Canoes” (a series of floating canoe stages), and a stage show “This is Polynesia”.

In the “Pageant of the Long Canoes” each tradition a is expressed in dance and music with a group of dancers performing on the deck of a wide catamaran type canoe. Each group comes forward into the water space and is then steered back after its performance. There is also a small stage at the back of the water space for musicians.

The attendance in the Cultural Centre averages 1 million per year with a maximum daily capacity (allowing two evening shows) of 5400. The staffing averages 1000 at any one time. All revenue is used to maintain and improve the centre and to subsidize the education of deserving Polynesian students.

JORVIC CENTRE, YORK, ENGLAND

A thousand years ago, York, then known as Jorvik, was the Viking built “capital” of the north of England. Jorvik had been established from the ruins of a Roman city and the Norsemen made it one of Europe’s greatest trading ports. In turn it was ravaged and burnt by the Normans, the remnants submerging into and being preserved by the damp soils that exist under the present City of York.

During the 1970s, when an area of York close to its two rivers was earmarked for retail development as the Coppergate Centre, a dig was undertaken there by the York Archaeological Trust. Although Viking material was anticipated, the extent and quality of the remains uncovered - four rows of houses, workshops and warehouses - was considerable and significant. The excavation lasted five and a half years. The York Archaeological Trust was then confronted with various options as to how to conserve these remains in a way that would convey a picture of life in Jorvik 1000 years ago, a picture of pre-conquest England.

Setting aside conventional alternatives, it was decided to create an interpretative exposition on the site itself, below the proposed Coppergate Centre.


The York Archaeological Trust, a registered charity, was limited in funds. Public finance was also limited. It was necessary to devise a commercially viable scheme with a visitor potential (500,000 a year) consistent with other history-based tourist attractions in the area. The project received a grant from the English Tourist Board and a substantial loan from a consortium of banks and the contractor. The Trust developed the Jorvik exposition within a basement area of 1500 sq. m and leased two adjacent shops in the new shopping mall to provide a ground-floor entrance. Visitors enter the centre at the end of the shopping mall, through an arcaded brick entrance passage. After passing through the admissions area, the visitors move down a broad staircase lined with murals based on drawings of Viking ships recovered from a Danish fjord, with the distinctive box-wood panpipe Norse music as background music. From the bottom of the stairs, visitors embark on a carefully programmed sequential experience, being transported back in time to Viking York to a vivid picture of steer life of the time and an explanation of the archaeological process that was necessary to reveal the facts reconstructed.

The journey in a transportation “time car” leads through a tunnel of images conveying the steps in time through the centuries to arrive at a street scene of tenth-century Coppergate.

The re-creation of the Jorvik tenements is a three-dimensional interpretation of the actual archaeological evidence. The sequence of buildings, naturalistic figures, background voices and smells portray an everyday scene of Viking town life. The scene includes craftsmen at work, domestic life and the activity around a vessel unloading at a riverside wharf.

The next section of the tour represents the actual archaeological excavation, the remains of buildings replaced (after preservation treatment) as near as possible to their original layout. A visitor is then presented with the “dig” as it would have been seen in 1980. The work of archaeology is explained, and the tour then passes through a “finds” shed where recording processes are in progress. The next space consists of a representation of laboratories for conservation and environmental study, with walk-in displays, actual equipment and models.


The penultimate stage consists of a display of artefacts with graphical explanations. The most important items are displayed nearest to the central walkway with supporting artefacts and graphics in the alcoves behind. The security of the artefacts is covered by surveillance systems.

The final stage is the shop selling reproduction artefacts, souvenirs, guides, books and audio-visual aids. The visitor then returns to the ground level and leaves through an exit that is independent from the entrance and incoming public.

The general layout gives consideration to the range of interest from the average layman to the expert interested in archeological details. For the average layman, there is a limited number of “take-home” messages; for the expert it is possible to linger at length amongst the display of artefacts.

The controlled time for participating in the Jorvik experience through the use of “time cars” could be criticized. However, as a commercially viable project, revenue is related to unobstructed throughput. Also the number of visitors within the exhibition space at any one time was limited by fire safety regulations. The expert can investigate the real excavated material in his own time, independent of the time car transportation.

THE TIME CARS

The time cars consist of four-person battery-driven tracked vehicles that move slowly and silently through the features. Each car has a synchronized low-level commentary with a choice of languages.

A cable is fitted into a groove just under the floor surface. The cable carries a signal which is picked up by close-loop sensing devices fitted under the front and rear of the car. Cars leave the loading bay at intervals of 43 seconds. Initially the time car travels backwards to convey the impression of passing back through time. When it enters “Viking Coppergate” it stops at a set point, and then drives forward. It continues to the unloading bay having passed through Coppergate street and the reconstructed archaeological excavation. The whole journey takes 12 minutes 40 seconds, a time calculated as a result of research into human concentration periods, levels of understanding and fact


absorption. After the unloading area, the car moves into a service area where it stops and reverses out to start the journey again at the loading platform.

The time cars regulate the through-flow of visitors so that all visitors can see the exhibits in a reasonable time, and also reducing the risk of damage by giving the visitors a clear view without getting close enough for displays to be actually touched. It also introduces a fun element of an adventure ride.

AUDIO AND TV EQUIPMENT AND EFFECTS

A commentary explaining the journey’s events is conveyed through speakers located behind the passengers’ heads in each time car. The commentary is played in English, French. German and Japanese. As the forward and rear amplifiers and speakers are separate, it is possible to have the different languages being played simultaneously. The village sounds come from another sound system installed in the service area, with speakers positioned in the exhibition area to give the most realism.

The buildings, the ship and the sculptured figures, background Norse conservations, music and street smells were designed with specialist supervision so that details appear authentic and accurate.

THE FIRE STANDARDS

The fire standards were as for a licensed public building, with the number of visitors in the basement at any one time limited to 400, compatible with travel distance to and the number of exit ways. Materials used in the display required fire treatment and the basement spaces require compartmentation with fire shutters. The fire shutters have infra-red sensors to avoid closing onto obstacles. Emergency lighting is required over the time car route so that, in an emergency, visitors can find their way to the emergency exits.


PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC MATERIAL

The ventilation system had to allow for humidifIcation standards to ensure the slow stabilizing process for the preserved historic timbers. After the timbers had been extracted from the water-logged soil, they were subjected to immersion in treatment tanks for periods between 6 and 18 months. The process of conservation was a two-stage process: the partial baulking of the wood with a range of PEG (polyethylene glycol) wax grades followed by a period of controlled drying during which the remaining water was gradually released until the water content of the wood fibers was in equilibrium with the display environment.

At Jorvik, the parallel of re-created buildings and actual archaeological finds, the realism of location and the presentation of artefacts, all convey a vivid historical picture. The presentation is both educative and entertaining, effectively using techniques associated with the popular world of theme parks to educate the public in archaeology while providing a source of revenue to further the work of York Archaeological Trust. The success of the Jorvik Viking Centre is reflected in its continuing high visitor figures.

THE LAST LABYRINTH, LANDS END, CORNWALL

The Last Labyrinth Heritage Building has been designed as a centre piece for the tourist location at Lands End, Cornwall. The location is a rocky peninsular, the most south westerly point of England particularly exposed to the Atlantic.

The project was developed by the Land Leisure Group. In addition to renovating the existing hotel, a “Customs House” (to provide lavatories and administrative offices), a Heritage Building, shop, exhibition area and children’s play and adventure areas were built. The Heritage Building provides an all-year-round attraction. The architects for the buildings were Andrews, Downie and Partners and Sarner International developed the audio-visual experience based on the legends and history of this part of Cornwall. Stage sets were by Brennen and Whalley.


The buildings were designed on traditional Cornish references using Simple rendered and white-painted masonry walls and slate roofs. To speed up the building period, construction on site was organized (using plywood sheathing) to allow the interior fitting out to run concurrently with the work on exterior cladding, and the preparation of sound tracks, film footage, stage effects, computer equipment and software. The initial design work started in October 1987, construction started in December, and the Heritage Building was opened to the public in May 1988. The building and services cost £1.2 million and the fitting out including effects, sets, lighting, audio-visual equipment, software and hardware cost $800,000.

The attraction had over half a million visitors in the first summer season and has had over 10,000 visitors in one day. The building is tuned to 5000 visitors per day with 600 per hour. At any one time there could be 150 in the exhibition area, 300 in the holding area and up to 450 in the show area. There are up to three performances per hour.

The Heritage Building houses the audio-visual experience. Apart from the show space, particular attention is given to the exhibition and holding areas (that visitors pass through prior to entering the show area). The basement holding area where visitors congregate prior to entering the show is enclosed in rugged stone walling and has a sand floor to convey the rocky sea coast ambience.

The main show space is a rectangular studio lined with acoustic material and with a catwalk and open service grid at ceiling level. The space resembles a rocky cove facing towards the sea. Three sides have simulated rocks and ledges for particular sets, tableaux and props used in the performances. The third side has cinema screens and the bow, mast and prow of a large boat.

The four screens at high level are serviced by four banks of three projectors. The large screen has rear projection with 15 projectors that provide a 3 + 2 overlap arrangement. There are also black drapes, gauze screen and cyclorama for various effects. The projection ports are designed to be unobtrusive within the rockwork. The 15 speakers are distributed around the space. and built into the rockwork.


The visitors stand in the central space or sit on barrels or rocks that are part of the cove. The story lasts for 18 minutes and uses the surrounding wall sets and overhead space. The centre of interest moves around the space as the story unfolds, starting with a reference to the mariners and the sea aroundLands End, disasters and shipwrecks. Slides, in conjunction with multi-channel sound conveying storms, are projected onto screens. False lights on the clifftops mislead the mariners, the storm intensifies, the ship creaks and the storm effects(provided by wind generators, fine water mist) and lightning (strobed lighting) intensify. The ship hits the rocks, tilts, the prow snaps and the rigging collapses. The storm subsides and the devastated ship is scavenged by wreckers.

The story moves on to the 1979 Fastnet Race with weather bulletins and storm effects. A helicopter (suggested by wind generators directed down on the audience and a blinding roving search light) appears to fly over and hover above the audience.

A calm sea returns. There is an introduction to the mythological background of Cornwall (using a talking head of Merlin) and reference is made to Excalibur. A blinding light is replaced by the illuminated image of the sword. Interest moves to a tableau of the death of King Arthur on the right hand side, and the tableau of the funeral of Arthur on the left.

The legendary land of Lyonesse is shown against an illuminated cyclorama. Lyonesse descends into the sea, with earthquake and storm conveyed by smoke effects and wind directed onto the audience. Lingering references to Lyonesse transform into a panorama of the sea at Lands End, at night, through the dawn to sunset.

Last Labyrinth conveys a historic pageant using scenery and audio-visual techniques surrounding the audience to create a vivid and dramatic experience.


ACTIVITY CENTRES

The increasing interest in health as a leisure pursuit has supplemented competitive sport with provision for physical activities in a relaxed context. The Leisure Centre, with activity zones and relaxation areas, provides a socializing environment for families or individuals without the disciplines or anxieties of competitive sport. This is particularly true of Vacation villages, such as those established by Club Mediterranee and Center Parcs, where facilities must cater for total leisure time. It is in the interest of the owners to encourage the captive community to spend their holiday money within the complex. Non-competitive activities include such facilities as swimming, fitness programmes, skating and miniature golf.

In recent decades, water fun in particular has provided a context for healthy leisure that provides for all age groups. In the colder climates of northern Europe, Leisure Centres are enclosed and planned for all-year-round activity. Open-air water parks in southern Europe and the USA have a seasonal use.

The basic layout for “water fun” is concerned with entrance control, changing and activity space, with ancillary storage space and plant rooms. The facilities include wave pools, activity pools, canals and water rides. There are also the architectural and technical aspects relating to the location of the water treatment plant, access tower to flume rides and the character of the relaxation areas.

In many parks the access tower to flume rides is used as a design element to be seen from outside the park. In several Japanese waterparks, the tower and the access platforms to flume rides is part of a central structure housing the plant room. The route of the flumes and the location of splash pools or run-off channels is important to the overall character of the park. Viewing the activity of the various rides is a part of the enjoyment, to see what tides are available and which are activated. In some centres, the relaxation area is a central feature. At Adventure Island, Tampa, Florida, the relaxation area with stretches of sand and palm trees is central, with the pools and facilities forming a surrounding enclosure of rockwork interlaced with flume rides. In a project designed by the author’s company, the restaurant area which is raised and surrounded by a lazy canal, forms a central feature and a terrace from which the surroundings activities can be viewed.


ADVENTURE ISLAND, TAMPA, FLORIDA

Adventure Island, owned by Busch Entertainment Corporation, is a well established water fun park that has retained its original tropical island concept. The park covers 36 acres and the initial 13 acre park character consisted of rock-scaped water activities planned around a sandy relaxation island with palm trees.

The island is defined by a shallow flow pool. One side of the park is dominated by an impressive rocky hill that both houses water treatment equipment and supports five flume rides of various lengths. The long 300ft flume channels descend 34 ft down through rockwork and cascades. The return path for the riders is also through cascading streams and waterfalls.

There are two large activity pools; the 9000 sq. ft activities Paradise Lagoon, and a 17,000 sq. ft surf pool. Provision is made for small children in “Fabian’s Funport” play area with small slides and cascades.

In subsequent years, new rides and activities have been added including a spiral “inner tube” ride, tube flume rides, a river ride through a man-made rain forest with simulated fog, mist and monsoon rain, a 76 ft high free fall slide, speed slides, a scaled down wave pool for small children, and a 12 court championship volley ball complex.

Two cafes overlook the island and activities and there is a surf shop, electronics games centre and picnic areas. There is parking for 1350 cars. The park can accommodate 5500 visitors at any one time.

CENTER PARCS, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE AND SUFFOLK

Center Parcs have holiday villages in the UK, Holland, Belgium and France, and the original objective was to provide short break holidays on a year-round basis. Thus the villages provide an extensive range of indoor activities that cater for seasonal and inclement weather (water fun and sports-hall), and outdoor activities (lake for water sports, and outdoor tennis, bowls, croquet and golf). The villages located in rural woodland are designed with particular respect for their natural surroundings.


The central areas of the UK Center Parc villages at Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire and Elveden Forest, Suffolk, include subtropical themed water fun and swimming areas. These areas are covered over with a transparent dome (at Sherwood Forest) and a pyramidal structure (at Elveden). In each case, the centre part of the roof can be opened in the hot weather to allow free air flow. The buildings can each accommodate about 2000 visitors at one time. Pathways and flume rides interlace and wind down between rocks and dense planting. There are bridges over the water channels. Small relaxation areas located at the sides of the pools are defined by rocks and planting. The pool at Elveden Forest has an ”island” bar and terrace projecting into the water space. There are also exterior pools and rapids rides linked with the water areas within the building. The theming conveys a luxuriant and leisurely ambience.

CORAL REFF, BRACKNELL, BERKSHIRE

Coral Reef, located in the outskirts of Bracknell, is a public leisure facility developed by the Bracknell Forest Borough Council to serve a catchment area of 570,000. The building designed by Sargent and Potiriadis was completed in 1989 at a cost of £8.5 million.

The coral reef ambience of protected “tropical” waters is well established, with a series of linked pools and canals, suggesting a continuous water surface interspersed with landscaping and rocks. There is a peripheral walk providing access to the various pools and there are raised levels where visitors can overlook the features.

The central area has three shallow pools: a children’s pool, a bubble pool, and the main central pool with a two masted galleon in “full sail” forming a central feature. In addition, there is a lazy river, spa pool and disco island. The water in various locations is activated, a sequence that concentrates interest to a particular zone at any one time.

The main pool has both geysers and a bubble burst as well as four 25 m lanes for occasional serious swimmers. The “galleon” is between the main pool and the children’s pool, its bows facing into the water. Sets of geysers on each side of the bows provide the effect of a bow wave. The main deck has a water cannon


which directs water into the pool below, and the deck provides access for a gentle slide into the shallow water of the children’s pool. The prow of the ship provides a safety officers' station.

At the side of the galleon, a menacing cloud of stainless steel mesh hangs below the ceiling. At intervals of 12 minutes in every hour, it provides a shower of “rain” into the pool below. Nozzles are arranged to give an even spread of water over an area of 28 sq. ft. The “storm” starts as a light shower and increases with a heavy downpour and additional effects of thunder and lightning.

The “Little Corals” children’s pool consists of three shallow pools linked by short slides. There are four “bubble bursts” created by a compressor driving large air bubbles in sequence through four underwater outlets. There are also fan sprays set into the surrounding artificial rocks.

The next feature, the Blue Lagoon, a quiet pool for older people, consists of a 23 ft in diameter underwater bubble lounger seat concealing compressed air headers cast into the mass concrete lounger profile. Each header serves a series of small diameter nozzles to give a “massage” effect. The water in the middle of the Blue Lagoon is activated into violent bubbles by air being injected through a floor grille.

The Coconut Grove, a two-level cafe terrace, overlooks the pools. Immediately below the terraces, water cascades over a series of weirs to the pool below.

At the side of the main pools, a Greek-style structure standing in front of a tall rocky pinnacle is periodically activated to represent the destruction of Atlantis. A jet stream of water issues from the rocky pinnacle, through and apparently destroying the structure. Adjacent to the “Atlantis disaster” a lazy river extends through the exterior wall to an open air pool.

The next feature is a popular spa pool with access by a bridge from the peripheral walk. The spa pool is in one of two islands set in a configuration of canal channels that create a “wild water rapids” at the point where the two flowing canals converge. The water in the canal is further activated by two geysers.


Underwater lighting provides a chase sequence to give the impression that the water is moving very fast. The second island is a Disco Island which is also connected to the peripheral walk by a bridge. Rising serpents provide a location for water jets.

Three flume rides and plunge pool are separated from the main group of pools. The access deck to the flume rides (12 m higher than the plunge pool) is via a corridor and tower. The main part of the flume tubes is external to the building. There is a family ride, a rubber ring ride and a hydro-spiral speed ride.

STRUCTURE, AND WATER TREATMENT

The main structure over the pools consists of reinforced concrete columns supporting an exposed laminated timber roof structure. The ceiling is formed of white acoustic infill panels and the roof is covered with metal decking. The natural materials used internally are consistent with the tropical ambience, either suggesting the bold timber features of a tropical island structure, or reflecting the maritime superstructure of the pirate galleon. The acoustic panels and roof lights are visually unobtrusive.

The main pool has a capacity of 468,000 l with a turnover period of 1.85 h. The Triogen ozone water treatment and effective air handling reinforce the advantage of ozone over a chlorine dominated system. The water treatment area is immediately below the cafe terrace, and there is a basement walkway around the walls of the pools so that the majority of pump inlet points are accessible for maintenance.

The complex has a water-sound-light system in which the water features, with their individual ambient and underwater lighting, sound and effects are controlled by a microprocessor programmed for five separate sequences. During peak hours, all the features are used over a 30 minute repeating cycle. Off-peak programmes use fewer features and this is reflected in off-peak entry charges.

In addition to the water features, there is a Japanese style sauna and fitness area.


The leisure centre has a capacity of 1050 persons. The sequence of pools, intermittent planting, the succession of activated water and water-light-sound synchronized effects convey an atmosphere of enjoyment that its name implies.

THE DOME, DONCASTER

It was necessary to change the traditional image of Doncaster to attract new investment and industry. The city had been dependent upon the coal industry, being located over one of the largest coalfields in Europe. The leisure industry was chosen as the front runner, the catalyst for development and investment.

A 320 acre former aero club site on the edge of Doncaster was selected for a forward-looking mixed-use park to offer a diversity of leisure and tourist based activities. This site was near the established Doncaster racecourse (home of the St Leger), the stadium of the Doncaster Rovers, and the Potteric Carr nature reserve. The ultimate aim was to create a modern park that would act as a stimulating extension of the city. The initial structures to be developed were a leisure centre, the Dome, a supermarket, a tenpin bowling centre, and a two-star hotel. A multi-screen cinema is also to be built. The Dome was opened in the summer of 1989.

The architects FaulknerBrowns conceived the Doncaster Leisure Park as a catalyst for the regeneration of the surrounding area. The main leisure centre was sited to provide a focal point beside the racecourse and football stadium. The actual design of the Dome did not follow the traditional one entrance and control point with a tightly planned building, but aimed to create an “open” building to encourage casual visitors, with an entrance leading to a mall accessible to the public. From the public space, each activity has its own “front door”. It was the objective of the Doncaster leading Metropolitan Borough Council to integrate the social requirements of the area into a commercially viable facility.


The overall form of the building includes a roof access structure that undulates and responds to the spatial fitness requirements below, with the dome of a central forum identifying the junction between the two sections of the building. The mall has leisure ice on one side and water fun areas on the other side. The competitive sports areas lead off from the end of the mall. The central forum was conceived as a destination in its own right. The total concept aims to embody “an exuberant spirit of leisure”.

The entrance mall that extends between the water fun and leisure ice terminates in a reception desk and the glazed cylindrical form that encloses a spiral staircase access to the flume rides. The mall has a cafe and limited views into the adjoining activity areas. Beyond the staircase and flume rides, a bridge leads to the gallery of the central forum space. The various sports functions of bowls, snooker, a sports hall and squash courts are accessible from corridors leading from the gallery. Supplementary facilities (fitness centre, health suite, and sauna) are dispersed. The health suite projects from the curved form of the water fun area as a domed space with access via a bridge over the swimming pools. The fitness area is close to the squash courts.

ICE AND WATER FUN

The 1500 sq. m leisure ice area consists of two levels of ice linked by two ice ramps, with a central island originally designed as a cafe, with a disc jockey enclosure. The solid enclosing balustrades around the island create a dominant feature within the space. A few alpine trees have been used for landscaping. The vertical emphasis of the conifers emphasizes the relatively low ceiling structure.

The water fun section has a reception area and spectators’ gallery along one side which is at the same level as the entrance mall. A bridge leads from this level to the health suite. The water features include six free-form pools (ranging from a large pool down to a toddlers’ pool), two water spas, a “river rapids” that extends outside the building (and is operational throughout the year) and two flume rides. The space is landscaped with tropical planting and simulated rocks. Changing facilities are on the same level as the water features.


It has been the objective to balance the energy demands of the warm areas by the recovery of heat from the cooler areas. The heat gained from the ice refrigeration is used to heat the water fun features. Internal temperatures range from 29°C in the leisure ice section to 80°C in the water activity area. The heating is coal-fired (in deference to the connection of Doncaster with the coal industry) and particular attention is given to monitoring any resultant pollution.

FORUM AND SPORTS

The sports section of the building is more concentrated with centralized changing facilities and access by corridors. The indoor bowling green extends along one side, and the multi-purpose sports hall along the other side. The hall can take an audience of 2000 seated or 3000 standing, and provides for a permutation of basketball, football and racquet sports. A line of five squash courts extends from the end of the building like a curved tail enclosing space for an outdoor forum.

The central forum is a glazed rotunda 30 m in diameter and 19 m high, with four massive columns supporting the gallery. It forms a significant central feature in the architectural massing. The space was planned as an interactive hub of the building capable of accommodating shops, cafes and assorted attractions, and also as a place for people to meet and gather. The interior has banded masonry, a tiled floor precise indoor planting providing a dignified atmosphere to the leisure centre.

WATERPARK, OCEAN WORLD, HONG KONG

This water fun park is part of the extensive Ocean Park complex which also includes, amongst many features, a marine animal park, an amusement park with mechanical rides, Chinese culture theme park, Japanese Garden and a butterHy enclosure. Water World, located at sea level and occupying 3 ha, can cater for 5000 people at any one time. The optimum capacity is 2500. It was conceived as complementary to the initial marine animal park built in 1977, and was part of the reorganization implemented in 1984 to improve the total leisure facility.


The design for Water World by EBC of Hong Kong is pristine and geometric, with distinctive forms and tiled surfaces. The main entrance is through a landscaped forecourt with space for buses and cars to unload. The prominent “seahorse” logo identifies the entrance leading to ticket booths, shops and information office.

This first building includes changing rooms, a mezzanine level fast food service with terraces overlooking the pools, and a first-floor full service restaurant for 250 people. The roof level provides viewing and sun bathing decks carpeted with synthetic turf. The main entrance brings visitors intoThe park at a level that provides a view over the main pool. The terraces have tables and chairs, umbrellas for shading, and a pergola roof.

The main 80 m X 40 m leisure pool occupies the site of a former lake. The pool has a depth range of 200 mm to 3 m and there are two islands. One islandProvides a raised platform for water slides; the second island is linked to the periphery of the pool by bridges and provides a platform for diving. Between the main pool and flume ride splash pool, there is a large jacuzzi with 60 spa nozzles and 12 water fountains.

The pool is separated from the wave pool by five body flumes from 120 m to 150 m in length with a 20 m descent, and river rides 170 m in length. The rides are constructed on posts and columns as aerial serpentine forms, winding through the topography and mature trees. The rides start from timber towers located on high points on the site and the rides grouped; three flume rides discharge into one splash pool: the river ride and two flume rides discharge into a separate pool. The water through the river ride is discharged at 20,000 to 40,000 l per minute from a starting pool, through the various turns and whirlpools. The ride is constructed of vinyl sprayed concrete.

Water filtration and the chlorine UV sterilizing system is located in a 500 sq. m underground plant room under the body flume splash pools. Every 2.6 hours, 2.7 million l (0.6 million gallons) of pool water pass through the system. This plant room is accessible from outside the park for service vehicles.


The wave pool is 25 m wide and 2.5 m deep at the wave machine end, fanning out to 40 m width at the beach end. The pool is 55 m long. The beach has sand area with palm trees and sun chairs. Alongside the wave pool is a play fountain providing safe water activity for visitors of all ages. The water flows a distance of 60 m from a starter pool, through a stepped waterfall to a cascade. The water is 150 mm deep and the feature is particularly suited to smallchildren.

A second 500 sq.m plant room houses the wave generator equipment and is located underground to accommodate machinery noise. The plant circulates1.87 million l of water every 4 hours.

Water World is designed for complete evening use with low level lighting around the pools, lighting from masts over the wave pool, bollard lights and tree lights. The circulation routes through the park are well defined and the landscaped areas are protected by low retaining walls. Astra turf is used for therelaxation areas. Materials for the buildings consist of structural concrete; polyurethane paint finish; terrazzo and tiles in wet areas; exposed aggregateplanters and paving; and painted metal work.

CHAPTER IIIZOOS

The role of zoos has been under considerable scrutiny in recent years. The relevance of enclosing and restricting animals is being questioned as peopleare made more aware of the complexity and freedom of the animals in their natural habitats. Field studies and excellent films have brought a close visual contact with wildlife into the living room.

However, there is nothing that can take the place of real contact with the animals: how they move, smell, behave and relate to their environment. Zoossee the importance of this and relate their collections to educational programmes, breeding endangered species and conservation. The designs of the animal enclosures are based on the latest information regarding both the physical and psychological requirements of each animal. The enclosuresencapsulate some of the diversity of the natural habitat.


HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The earliest animal collections or menageries were built up by individuals. Some were Royal collections, others were travelling menageries. One privatecollection, the Exeter Change in the Strand, London, was open to the public. The animals’ cages were housed in the rooms of a three-storey building and exotic scenes of jungle life were painted on the walls, the earliest method of linking the animal to its natural habitat.

The first animal collection in a park setting was the Menagerie du Jardin des Plantes in Paris. This scheme was to inliuence Sir Stamford Rafiies in hisconcept for a Zoological Park in London. Raffles had returned from Singapore with a collection of animals and plants and a desire to promote research. The Zoological Society of London was founded in 1826 and the Zoological Gardens opened in 1828. Both were to have a considerable influence on the development of research and animal collections throughout the world.

The earliest animal enclosures were either cages or simple buildings designed in the style of the animals' country of origin. Others, such as Decimus Burton's giraffe house at London Zoo, were conventional buildings reflecting contemporaneous architecture. Towards the end of the nineteenth century greater freedom in the design of buildings was made possible by new techniques. The use of steel gave greater flexibility. New developments inheating provided opportunities for housing snakes and other reptiles.

A CHANGE IN EMPHASIS

At the beginning of this century, the idea of “reproducing the native haunts” became the influencing factor behind the design of new zoo buildings. In Germany, Carl Hagenbeck, an agent between the hunters and the collectors, housed many of his animals where he lived at Hamburg. His concern for the well-being of the animals in his care was instrumental to a whole new approach to the welfare of animals in captivity. He discovered that many animals brought to Europe from climates adapted to lower temperatures and were healthier in outdoor enclosures.


Hagenbeck also initiated the use of the moat as a barrier. By creating artificial rockwork and the use of moats he was able to exhibit his animals in more natural habitats and provide unobstructed viewing, in contrast to the conventional caged enclosures. The Mappin Terraces at London Zoo, designed by Joass and opened in 1914, followed the example of Carl Hagenbeck by simulating rock formation and representing natural scenery in concrete.

Between me world wars the functionamist movement in architecture led to designs such as the Penguin Pool and Gorilla House at London Zoo by Lubetkin of the Tecton Partnership. The aim was to provide the best show to the public and to reduse barriers between animals and humans.

In the 1950s and 1960s zoo projects provided architects with the opportunity to create imaginative designs away from the strict space and cost standards applied to other building types.

SPECIALIZATION AND EDUCATION

In the last 20 years, as well as rebuilding in existing zoos, a growing number of new zoos and animal collections have been established. Some specialist collections in Great Britain include the Woolly Monkey Sanctuary in Cornwall, and Thrigby Hall Wild Life Gardens in Norfolk, which specializes in Asian fauna. Others, such as John Aspinall’s Zoos at Howletts and Port Lympne in Kent, have grown from small private collections.

Specialization and field research provided zoologists with more information on the animals’ natural behaviour in the wild and this encouraged zoos to create more stimulating environments. Animals were grouped naturally in families and given visual contact with other species. This led to habitats being designed as a whole complex relating several enclosures to the public walkways. For example the Whittier Southeast Asian exhibit at San Diego Zoo, opened in 1982, connects the individual islands containing the orang-utans and siamangs with bridges and two level viewing platforms.


Within the last 15 years zoos have given a greater emphasis to education. By helping children to understand each species, their habitat and the importance of conservation, zoos aim to create a sense of awe and respect for the animals. Exhibits are zoned within the specific subjects, which include behavioural themes; nocturnal creatures set in day turned to night exhibits; predator-prey themes; a particular habitat such as rainforest; positioning the animals in geographic areas and bio-climatic zones.

Many zoos have implemented educational programmes, built teaching and study areas and provided teaching aids. At the Primate Discovery Centre, San Francisco Zoo, opened in 1984 (designed by Cathy Simon, formerly of Marquis Associates), the multi-level structure of walkways and habitats includes a discovery hall. This area provides a permanent exhibition relating to the primates and incorporates various interactive devices.

CONSERVATION AND THE ZOO TODAY

The welfare of the animal is the first priority for most zoos, to provide a healthy environment, combat boredom and to give each species a sense of dignity.In 1980 the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust opened a gorilla environment where the animals have choice and variety. The outside habitat has rocks, hills, water, trees and logs. The gorilla house, which is also open to the public, has ropes, shelves and other furniture. The gorillas are free to move from one to another. Cologne Zoo has recently redesigned a cheetah exhibit. Within the confines of a restricted city zoo the cheetahs have a semi-wild type enclosure. A rocky hillock provides privacy or a dominant position where the cheetahs can overview their surroundings.

As the population of the world increases, more land is being developed, and concern for this was shown at the 1992 Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro. The erosion of the rainforests, the natural habitat for many wild animals, threatens the existence of many species including plant life.

To emphasize the necessity for conservation the most recent approach to the design of enclosures has been to re-create whole habitats and encapsulate the The fauna, flora and geological formation of a region where animal and plant life are seen as interdependent, so that the public will relate each people


species with its native environment. The aim is to create the sense of mystery and excitement that is experienced when walking through a forest or swimming near a coral reef. The visitor becomes an observer rather than a spectator.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVE

Increasingly, zoos, animal parks and reserves will be the means of ensuring the survival of many species. The larger animals may be kept in the more spacious parks and zoos may become places for the more detailed study of a particular species or environment.

The design of the animal enclosures will need the expertise of the specialist to provide the most balanced habitats. A stimulating and unpredictable environment encourages the natural behaviour characteristic of each animal.

This in turn will help public to appreciate each species and promote a concern for its conservation.

THE CITY ZOO

The city zoo has an important part to play. For people who live in the city a zoo may be the only means of having contact with animals. Therefore it is important that animals are presented as part of a whole natural world that exists and needs to be conserved.

Although situated in the heart of New York, Central Park Wildlife Conservation Center is contained in a park atmosphere. ln contrast, EmmenZoo in Holland has its entrance in the centre of a busy shopping precinct and is surrounded by residential streets. A continuation of the pedestrianized paving provides outdoor cafe facilities at the main entrance to the zoo.


CENTRAL PARK WILDLIFE CONSERVATION CENTER (formerly CENTRAL PARK ZOO) - NEW YORK

Central Park Zoo, New York, was re-opened in 1988 having undergone a complete renovation. In recent years the quality of the exhibits had deteriorated and the New York Zoological Society (NYZS) were keen to take over the zoo in their concern for the animals, as well as for the way in which they were presented to the public.

The new scheme, designed by Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo Associates, incorporated a few of the original buildings and features, but in essence it wastotally fresh concept resulting from extensive consultation with the General Director of the Society, Dr William Conway, and Director of City Zoos Project, Richard Lattis.

The NYZS operates, amongst other facilities, the International Wildlife Conservation Park (formerly Bronx Zoo) and the New York Aquarium for Wildlife Conservation where they have evolved principles concerning the welfare and exhibiting of wildlife, together with conservation and education.

These principles were the basis of the brief for the design of the new scheme. The site area was only 5.5 acres and the NYZS were prepared to include only those animals that could have adequate surroundings and back up facilities. The exhibits were to be housed moss in three different climatic zones. Other features were to include a conservation centre, a school for educational courses, a cafeteria and a shop. The original north-south access through the park was to be maintained and the context for the landscaping within Central Park taken into account.

The architects retained two of the original animal enclosures each side of the existing brick Arsenal building facing Fifth Avenue. These now house a zoo school, a shop and a gallery. The area to the west has been completely redesigned around a central garden. A colonnaded covered way on three sides gives emphasis to this central area and links the habitat zones as well as providing a sheltered walkway. The three zones, Tropic Zone, Temperate Territory and Polar Circle, together exhibit approximately 450 animals of over 100 species.


THE TROPIC ZONE

From the entrance the arcade runs beside the the conservation centre, cafeteria and an “intelligence garden” to the first of the climatic zones. The Tropic Zone, an octagonal top lit building, captures the intensity of a tropical forest. Huge fabricated trees, rocks, a 20 ft waterfall and a large variety of naturaltropical plants provide a realistic territory for the the mammals, birds and fish being exhibited. The stratification of forest life can be explored from viewing platforms at various levels and a mezzanine gallery provides interpretive displays. Murals and moss disguise the surrounding walls and any containing barriers have been constructed in glass or netting to retain a visual continuity. A complex sprinkler system provides humidity for the vegetation and enhances the tropical atmosphere. Each species has special requirements within the scheme, such as the piranhas and crocodiles which have heating pads beneath their beach areas.

THE TEMPERATE TERRITORY

This area lies to the west of the arcade and consists of a large lake and island home for snow monkeys and waterbirds. Winding pathways take the visitor behind the lake through a landscaped area featuring many species such as Asian Red pandas, North American river otters and other animals from the temperate zones. All barriers are unobtrusive and access for maintenance is carefully screened with planting.

THE POLAR CIRCLE

A multi-level polar bear habitat to the north of the arcade introduces the Polar Circle. A naturalistic habitat for the bears, comprising fabricated rockworkand deep water for swimming, is viewed from ten different positions both above and below water level. The “Edge of the Icepack” building, housing large groups of penguins, is controlled at a temperature of 35°F. The habitat is formed with artificial rocks and natural alpine plants to simulate a rookery site in theAntarctic. Smaller environments include habitats for arctic foxes, snowy owls and harbour seals.


THE CENTRAL GARDEN

The enlarged and renovated sea-lion pool is the focal point for the Central Garden. The glass sides to the pool allow for underwater viewing and the fabricated rocks provide the sea-lions with basking platforms as well as areas for retreat. The 250,000 gallons of water are filtered at over 200 gallons per minute. Fabricated rocks were constructed from carved or cast concrete and fibreglass reinforced concrete. Trees and vines were formed from cast epoxy and latex on fibreglass and steel.

The architects have purposely designed the buildings in the zoo to be unobtrusive. The brickwork blends with that of the Arsenal building and planting provides screening. The central area has been laid out as an English country garden. The colonnade, constructed of brick piers with bases and capitals in grey granite and a glass canopy, is a strong and unifying element in the design as a whole.

Artificial rocks and trees were constructed by Larson and Company, Tucson. The total cost of the project was over $35 million, part provided by the City, and part by the NYZS.

EMMEN ZOO, HOLLAND

Founded in 1935 as a family enterprise, Emmen Zoo based the design of animal enclosures on the Hagenbeck tradition. The zoo continues to be run bythe family who have completely re-structured and re-designed it over the last 21 years. Half owned by the City and half privately, it now has approximately 1.5 million visitors a year. Of these, 50,000 families are Friends of the Zoo and come regularly from many parts of northern Holland.

Emmen is a mixture between a zoo and a museum. The main policies being, first, to educate and provide information to the public, and secondly to provide an open air living museum about life on Earth. Besides the animal enclosures the zoo has four museums, including a Natural History Museum, a Museum of Cultural Anthropology and a Biochron. The Biochron, based on the theme of the history of life on earth, provides an interesting introduction to the zoo, being sited by the entrance.


The exhibits in the Biochron start with the origins of the planet and then take the visitor through the ages with a mixture of fossils, models, reconstructions and many live animals and plants. The theme continues at a lower level with an aquarium where a great variety of underwater life is exhibited. Part of the Biochron experience is a walk- through tropical butterfly garden. Here, 1500butterflies representing approximately 40 species fly freely amongst tropical vegetation.

Every 2-3 years the zoo chooses a different theme to emphasize the inter-relationships in nature, mankind with animals, plants, geology, water andweather. The particular theme is conveyed to the public through exhibition areas that are placed at Intervals between the animal enclosures.

The buildings housing the museums and other facilities throughout the zoo have a sympathetic and unobtrusive style which creates a cohesive quality tothe general layout. The emphasis has been to provide a quality of space in which to focus the visitors’ attention on the animal exhibits.

The approach to the design of the latest exhibits has been to keep the visitor looking, as it were, through a window to the animals in their habitats. The public is seen as observing, not intruding into the animals’ environment. The enclosures have been grouped in geographical areas.

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN COMPLEX

As a city zoo within a built-up area, space is at a premium. The priority for the future is to give the animals more spacious habitats. This is achieved by constructing the holding areas underground and so providing further outdoor space above. This principle has been adopted in the Asian and Australian complex, which has a tiger enclosure at one end and a kangaroo enclosure at the other end, with quarters for ten elephants located under the kangaroo habitat. The tigers gain extra space by being able to walk , above the visitors’ path that divides their enclosure. Incorporated in the multi-level complex are quarantine areas, food outlet facilities for the public, an exhibition area, as well as the animal enclosures and holding areas.


SPECIALIST ZOOS

A specialist zoo has a particular theme to convey. The theme is carried through in the educational programmes they promote, the information provided and the layout of the enclosures. One of the best known specialist collections is that at Jersey. Initially the private collection of Gerald Durrell, it is now The Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust and concentrates on keeping endangered species and focusing attention on conservation. Research, breeding and returning animals to the wild are also an important part of the Trusts’ specialized and valuable work.

Other zoos such as the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, have a particular aim to promote interest in a specific region.

Apenheul Zoo is a specialist zoo for primates. It aims to give the animals the maximum freedom and has been in the forefront for designing open habitats in the Northern Hemisphere.

THE ARIZONA-SONORA DESERT MUSEUM, TUCSON, ARIZONA

To the casual visitor the Arizona-Sonora Museum appears to be no more than a few low buildings set in a vast panorama of the Arizona Desert. This is intentional. It was established at an early stage that the buildings and enclosures for the new museum should be kept low so as not to interrupt the desert profile.

William Carr, one of the founders of the museum, was stimulated by the challenge to help the people of Arizona to become aware of the wealth of natural life hidden in the desert landscape. The objective was to create, in a capsule of the Sonora Desert, an interpretive centre and living desert museum - a centre in which to study, discover and stimulate an interest in conserving the fauna, flora and geology of the region. With sensitive publicity the local peoplenot only took an interest, but actively helped towards the opening of the museum in 1952.


THE MUSEUM TODAY

The horizontal roof line of the entrance to the museum provides a necessary canopy of shade from which to enjoy the panoramic views. Paths windingthrough the grounds make trails to the exhibits and encourage a study of the clearly labelled planting and create a self-guided tour. At strategic intervals Ramadas (trellised canopies) provide areas of shade and rest, and information is displayed describing nearby exhibits.

The animal enclosures have been designed to give protection from the strong afternoon sun, to provide a congenial environment for each species and toemulate the natural habitat. Efficient service areas and regular maintenance are given top priority.

The collection covers a wide range of species, from the fish and invertebrates of the Gulf of California to the bears and lions of the mountain habitat of theDesert Highlands. An Earth Sciences Center demonstrates the formation and geology of the desert area. A Life Underground exhibit shows how animalscope with the extremes of the desert environment by burrowing and withdrawing into crevices. A walk-in aviary with over 40 species includes birds from the Sonora Desert region, waterfowl and Southern Sonora Parrotlets. Also, a demonstration Desert Garden shows how plants and shrubs of the area can be used in landscaping.

The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum pioneered some of the earliest designs that simulated natural habitats for animal enclosures. Artificial rockwork, relevant Planting, the provision of water, crevices for shade and withdrawal, have been carefully considered. By visually relating an animal or plant toits natural habitat, the visitor can be made aware of how that species has adapted to its particular environment. Enclosures that have been constructedsimulate grottos for small cats (1973), the banks of the Santa Cruz River for otters and beavers (1967-1971) and, more recently, a Mountain Habitat exhibit (1986 Architects: Potomac Group Washington DC).

Education has been the underlying theme in the creation and subsequent development of the museum. Lectures, demonstrations in schools, nightvisits to the museum and a well organized outreach programme encourage further interest and study.


With the low profile of the buildings the saguaro punctuated desert landscape is always within eyesight, a constant reminder of the relationship of each animal and plant to its natural surroundings.

A NEW LONG RANGE PLAN

A very comprehensive study, initiated by Director David Hancocks and his team, of the fundamental aims, the history, the existing exhibits and facilitieshas provided the basis of a new Long Range Plan for the Desert Museum. This has been designed by Jones and Jones of Seattle. The new plan is to provide the visitor with a more conscious, informed and comprehensive experience, and to demonstrate the interdependence of all natural components of the desert including human involvement in the natural world.

To achieve this, the layout is to be divided into areas similar to those defined by ecological subdivisions in the Sonoran Desert region, ranging from the high mountain areas to the unique landscapes of southern Baja, California. Thelandscape features of these ecological areas will be laid out as a framework for future exhibits, and will be toured via a series of closed-loop pathways leadingfrom and to a central paved footpath. Each area or subdivision has its own landforms creating the environment for the particular variety of fauna andflora.

In the new plan some of the existing features will be incorporated, such as the Earth Sciences Center and Mountain Habitat. These will be added to and enlarged to create more comprehensive and ecologically based zones. In addition, interpretative centres in each zone will create opportunity for detailed investigation and exhibition of very small objects.

A walkway featuring a geologic time line will direct the visitor to the Earth Sciences exhibit, which is an underground cave explaining the geology of theregion. From there the visitor will come up to the Mountain Island area and then continue through each particular subdivision: Grassland, Arizona Upland, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Lower Colorado Valley, Baja, and a separate Night Zone. The Night Zone will be for nocturnal animals, astronomy demonstrations, lectures, evening functions, illuminated gardens, dining


and other activities appropriate to the mild and starry nights of Southern Arizona.

APENHEUL, APELDOORN, HOLLAND

Apenheul is a specialist collection housing 19 species of primate in 8.5 ha of natural forest, the whole centre occupying a further 5 ha. It is part of an extensive park in the Northen outskirts of Apeldoorn.

The zoo, which is self-financing, has approximately 0.5 million visitors a year and is open from April until the first of November. Apenheul has been a forerunner in the open zoo concept. On the 19 species, 15 roam freely among the visitors, with people and animals together. The animals are given an opportunity to escape from the visitors either along the tree branches or specially constructed ladders or walkways. The entire zoo is surrounded by an unclimbable metal fence with a soft PVC overhanging flap over which no monkeys can pass.

On entering the zoo, the visitor is given instructions on how to behave towards the animals. Objects and bags of importance are handed in for safekeeping and picnics are put in special zipped bags for taking to enclosed picnic areas. The animals are often as interested in the visitors as the public are interested in them and are always hopeful for some crumb in a pushchair or an object to play with. No food outlets are in the fenced area. A restaurant isprovided near the main entrance.

A recommended walk takes the visitor through the zoo where the many varieties of primate are free roaming. The few species that are enclosed are mainly kept on islands. Apenheul has discovered that most tropical species can survive the northern climate as long as they are provided with a small area of heated housing. These do not need to be large but must be kept dry and free from draughts and need to have nesting boxes or nesting material. A plastic flapor hatch allows the animals to run in and out freelywithout loss of heat from the den areas.


GORILLA ISLANDS

The largest of the islands houses two groups of gorilla together with a small group of Patas monkeys. The whole gorilla area covers 2 ha (5 acres).

A moat separates the two gorilla groups, each having its own island. A central hillock on each island allows visual contact between the groups and spacefor a gorilla to charge, according to its normal behaviour. This activity is contained by a 2 m high barrier in the form of shrubs and electrified wires,Some of the existing trees have been protected by plastic tubular sleeves which have to be greased with a non-toxic grease. Alternatives, in the form ofclimbing frames and old tree branches, have been supplied to add interest for the gorillas.

The housing for the gorilla groups is simple and easy to run. A series of small caged rooms are interlocking and linked by an overhead tunnel. Eachroom area is supplied with shelves at various heights, ropes and other furniture. Glass bricks have been set in the walls at varying heights to act as peep holes for the gorillas to see what is going on outside. There is a small central visitors’ area for viewing when the weather is bad. The animals mix or remainindependent in the sleeping area and are free to go outside except when the moats are frozen. Plastic hatches keep the temperature inside the building tobetween 15-17°C. No other dens are provided as the animals are expected to be outside most of the time.

The Director of Apenheul, W. B. Mager, has made extensive studies on the primates and has prepared several papers on the breeding and husbandry ofgorillas, including “Gorilla Accommodation for NewExhibits according to EEP Standards”

A CONTEXT FOR EDUCATION

Many zoos have made education a priority in their general philosophy and programming. Drusillas Zoo, Alfriston, Sussex, has formulated programmes and teaching aids designed to encourage a particular age group. Emmen Zoo, previously referred to, has been a forerunner in this approach and being a larger zoo is able to extend its facilities to a greater age range.


Most zoos have their traditional children’s area. These are changing to include interactive devices as well as housing domestic and other animals. Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, has, in its Bird House a en large simulated bird that allows the child to get the feeling of flying. The International Wildlife Conservation Park, New York, has a nest and spider's web for children to sit in.

Los Angeles opened Adventure Island, a new children’s area, in 1989. This exhibits a variety of wildlife in natural habitats and domestic animals in a Spanish Hacienda, all interspersed with interactive devices.

DRUSSILAS ZOO PARK, ALFRISTON, SUSSEX

Drusillas Zoo is a family enterprise based on care and concern for animals with a real sense of purpose to encourage and foster the same concern in others, especially children.

The existing park, covering 20 acres, has developed in the last 20 years. Director Michael Ann took over the zoo from his father in 1958. He has gradually built up a collection of animals, and with the interest shown by the many schools in the area, education and conservation have become the prime motivation for the park. Teaching programmes have been developed for school and family use to encourage children to learn about animals through participation and activity. Drusillas is a specialist zoo, concentrating on the smaller animals, especially those whose habitat is threatened.

The layout of the zoo takes the visitor along a specific route, partly under cover, starting with an exhibition on ‚”Back to the beginning”, the evolution oflife. The individual habitats follow, interspersed with ‚ various interactive devices to encourage children to have a greater understanding of each species. The animals are housed in family groups and the habitats are designed to be as naturalistic as possible. Exhibits have been designed to cater for children of the 7-12 age group and descriptive notes are uncomplicated to encourage the children to read for themselves.


MEERKAT ENCLOSURE

An interesting development of the zoo’s emphasis on education culminated in the opening of a Meerkat in enclosure in 1990. Entirely designed by a class of 10-to 11-year-olds from Western Road County Primary School in Lewes, it gave the children a first-hand opportunity to be involved in the whole process of considering environments for animals in captivity.

The children’s teacher, David Holland, formulated a programme based around six weekly visits to the zoo. These started with a general introduction and historical background to animals in captivity, stressing the importance of well designed habitats to justify retaining zoos for educational and conservationist purposes. After studying various animals in the zoo, they then concentrated on the meerkats in particular. At first, through talks and films they studied the meerkats' behaviour in the wild. By helping the keepers in their daily tasks with the animals, they were able to list the requirements necessary for the new habitat. The children then measured up the site and prepared drawings and models of their schemes. The zoo’s designer put their ideas together to finalize the design of the new habitat. Finally the children helped with the demolition and clearance before watching their ideas materialize on the site. These included the use of rocks, areas for the meerkats to dig and acrylic domes for close viewing on the same level as the meerkats within the enclosure.

BEAVER COUNTY

Although Drusillas is a small zoo, in 1987 it won the first award from the UFAW (Universities Federation of Animal Welfare) for the best zoo enclosure in the UK. This award was given for a recently opened beaver exhibit. Beaver County was opened in 1986 to house a natural group of North American beavers. The exhibit, designed by Martyn Williams the curator, consists of two ponds, one which holds 30,250 l and the other 12,250 l, each 1 m deep and connected by a narrow chute.


The entire site area of 350 sq. m was lined with heavy weldmesh. The ponds were constructed in concrete blocks reinforced and rendered, the ground areas covered with topsoil and grassed. The lodge, adjacent to a waterfall at the far end of the upper pond, has an underwater entrance for the beavers and a service door at the rent. Vegetation, rocks and tree stumps make up a realistic habitat. Drain pipes buried into the ground provide holders for tree branches to be used as browsing and building material by beavers.

Viewing is from a walkway down one side of the enclosure and under cover one end where interpretive panels and a video presentation explain the animals’ characteristics.

ADVENTURE ISLAND, LOS ANGELES ZOO, CALIFORNIA

Los Angeles Zoo has a natural wooded valley site which is interesting and impressive. It covers 113 acres but the hilly topography makes rebuilding particularly expensive. There is a redevelopment plan for the zoo to be laid out in bio-climatic zones and there have been some interesting new exhibits built in recent years. The most recent area to be redesigned is the children’s zoo.

In the concept for the Adventure Island, education abd conservation were of primary importance. Education has a positive, participatory approach, where children can experience seeing animals in a representation of their natural environment and leam to respect their habits as well as their habitat.

The majority of the zoo’s visitors are from local Califomia and a high percentage from Los Angeles where there are large numbers of minority groups. Many of the children from these groups rarely leave Los Angeles or have an opportunity to see an animal except on television. Adventure Island was designed with these families in mind, with children in the 7-11 age range, to encourage them to understand and in respect animal life.

The focus is on local animals of the Pacific South West. The aim is to have small exhibits so that the children can be as close as possible; to help the children to develop a positive attitude to animals; to encourage and enjoy learning by doing, using interactive devices based on the premise that children retain information better when discovering it for themselves. These


include comparing human vision with that of a bee, mountain lion and prairie dog, and jumping on the footprints of a mountain lion to hear it roar.

Adventure Island is divided into five natural habitat zones. The visitor enters by a bridge which overlooks a pool and rockwork depicting the shoreline, thehabitat for Californian sea-lions. A waterfall cascades down the mountain rockwork into the pool and a continuous sound tape featuring crashing waves and the calling of seagulls, helps to create a realistic setting.

The island is entered through the mountain rockwork into a cool damp cave with stalagmites and stalactites. Various species of bat and other nocturnal animals are exhibited and a video “pepper' s ghost” appears and describes the barn owl’s characteristics. Other interactive devices make cave sounds andcreate the illusion of bats swooping out at the viewer.

Coming out of the cave the visitor is in a desert environment with a desert-at-dusk exhibit depicting the many nocturnal hunters in the desert areas. A“pepper’ s ghost” again explains details.

A Spanish style hacienda brings the children close to domestic animals. Although the sheep, goats and donkeys are in pens the children can be close enough to touch the animals under supervision.

The meadow area behind the mountain includes a walk-through aviary and a prairie dog exhibit, where the children can go under the burrow and put their heads up into plexi-glass domes to be alongside the animals. A waterfall at the top of the meadow drops step ha into a pool with Pacific pond turtles and a badger exhibit.

The final zone brings the visitor back to the mountain and the entrance. This area houses mountain lion, porcupines and black-billed magpies. Viewing is either through glass or piano-wire. The exhibit rockwork follows the bends of the mountain providing areas of privacy as well as many promentaries and ledges for the animals to he on. A step has been placed at viewing positions to allow younger children to look for themselves. An amphitheatre, animal nursery and Mexican food outlet complete the scheme.


Adventure Island was opened in April 1989 at a cost of $8.3 million. The architects were Grist Associates Inc., the Project Manager was Riener Nielsen Jr and rockwork was by The Larson Co. Tucson. Interactive devices were created by Art and Technology Inc. Burbank.

CHAPTER IVANIMAL ENCLOSURES

Each zoo has different factors to consider in its approach to the design of animal enclosures. Most have a great concern for the welfare of the animals in their care and endeavour to inspire in the public that same respect. The solutions are widespread and only some selected aspects can be included here.

With the threat to wildlife being a source of concern throughout the world, a greater freedom of communication has developed between zoos. There is a readiness to pool information and work together with breeding programmes and other conservationist issues.

Four symposia on Zoo Design and Construction held at Paignton, Devon, have taken place since 1975. Talks and films covering a wide range of topics were contributed by delegates representing 19 different countries. A publication records each of these symposia.

The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland have recently (1991) published the first of three of a series of management guidelines for the welfare of zoo animals. These are an introduction and guidelines on giraffe and ratites with sections on Biology and Field Data, as well as Management in Captivity.

In the USA the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria have published a book intitled Zoological Park and Aquarium Fundamentals, which is a compilation of articles on the information necessary to construct zoological facilities.


GENERAL DESIGN APPROACH

Each zoo has different thresholds for developments. A new zoo can start with a whole new concept, others are able to acquire further land and still othersdecide to specialize in just a few species. The majority have to alter and extend exhibits piecemeal. This is often executed within the framework of amaster plan for the whole zoo.

Finance is an important consideration as most zoos are at least partially self supporting. The opening of a new exhibit at regular intervals helps to sustain public interest. Changes have to be allowed for in the light of new research in husbandry and environmental needs and this can put some restraint on the amount spent on a particular project. Therefore within the framework of the master plan a staged development plan is formed.

The design team is important, whether the zoo concerned is large or small. Specialist knowledge is necessary to evaluate the requirements of each particular animal. This includes not only the zoologist but also the keeper and landscape designer, as well as the Director, Curator and other representatives of the zoo staff. All members of the team have to be able to work together and learn to understand the needs and characteristics of the animal concerned. In habitat design the architect has to include most buildings sensitively within the whole habitat to maintain the simulated natural environment. Extensive research has to be carried out by the design team which can involve travel to study the animals in the wild and to meet zoologists at work in the field. The whole habitat and ecosystem is studied: the soil, rocks, insects, vegetation, water and the use of each made by the animals, as well as the interaction within family groups and between species. No exhibit can completely emulate the wild environments but the closer it is to the natural habitat the more the animals will respond with their natural behaviour.

Various other factors will affect these considerations including the existing site situation and relevant regulations.


THE EXISTING SITE

Each zoo has different restrictions. It may be a limited city site or governed by a particular topography.

The city zoo has to economize in the use of space by building holding areas under external habitats or by extending animal exhibits over pedestrian walkways. Cologne Zoo have extended their lemur and black and white colobus monkey environment over a walkway. The new enclosures not only provide more space but, as in the wild, the animals are able to watch their surroundings from above. Cologne has also redesigned the old bird house, a listed building, to form a habitat for their South American monkeys. The monkeys have the use of small external enclosures, an indoor area withfurniture, and the freedom of the central area with its tropical vegetation when the visitors have left.

A naturally hilly site as at San Diego Zoo lends itself to imaginative schemes such as Tiger River Trail, a simulated river valley. At Zoo Doue-La-Fontaine in France, old disused quarries and caves have been utilized for animal enclosures.

Existing vegetation and rockwork can be incorporated although trees may need protection from some animals. Essential services such as water, drainage and electricity may already exist. These will have to be extended for any new complex and allowance made for the provision of heating or airconditioning. Habitats with pools will require filtration and water treatment equipment. Many of these aspects are covered in Chapter 6.

Climate can also provide limitations. A tropical zoo can house most of the animals outside but has to cater for high humidity, strong sunlight and floodwater from heavy rainfall. Zoos in a temperate climate have to be aware of which animals can cope with the lowest temperatures they are liable to besubjected to, and which would have to spend most of their time in enclosed exhibits.


REGULATIONS

Concurrent with the general approach to design, the regulations regarding zoos have to be considered and will have a bearing on more specific design details.

The EC is likely to propose recommendations for standards in the near future. Australia has an Exhibited Animals Protection Act (1986). In the USA,zoos have to apply to the Dept. of Agriculture for a licence. To be an Associate of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariumsapplication has to be made and inspections carried out at regular intervals. The AAZPA have published a Manual of Federal Wildlife Regulations which is a compilation of all US wildlife legislation and the animal entities involved.

The Zoo Licensing Act 1981 in Great Britain makes it unlawful to operate a zoo without a local authority licence. Regular inspections have to be carried out and the inspectors require to see any records. Within the Act standards relate to animal care, welfare, health, hygiene, veterinary facilities, post mortem facilities, safety and security, visitor facilities and a miscellaneous items. Attention is also drawn to other legislation of possible relevance to the operation of the zoo, concerned with responsibility for animals, a conserving the environment of Great Britain and a protecting native species, animal health, catering and retail services, employment, public health and related matters.

Each zoo design situation is different and has varying constraints and possibilities. Within the general design approach the individual elements have to be considered. Gerald Durrell, the author and zoologist, puts the order of priority in the design of zoos as, first, the animal, secondly, the keeper, and tethen the public.


THE ANIMAL

BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Whether it is a mixed species exhibit or a single unit, each particular animal’s characteristics and needs have to be studied as they exist in the wild. They may be burrowers, climbers, swimmers; they may sleep on the ground, on a ledge or up a tree; how and where they nest, rear their young and defaecate (e.g.beavers always defaecate in the water); what they eat and how they eat it; how they are occupied (e.g. primates can become particularly bored).

It is also necessary to establish their social groupings and attitudes to other groups; the maximum height, weight, strength and jumping distance of the animal concerned; its susceptibility to heat, cold and disease from humans (gorillas can catch the human common cold). Also attention must be paid to how each animal makes use of its environment, the soil, water, vegetation and geology by playing, throwing, destroying or chewing. lt has been found that natural materials for scratching against or for use in grooming are more sensitive for the animals than artificial structures and more conducive to normal behaviour.

Dr H. Hediger in his books on wild animals in captivity evaluated the movements of animals within their natural habitat. Territorial limits, flight distance and space patterns have to be considered to assess the requirements of each species. The flight distance, the distance by which an animal will retreat when approached by a man or predator, is important to all animals, but particularly to those newly from the wild. Most zoo animals have now been reared in captivity, but it is still considered necessary to allow them adistance of retreat.

Dr Hediger’s studies show that an animal in the wild is considerably more restricted than people realize. Within the rainforest or savanna an animal’sactual territory may be very limited. One type of South American monkey was found to limit its territory to two large trees. Within an animals’ territory, which is marked out by scent or sound, they have retreat areas and dens to which to withdraw. Fixed reference points for scent markings


are very important and should be at the right height for the particular animal. These can be in the form of trees, twigs or stones.

As Dr Hediger points out, the animal should regard the zoo as an area that corresponds in all significant points to its territory, and should feel that it is the occupier of that territory.

Each animal has its own form of locomotion, whether horizontal or vertical, and a method of overcoming obstacles. Safety for the animal and the public requires that the total enclosure has to be designed beyond the limit of the capacity of the species concerned.

PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS

When animals are out of their natural environment their behaviour can become stereotyped as used to be seen in many old traditional zoos. The animal inthe wild spends a great deal of its time and energy in hunting for food. For the animal in captivity, other means of stimulus have been provided. In the last 15 years this has been studied in some detail, especially in relation to primates.

Professor Markowitz of San Francisco University carried our detailed studies and experiments on behavioural enrichment in the zoo. Animals procure their food and maintain their agility through manipulating various types of apparatus. Following Jane Lawick-Goodall’s studies of chimpanzees in the wild, many zoos provide artificial termite mounds where animals manipulate sticks and stones to procure food for themselves.

Some zoos have found that providing frequent and scattered supplies of browsing material helps to keep the animals occupied. As polar bears naturally claw at the ice to obtain bood, some zoos give them their fish frozen in containers to allow the bears to use this natural instinct. These many forms of activity can absorb the animals and provide interest to the public and therefore the feeding and activity areas should be planned to be within view of the public.


The use of natural vegetation, water and rock formation will vary according to the species of animal concerned. Some will need extra climbing structures, nesting areas of facilities for digging. At Jersey Zoo high nesting areas for the orang-utans, which are arboreal animals, are provided.

The greatest stimulant to the animal is achieved in the most natural way by mixing the species. Certain species combine happily; others can only be linkedvisually.

BREEDING PROGRAMMES

As the animals are normally housed in family groups, the natural habits of the particular species in giving birth and raising young, have to be established. Some animals need to hide away at these times and requirespecial facilities; sometimes the female and young have to be separated from the male.

With the concern for the preservation of wildlife, zoos have become increasingly involved in breeding programmes. Coordinators representing breedingprogrammes recommend husbandry guidelines and regulate the transfer of animals between zoos. This means that each zoo participating may have animals waiting for transfer. These animals, in waiting, who are not on view to the public, have to have good standards of accommodation, both internal andexternal habitats, and added interest if they are without companions. This also applies to quarantine areas, and areas away from the public for mothers to rear their young.

Natural groups can be very large, such as baboons which can number as many as 90, made up of smaller sub-groups. When the groups become too large, oneof the sub-groups is transferred elsewhere and a transfer area will be required.


EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ENCLOSURES

In northern climates certain species, including the human public, need to be enclosed from the extreme elements. The basic requirements for the animals will be the same in the enclosed areas as in the external areas. The interior habitat requires den retreat areas.

At Krefeld and Cologne Zoos the public enter the ape house through a “jungle experience” to see the gorillas or orang-utans in their indoor exhibit. Theanimals have climbing structures, branches and other objects of interest. At Cologne the animals can pass through overhead tunnels to reach outdoorenclosures.

Belfast Zoo has recently opened a new primate enclosure incorporating some of these facilities.

KEEPER FACILITIES AND HOLDING AREAS

THE KEEPER

The needs of the keeper also have to be considered. He is the custodian of the animal or animal group and will build up a close relationship with them. This is an important element in the welfare of the animals and therefore affects the successful establishment of the habitat. Facilities must allow for the keeper to keep a calm control and sense of order.

The safety of the keeper and the animals can be helped with the use of closed circuit television for viewing the animals in both their dens and habitat.Barriers and doors have to allow for the largest, strongest and most agile of each species. The jointing between frames and wall, fixings and locks are allvulnerable to strong animals. Door swings have to be considered and corridors must be wide enough to allow the keeper to pass with a wheelbarrow and out of reach from any grasping limbs.


The keeper will require an area for food preparation which should include sinks, freezer, cutting areas, storage and a place in which to kelep records. Provision has to be made for sick animals and veterinary requirements. Some zoos provide laboratories for research purposes. Service areas and space are needed to allow for vehicles to deliver food, for the collection of refuse, and also to provide access for maintenance to the habitat area

THE HOLDING AREAS

As the animals spend quite long periods in their den areas, these must be seen as an extension to the outdoor exhibit. For the animal, the two areas make up their whole environment. Both areas need to incorporate features of interest as well as basic requirements such as nesting boxes or nesting material, a shelf or raised area for sleeping, climbing facilities, and maybe a pool.

Dens need to be a comfortable size for the animal and yet provide an element of restraint. It is important that the housing is dry and draught-free with adequate natural daylight and viewing panels, particularly for primates. Every part of the holding area should be visible to the keeper. It may be necessary to allow for quarantine, transfer areas and squeeze cages where the animals are contained for injection and inspection purposes. Some primatehousing is a complete network of cages and connecting corridors giving great flexibility.

Fire detectors are important as early warning is necessary to prevent panic. Heating, lighting and ventilation have to be considered and will varyaccording to the climate and according to the latest information on husbandry. Gorillas in northern climates were always considered susceptible to cold weather and disease, and were housed indoors behind glass. lt is now realized that as long as their housing is kept between 11-15 °C (see Using Outside Areas for Tropical Primates in the Northern Hemisphere by W. B. Mager and Tine Griede) the animals can spend much more time in the open air. They are much healthier and even enjoy playing with the snow.


All the materials need to be strong and maintenance-free. Holding buildings are usually constructed of brick or reinforced concrete, sometimes plastered and sealed with an epoxy paint. Floors need to be easily washed down but cannot be slippery, particularly for hoofed animals. Sloping floors should be laid and require adequate drainage channel with strainers for waste. There should be no protruding objects, and poisonous paints or preservatives must be avoided. Divisions are often constructed of steel mesh which allows for crossventilation and ensures that the animals are in visual contact with each other.

THE PUBLIC

General facilities relating to visitors will be the same as for theme and leisure parks, discussed in Chapter 6. Besides the general circulation routes a wholesystem of service roads and areas have to be considered, particularly for zoos because of regular feeding and cleaning out.

Adequate information and clear signs are very important to the public to prevent confusion. General information should be clearly displayed giving details of animals, times of feeding or any other special events. Some zoos have an amphitheatre for special shows and talks. It should be clear to the visitor exactly where the routes lead and what facilities they will find on those routes. Well designed seating, refuse bins, lighting and other furniture give a sense of order.

Food outlets, shops and toilets should be grouped together at intervals or intersections on the main circulation routes, and generally away from animals that might be fed. This allows for secondary routes leading to the habitat zones to become encompassed by the vegetation and geological features as a prelude to the habitat. The vegetation and screening also make it possible to create a variety of viewing positions.

It may be necessary to provide shelter from rain or hot sun at strategic positions without obscuring the views of the habitat. This has been achieved at the Mountain Woodlands Habitat, Arizona-Sonora Museum, where ramada shelter also incorporates a cage for birds of the region. Simple and clear information can be positioned at these points so that full concentration can be given to the animals and their habitats.


A zoo will have achieved a great deal if it can stimulate the public to have a sense of enquiry and to further their interest in wildlife and the environment.If each habitat area presents an exciting and different environmental experience, it will help the visitor to go from one to another with eager anticipation.

THE COMPLETE ENVIRONMENT

It is the bringing together of all these factors that make up the complete environment. The animals’ needs, the keeper's facilities, the public pathways and viewing positions all have to be integrated within the structure of rocks, vegetation and water that simulate the natural world.

In the wild, animals are contained by physical barriers such as mountains, rivers and forests and also through their own territorial constraints. In the zoo context, other forms of barrier have to be provided as the psychological barrier of territorial restraint cannot be relied upon to contain the animals.

BARRIERS AND VIEWING

Barriers in zoos are usually in the form of a fence, wall, glass screen or wet and dry moats.

Visitors’ viewing positions are usually related to the animal barriers. Designed together with the vegetation, unobtrusive barriers create the illusions and vistas that help to immerse the visitor in a particular habitat.

The one-sided dry moat can be used for the visitor to obtain an uninterrupted viw across to the animals. The sloping side allows the animal to walk into the moat. The walls can be treated as a river bank or rocky outcrop to soften the edge.

The water moat can be the most acceptable visually, especially if it is planted and designed to look like a river bank or stream. It has to be sloping on one side and not so deep that an animal might drown.


The two-sided dry moat first used by Carl Hagenbeck is an effective way of dividing different species without a barrier being visible to the public. They do however take up a great deal of space which can prejudice the size of the usable space for the animal. The two-sided dry moat makes a good barrier when dividing groups of animals that would naturally live in adjacent habitats in the wild. These are best used away from the public and between enclosures.Vegetation and planting can be used to reduce the effect of a straight-sided or double moat.

A two-sided trench and fence can also be used in this context. It is best if planted with natural thorny vegetation so that the animals do not stay down in the trench. Electric wires and fences are used extensively to deter animals from molesting vegetation and climbing rocky areas.

Mesh barriers are sometimes necessary for complete enclosures. Some woven stainless steel mesh is fairly inconspicuous. Also unobtrusive piano wire may be used for sections of enclosures.

Glass allows the visitor the closest proximity to the animal and prevents the transfer of disease or objects. It does, however, have problems ofreflection and requires regular cleaning. This is particularly applicable to marine animal exhibits, referred to in Chapter 5. Glass also denies the visitorappreciation of sounds and smells which are part of the characteristics of the animal. Domes can provide viewing from within a habitat such as the meerkatenclosure at Drusillas Zoo Park.

The species of animal, its group size and the relationship to other groups in adjacent habitats will help to decide on the nature of the barrier. The visitors’ viewing position will be governed by the animals' activity areas within the habitat, where there are things to climb on or water to play in. Providingheating under prominent rocks can encourage an animal to remain in view of the public, or be brought close to the viewing area. It is important that a degree of privacy and separateness from the public is maintained, through carefully positioned screening, as this will encourage more natural behaviour among the animal groups.


In his development plan for Melbourne Zoo, David Hancocks, Director of the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum and an architect, gives general viewingguidelines to help the visitor and animals to become immersed in the same landscape. He suggests that by providing several selected viewing positions a sense of anticipation is created for the visitor, and the animals are given areas for retreat. The animals should not feel surrounded or looked down upon. Thepublic should not look across to other visitors or be aware of other parts of the zoo.

VEGETATION, ROCKWORK AND WATER

The design and construction of the simulated rockwork is a specialist subject and is covered in more detail in Chapter 6.

The rockwork, vegetation and water features all play an important part in the creation of a naturalistic environment. Where possible, the relevantlandscaping should start at the approaches to the particular exhibit and be continued into the various viewing areas. These considerations must never beat the expense of the welfare of the animal. The most successful enclosures are those that allow the animals the greatest scope to develop and lead healthy andvaried lives in the most natural way.

The use of natural vegetation within zoo enclosures is also a specialist field. Each animal has different needs and habits and certain plants can be food to one species, harmful to another and may be ignored by others. In an article on zoo horticulture (IZYb 1990, No. 29, 3-6), Mark K. Wourms of The Bronx Zoo explains the many roles played by zoo horticulture in the modern zoo, including screening holding buildings and barriers.

Many zoos have carried out their own experiments and have compiled lists of suitable plants; others have their own nurseries for the replacement of trees andshrubs. Some have made a detailed analysis of the plants used in their exhibits showing those that thrived and those that have not survived. The landscaping and use of vegetation requires detailed study and will vary according to the species of animal using the habitat. Some need open landscape, whilst others, such as gorillas, need plenty of shade.


Some trees within a habitat may need protection from destruction. Depending on the size and reach of the animal, the lower part of a tree trunk can be protected by such materials as wire mesh, electric fencing, or wrapped in fibreglass to simulate natural bark.

The careful positioning of rocks, trees and vegetation can give illusions of space and provide vistas and screening. It is important to allow for adequate access for the removal or handling of large trees.

The use of water in waterfalls, streams and deep water pools all need to be designed as part of the character of the natural habitat. A blending of artificialand natural materials can be used. The edges of pools can be softened by the use of gunite to simulate natural banks. Planter pockets within the bank canhold natural vegetation. Each exhibit usually has its own separate recycled supply of water. This is important to avoid the transmission of disease.

The otter enclosure at Krefeld Zoo provides a naturalistic environment incorporating many of these features (see over).

PARTICULAR ENCLOSURES

Most zoos are concerned that their exhibits should reflect their care for the welfare of the animals and that they should be seen as part of a habitat or region.

It is not possible to give a complete survey of the many excellent exhibits that have been built all over the world. The particular enclosures illustrated are a selection of some of the ways in which zoos are aiming to promote a concern for wildlife. Some are single species, others are mixed exhibits.

The majority of zoos aim to open a new exhibit every two to three years. This is partly to maintain public interest and partly to upgrade habitats in the light of new discoveries in animal behaviour and ideas in husbandry. The following examples were built at different times and reflect the current ideas at the time. Each zoo has different financial considerations, site conditions, philosophy and existing buildings. Each has to be seen in the light of its own particularcircumstances.


WOODLAND PARK ZOO, SEATTLE

In 1976 Woodland Park Zoo established their new zoo concept. The overall plan for the zoo was to provide naturalistic habitats for the animals within guidelines set out under education, conservation, research and recreation.

The plan was to divide the area into bioclimatic zones for animals and plants. Under zoo director David Hancocks, two of the earliest projects to be carried out were the African Savanna exhibit and a new gorilla enclosure. Both were to be forerunners in the establishment of natural habitat enclosures.

THE ELEPHANT FOREST

The latest development at Woodland Park Zoo, a 5 acre Elephant Forest Exhibit, was designed by architects Jones and Jones of Seattle. The projectarchitects travelled to Thailand to obtain first-hand information on the animals’ needs in the wild as well as how they have been involved in 3000 years of Thai culture. The three aspects of the relationship of the Thai people with the Asian elephant have been conveyed in the new exhibit. Three 11 ft high posts, the maximum height of an Asian elephant, at each side of the entrance represent the elephant in the wild, the elephant as a working animal and theelephant in Thai religious culture.

A winding path through tropical foliage gives the visitor a sense of expectancy. In Thai culture landscapes were designed to reveal vistas in stages. This surprise element has been introduced in the overall plan. From the forest vegetation, which has been made up of over 12,000 plants representing 159 species, including a large collection of bamboo, the visitor arrives to an overview of a clearing. Elephants in the wild create clearings when destroyingvegetation for their food. A stream running into a waterfall feeds a 60,000 gallon pool where the elephants can bathe. A small amphitheatre overlooking the pool allows the visitor to watch the elephants enjoying the water.


Continuing around the circuitous path to the logging camp, the visitor is then able to see the elephants at work. For over 3000 years Thai people have used elephants to help in the logging of teak. Demonstrations are held to show the relationship of the handler and elephant in displaying the techniques used in logging.

Beyond the logging camp a group of buildings representing a Thai village provide an interpretive centre and a pavilion for shelter. The steeply pitchedoverlapping layers of roof, extended ridgepoles and decorative features of the buildings have been designed in the mid-nineteenth-century tradition ofNorthern Thailand.

The same traditional construction has been used in the House of Elephants, a large structure in the form of a temple which houses the elephants. It is designed as a place of honour for the elephants and their stewards. The design conveys the respect and reverence the Thai people have for the elephant in their culture.

The building includes holding areas where an individual animal can be isolated, a bathing pool that is also used as a maternity ward, keepers’ facilities and a ventilation system allowing eight air exchanges anhour. A cushioned floor surface reduces foot and joint problems for the elephants. Bollards placed at strategic intervals keep the elephants within theirarea and are designed to resemble those forming the royal elephant stockade in Thailand.

The whole provides a spacious and well planned holding building for the elephants, aiming to give the animal dignity in the eyes of the visitor as it would in Thai culture. This exhibit opens a new concept in the design of animal enclosures. It not only displays the elephant in its natural habitat to the public but also shows the bond that can develop between man and ananimal from the wild.


ZOO ATLANTA, GEORGIA

In 1984 the City of Atlanta Department of Parks, Recreation and Cultural Affairs appointed Dr Terry L. Maple to consider possible improvements to the zoo. Dr Maple's philosophy stressed the importance of relating the design of exhibits to the animals’ natural habitat and behaviour.

The first stage in the new plan was for a new gorilla and orang-utan enclosure. The architect and curator were sent to the West African rainforests to make detailed studies of the gorilla’s wild habitat, to assess their needs, and the type of environment necessary to keep them healthy and occupied. The aim of Jon Coe, the architect, and the rest of the team was to provide a habitat that encapsulated as closely as possible the total environment in which the animal had evolved. A 4 acre wooded hillside area of the zoo provided an ideal site for the new habitat.

THE GORILLAS OF CAMEROON

The exhibit contains four habitats for different family groups, divided by deep moats. Each island habitat contains high points from which the gorillas can view adjacent groups, or they can be used to retreat behind. Existing trees and additional planting have created a simulation of the forests of Cameroon. Itwas decided to keep the public viewing to the lower end of the site so that the animals are in the superior position. The visitors are able to view from variouslocations and have to look carefully for the animals, as they would if looking for animals in the wild. An interpretative centre at the lower end of the site hasa large glass wall looking up to the habitat. Heating units have been placed under the area outside this wall to encourage the animals to come close to thevisitors.

The four habitats, covering areas of 0.66, 0.33, 0.33 and 0.08 acre are divided by moats 12 ft deep and 12 ft wide. Where two habitats are adjacent, a double moat has been constructed. The moats have been lined with hot wire using fibreglass rods 3 ft high with four strands evenly spaced. Exhibits have beendesigned to be interconnecting to allow for the gorillas to be moved to a different habitat.


Initially, the large trees on the site were wrapped with chain link and hot wired to 6 ft above ground so that the animals would not peel off the bark. Now alltrees are wrapped in fibreglass to simulate the natural tree. Simulated rockwork around streams and waterfalls and outcropping on the sites together with dead-tree climbers strapped to the ground give the gorillas a very realistic environment.

The old feline and primate buildings at the top of the site have been renovated and extended to provide indoor quarters for the gorillas and orang-utans and anew research facility. The building has been camouflaged by rockwork and murals which gives the appearance of a rock outcropping and natural vegetation. The rockwork has been constructed to simulate the exact colours and formation of that in the Cameroon.

The gorilla holding is 7700 sq. ft in area and consists of 15 rooms and two day rooms of 360 sq-ft and 740 sq. ft. Three metabolic squeeze cages (each an8 ft x 6 ft enclosure with a movable wall) are included and one for the quarantine area. Transfer tunnels (3 ft x 3 ft) connect the cages and are above the keeper routes. Numbered and colour coded hydraulic doors are fitted to all rooms, transfers and habitats. Old bars to the cages were removed and replaced by 2 in x 2 in steel welded wire mesh.

SAN DIEGO ZOO, CALIFORNIA

San Diego Zoo opened in 1916 when a group of friends formed the Zoological Society of San Diego. They started the collection with the few remaining animals from the menagerie of the 1915 Panama Pacific International Exposition. The 100 acre hilly site provided an opportunity to enclose the animals with moats and ravines. The natural scrub land was planted with trees and shrubs which now provide very necessary shade to both visitors and animals. The gardens are well known for their botanical collection. The Society realized that many species of plants as well as animals were in danger of becoming extinct.


The zoo aims to encourage the visitor to see the importance of preserving the rainforests and other environments by grouping animals, birds and reptilestogether to simulate their natural habitats. These are being grouped within ten bio-climatic zones.

THE AFRICAN KOPJE

The habitat first to be constructed on these lines was the African Kopje designed by Jones and Jones, Seattle, opened in 1986. It is a very realisticsimulation of one of these outcrops of volcanic lava which are regular features in the grasslands of Africa. These rocky outcrops have developed their ownecosystem with a variety of animal and plant life.

Sixty-four man-made boulders and 15 tons of natural stone were constructed on the half-acre site. Planting has been carefully studied to re-create this environment; many of the plants used were those indigenous to the African grasslands. A rock basin providing water for the animals and simulated termite mounds have helped to create a very realistic habitat for the klipspringers, rock hyraxes and dwarf mongoose. Adjacent to the Kopje a large aviary houses Verreaux’s eagles, the natural predators of these animals.

TIGER RIVER

An existing canyon was re-contoured to create an Asian tropical rainforest exhibit. The visitor walks down a winding pathway simulating a dry river bedwith the banks constructed in sprayed concrete and surrounded with lush tropical plants. The 3 acre site is a sequence of 10 exhibits interspersed with pools, waterfalls and interpretative display areas. Each pool is serviced independently with recirculated water. One hundred animals live in the environment and include Sumatran tigers, tapirs, fishing cats andtarsiers, with crocodiles, python and Chinese water dragons in the pool area. Many varieties of birds make up the habitat.

A computerized irrigation system gives a very fine mist effect and provides a rainforest humidity. Over 5000 plants have been used to create this exhibit.


The viewing areas have been designed to provide protection from the hot sun. The design of the timber canopied structures is based on traditional Indonesian architecture. The architects for Tiger Trail were Jones and Jones, Seattle.

SINGAPORE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS

Singapore is a relatively new zoo which was opened in 1973. The government allocated 90 ha of natural forest, enclosed on most sides by a reservoir, to be a recreational and educational amenity for the people of Singapore, as well as for the visiting tourist. Twenty-eight hectares of the land have been developed so far, and the underlying philosophy is to display animals in breeding groups, mixing species where practical and housing them in enclosures resemblingtheir natural habitat. Singapore Zoo is known as the open zoo. All barriers used to enclose the animals are positioned discreetly, using wet or dry moats or are concealed in some way using well placed planting. In this way the animals appear to have little visible means of constraint in an uninterrupted landscape.

In the layout of the zoo as a whole, planting has been an important element. The natural forest trees and botanical plants provide an ideal setting for the animals’ habitats.

To help the local population to understand something of rare and endangered species and the threat to their environment, Singapore has a special enclosure to house animals on loan for short periods. This helps to raise revenue for conservation programmes.

The latest exhibits at Singapore Zoo are designed with more casual and wild surroundings. The aim is to take the visitor through a “jungle” or to go on “safari” to see animals in natural family groups. Because of dense foliage and the careful placement of rockwork the animals can hide and visitors have to look for the animals as they would in the wild. The Primate Kingdom for the smaller primates, which opened in June 1991 has been designed on this principle.


Children's World, which includes a large range of domestic animals, contact/petting, animal rides and play equipment was opened in November 1991.

SEA-LION AND PENGUIN ENCLOSURE

This exhibit, which was opened in March 1991, contains pools for sea-lions, seals, pelican and penguins, an additional enclosed cool area for penguins, an area of terraced seating and a selection of well defined informative panels and devices. The whole provides a complete complex in which to study these aquatic animals. Glass laminate, 1.75 in thick, has been used along one side of the pools to allow for underwater viewing. The laminate consists of two layers of glass with a plastic interlay.

INTERNATIONAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PARK, NEW YORK (formerly BRONX ZOO)

The New York Zoological Society operates numerous wildlife facilities, including the International Wildlife Conservation Park, New York. The vision of the Society is to preserve nature and wild creatures for future generations, using research, education and environmental action to find viable alternatives to extinction.

The centres under the auspices of the Society are sanctuaries for wildlife. Breeding programmes for endangered species are carried out to build up numbers in order to supply some animals to other zoos (with the same vision) and also to return other animals to the wild.

In 265 acres of undulating parkland the International Wildlife Conservation Park provides the people of New York with the opportunity to see over 4000 animals in very spacious surroundings. In recent years exhibits have been designed to simulate natural habitats, to encourage visitors to associate certain species with specific environments.


JUNGLEWORLD

In 1985 an indoor exhibit was opened to house four habitats, an Indonesian scrub forest, a mangrove forest, a lowland rainforest and mountain forest from South Asia. This ambitious scheme covering nearly 1 acre and rising to a height of 55 ft, was designed to take visitors on raised walkways through the different environments. Mammals, birds and fish are grouped together as in the wild without any apparent means of restraint. Natural barriers, moats, ravines, water and glass are used to contain the animals without restricting vision for visitors or animals.

On the visitor path through Jungleworld each habitat is preceded by a gallery giving information on the particular habitat and which displays its smallercreatures in individual exhibits.

The design of the features in the habitats has resulted from detailed studies of the natural environments. Rockwork, constructed in concrete and fibreglass reinforced concrete, simulates sandstone, limestone, lava and granite. Large trees (one 50 ft high and 8 ft in diameter) and vines have been formed from carved and cast epoxy and latex on fibreglass and steel. Each landscape has been planted with a variety of natural vegetation relating to thespecific habitats. Hundreds of species of tropical plants have been used. Some of the man-made tree trunks provide planters for the natural growth, sothat each habitat is a careful blending of natural and man-made features. Five waterfalls, one 40 ft high, a system of streams and pools that circulates 2000 gallons of water per minute, help to create these replicas of the natural world.

The habitats provide environments for many species of Asian animals, including Indian gharials, langurs, gibbons, Malayan tapir, black leopards,hornbills and laughing thrushes. Throughout the exhibit the structure of the building has been de-emphasized by careful sight lines, planting, rockworkor large naturalistic murals. The visitor is unaware of any enclosing walls, beams or glazing. Two separate systems are used to create cloud effects and provide the necessary humidity. The visitor wanders along 783 ft of pathway and is able to experience a very realistic impression of wildlife in tropical settings. Signs and displays encourage study and emphasize the importance of preserving the rainforests and their wealth of wildlife.


Education is at primary goal throughout Jungleworld-along the public walkways and in particular behind the scene areas. Junglelab, a unique observation post classroom, has been constructed above the level of the walkway. This research area is approached from a staircase concealed in the artificial rock cliffs and the whole lab is screened by planting. Regular classes are held in the room where studies are carried out on the animals and their behaviour, both within their family groupings and their interaction with other species

Jungleworld covers an area of 37.380 sq. ft, the rainforest area covering half an acre. The overall scheme was designed by William Cornway and the staff of the New York Zoological Society. Murals were painted by Nick Wilson and David Rock. Simulated rockwork, trees and other man-made elements were constructed by Larson and Company, Tucson. The total cost of the project was $9.5 million ($4.1 million donated by a trustee).

THE ETHIOPIAN BABOON RESERVE

The most recent exhibit to be opened has continued the Society’s policy to exhibit groups of animals within naturalistic habitats. These are linked withothers from the same geographical area. The Ethiopian baboon reserve was opened in 1990, and together with the existing Serengeti plains exhibit, makes up 22 acres of the Africa section. The idea is to immerse people in a replicated wild landscape.

The new exhibit, on a 5 acre hillside site, is made up of three sections. The first is approached along a path and over a stream through simulated rolling grassland to a thatched roofed field station from which the visitor can look up the grassy slope of the spacious hillside site. lt is the largest primate exhibit in an American Zoo and is large enough for the animals to disappear from sight and then reappear. Telescopes are provided for viewing and interactive graphics explain the characteristics of the two troops of gelada baboons, rock hyrax, African waterfowl and Nubian Ibex, which live together in the enclosure as they would in the wild. The rocky outcrops which conceal the animal night holding areas, create a very realistic setting in which to study these endangeredspecies.


From the held station a winding path takes the visitor through ornamental grasses, African wild flowers and shrubs to a re-created archeological dig. Explanatory panels show the simultaneous evolution of the baboons and humans for over 3 million years.

The path continues to the third section, the African market. This is a reconstruction of a Somba village in West Africa. The buildings have been constructed to simulate the circular mud houses with thatched roofs. The walls have been decorated with traditional West African geometric designs as decorative features. The buildings in the market house a shop, dining facilities and a classroom laboratory. The latter has a unique position overlooking the stream and hillside reserve where the animals can be observed and studied.

BURGERS BUSH-ARNHEM ZOO, HOLLAND

Arnhem Zoo has recently opened a large enclosed re-creation of tropical rainforest. The temperature and atmosphere simulate the rainforest in such detail that it encourages the visitor to study the complex as a whole ecosystem.

Burgers Bush was opened in June 1988 as a total habitat to house a complete ecosystem. The concept of Director A. J. Van Hooff was for visitors to be able to experience being in a tropical rainforest, and also to study how each component of a rainforest interacts with another. The enclosure is 150 m long, 100 m wide and 20 m high and covers an area of 1.5 ha. The temperature is kept within a range of 20-30 °C.

The habitat was established as part of a larger complex to provide an attraction for visitors in winter and to be able to include all animals and plants that need heat in the cold months. Its purpose is also to be educational and show a habitat where animals, birds and plants are interdependent. It includes a waterfall, “river” and 1600 species of plants and 70 species of animals which include birds, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians and mammals but excludes large animals as they would destroy the vegetation and require barriers. Most of the animals, which are fruit- or insect-eating varieties, are free roaming.


The area is divided into three regions: South America, Africa and South East Asia, incorporating trees, plants and animals of each region. The system was built up slowly to see how each species fitted into the system. The whole requires expert management and control. As the vegetation grows taller and the plants start to flower at a greater height a raised walkway will be added so that the diversity of a complete forest stratification will be appreciated. At present three routes take the visitor through the environment. A 6 m wide road to allow for trucks and wheelchairs, a secondary more circuitous route 3.5 m wide and a tertiary road on sand which takes the visitor over rocks and fallen trees and through a bog.

As in the wild, the visitor has to look and listen and wait to discover all that is to be found at Burgers Bush. It is a place in which to study and explore.

THE BUILDING

The rainforest is completely enclosed in one large tent-like structure.

The canopy is made up of three layers of Hostaflon ET film (texlon panels) constructed by Texlon Company of Bremen, West Germany. Each layer ofplastic is separated by constantly circulated air. The air is pumped by a low pressure pneumatic system, with a working pressure regulated automaticallybetween 300 and 500 Pa according to the time of year. The outer layer of the Hostaflon is 150 microns thick, the middle 50 microns and the bottom 100microns. The material is very strong and will withstand a snow load. It allows for high transmission of light, provides very good insulation and no algae orfungi can adhere to it.

The 765 3 m X 6 m roofing panels, some of which can be opened, make up the canopy. The ends of the panels are held to the roofing structure by means of apatented aluminium section. The framework of suspended lattice girders is held in tension by external pylons and cables.

Within the building six separate water systems control the waterfall, rivers and pools. The heavy showers necessary for the vegetation are provided by 64 sprinkler points. These are at present fitted to high poles, but are going to be moved and will be fixed under the roof.


Designed by architect Buro Wiegerinck Architecten Co, Arnhem. Design Engineers: ABT Adviesbureau voor Bouwtechniek Co. Steel Construction Co: Bouw's Staalbouw Co, Barneveld. Main Contractor: BAM de Kinkelder Aanneming Mij., Arnhem. The rockwork: by Boem Company, Germany.

CHAPTER VMARINE ANIMAL PARKS AND AQUARIA

It is the objective of the aquarist to reveal the marine life of a particular location and the amazing range of marine animals, from small colourful tropical fish to massive predator sharks, from basking seals to active otters and dolphins. The methods of water treatment, heating and cooling, circulation, wateranalysis and the simulation of underwater scenery have all reinforced the idea of re-creating a particular underwater habitat. The most important technicalproblem in marine animal enclosures is the water element which provides the life support media for the animals. The improvement in glass and acrylic usedfor enclosing aquaria tanks and marine animal pools in the form of panels, domes and acrylic tunnel construction, has enabled the visitor to have a closeexperience of aquatic life.

Marine animal parks such as Sea Life Park (Hawaii), Ocean Park (Hong Kong) and the Sea World parks in the USA can attract visitors (and thus revenue) by a display of marine animals being fed, of their aquatic skills and the interaction between man and mammal. The costs of creating an independent aquarium are more difficult to finance. Many of the larger aquaria have been established, fortunately, through generous sponsorship or public funding, whereas commercial enterprises such as the Sea Life Centres located in seaside towns in Britain are dependent on successful marketing to satisfy investment conditions.


WATER MANAGEMENT

Most marine animal parks or aquaria are located near the sea to gain the advantage of an unlimited supply of sea water. The quality of the water in the tanks is maintained by an “open system” in which sea water is passed through the tanks and returned to the sea. However, some establishments, either because of their inland location or because the sea water is not usable, resort to a “closed system” in which the same water is circulated. The water is passed through the tanks and a filtration/cleansing system. Additional water is added to allow for evaporation and loss through routine maintenance.

Water treatment must remove animal wastes, prevent the growth of harmful micro-organisms, provide an environment relatively free of toxic chemicals and maintain water clarity for viewing. It is necessary to control salinity, hardness, pollutants and algal growth. It is also necessary to manage turbidity, colour and light levels.

Filter systems include sand and gravel filters, high rate sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters, biological and ultra-violet filters, all of which have a role in water management. Treatment to eliminate micro organisms and algae include chlorine, ozone, ultra violet radiation, copper salts and protein skimmers. Each species requires a specialist designed system. For example, to achieve the high level of reduction in nutrients required for corals, algae are used as a filter system at the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium.

VIEWING PANELS

Viewing Panels are constructed from thick acrylic or laminated tempered glass. Sizes are limited by the manufacturing process.

Acrylic is versatile and can be shaped into dome and cylindrical sections. Dome windows that project into the tank provide an intimate fish-eye view of the aquaria; cylindrical tanks can provide attractive features, particularly effective when housing shoaling fish; tunnel forms provide an underwater experience. Acrylic can be scratched by pinipeds and turtles but it is a good insulator to cope with temperature differentials (such as hot humid or cold


water exhibits) that would otherwise promote condensation. Acrylic can be assembled with mullions, sealant joints or with bonded joints. The latter can create an almost invisible joint, but the lack of structural mullions would require the panels being designed to a high degree of safety. Panel sizes range from window panels 24 ft long by 8 ft high and 8 in thick (at the Living Sea, Epcot), seamless cylindrical tanks 6 ft in diameter (Monterey Bay) to tunnels 65 ft long, 5 ft in radius (Great Barrier Reef). Manufacturers of acrylic components include Reynolds Polymer Technology Inc. (California), Mitsubishi (Japan) and Sea Life Centres Technical Ltd (UK).

Glass panels can be assembled in mullions or sealant joints. Glass exhibits require colour filtration to compensate for the greenish tinge. Where there isthe likelihood of condensation, glass panels have to incorporate an intermediate space filled with inert gas or the space should be subjected to air movement to remove condensation.

Both glass and acrylic are affected by fire. Acrylic is flammable, and glass will crack. It is important to keep the materials away from flames and high temperature sources such as floodlights and heaters.

AQUARIA

As the range of marine life that can be exhibited is extensive, it would be difficult to refer to aquaria requirements of each species. However, most modern aquaria, rather than being a series of remote display tanks, endeavour to provide a close view of of the animals and to include relevant waterscaping. The tanks need to be regularly replenished with new stock. More recent designs endeavour to re-create a complete aquatic ecosystem in which there would be natural replenishment.

In an aquarium complex with several display areas, the sequence of exhibits and information must be easily understood by visitors. The sequence may combine large tank displays housing a variety of animals, with small tanks showing aspects of marine life in detail. Biological information can be provided by interactive devices. The selection of exhibits may be devoted to the marine life of the immediate coast or a more abstract theme such as “life


dependent on water”. Each arrangement requires a cohesive theme or “story line” to assist the visitor.

The colours of tropical marine life including fish and coral; the effervescent sparkle of shoaling fish; the rockwork necessary for fish to escape predators, to accommodate eels and to support vegetation; the scale of predator sharks that require space for a continuous swim-glide existence - each situation requires specific water conditions and temperature as well as the appropriate water clarity and lighting to enhance viewing.

The method of viewing varies from individual dome windows projecting into the water spare, to large acrylic panels as at Monterey Bay Okinawa. There are also walk-through tunnels (constructed of acrylic), and underwater observation areas, as the domed space at the Seattle Aquarium. The display ofsupplementary or introductory information using life-size models, graphics or multi-media shows requires correct planning to relate to the live displays.

At the same time there is an opportunity to explore the sea shore. Some animals, including ray fish, are not unwilling to be touched by humans. Touch (tanks) pools are an important source of information and provide (supervised) contact with marine life for young visitors.

Aquaria range in size from a gallery of delicate picture window displays of colourful tropical fish as at Ocean Park, Hong Kong, where each display is likean exquisite Japanese print, to the extensive display of marine life as shown at the John Shedd aquarium in Chicago or the Aquarium of the Americas in NewOrleans. Marine animals require adequate space to avoid stress, to provide territorial space and to allow normal physical movement. The oval tank atBaltimore and the hourglass tank at Monterey allow space for the swim-glide activity of the sharks. The size of aquaria tanks is governed by factors including cost, range of species accommodated and water treatment system. The walk-through predator tank in Shark Encounter, Sea World, Florida holds 660,000 gallons and includes a 125 ft long acrylic tunnel. The walk-through tank at Sea Life Centre, Hastings, is approximately 38 ft x 25 ft; the massive aquarium tank at Epcot, Florida is 200 ft in diameter and 2'7ft deep.


AQUARIUM LIGHTNING

The lighting of aquaria requires particular attention. Obtrusive light sources and glare can destroy the vision of an exclusive underwater world. The lightshould be hidden and directed away from the viewing of visitors. For tanks combining underwater tunnel viewing with side panel viewing lighting is more complex. If it is the intention to suggest a natural underwater habitat, the appearance through the water of other visitors, or the reflection of signs andlight sources will destroy the impression.

In re-lighting the two deep water tanks at the Sydney Aquarium, Thorn Lighting, with lighting consultants Richard Curtis, compiled a new lightingbrief. The fittings selected were Thorn 1 kW sealed beam sword light with a marine grade diecast aluminium body, and a compact source daylight (CID)lamp with a colour temperature of 5500 K. Over the shark tank, eight floodlights were mounted 4 m above the water, and were angled to optimize light penetration, and a combination of prismatic front lens attachments were used. By locating the floodlights at the opposite end of the tank from the public entrance (the best position for maintenance), the lighting gives the impression of a great volume and depth of water with shafts of light penetrating to the sea bed, also providing a variety of intensity of light on the sharks.

In the large fish tank, three floodlights with prismatic lens were mounted 2 m above a (maintenance) pier located immediately over the public entrance, and five floodlights were positioned at the opposite end of the tank. The illumination projects through the slats of the pier decking, producing a pattern of thin lines of light. The water movement also reflects the lighting off the curved underwater tunnel, splitting the beams into the full spectrum.

Since the Brighton Aquarium designed by Phillip Gosse was established, techniques for displaying and explaining marine life have developed to provide a vivid experience. ln Britain, Sea Life Centres provide an informative picture of marine animal life for tourists and school parties visiting some principal coastal resorts. The Monterey Bay Aquarium, California and the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium, that Queensland are both closely associated with and represent the marine life of the immediate coast. The Texas Aquarium concentrates on the marine life of the Bay of Texas including new habitats


created from the base of oil rigs. The National Aquarium at Baltimore, Maryland conducts the visitor on a journey through various aspects of the water habitat, from mountain stream to deep water fish. A marine mammal pavilion has been added. The Aquarium of the Americas at New Orleans has a theme embracing the marine life of the two Oceans surrounding the Americas.

SEA LIFE CENTRES, BRITAIN

Sea Life Centres (Holdings) is a British company that has established commercially funded and operated sea life aquaria in many seaside resort locations in Britain. The first centre was opened in Loch Creran, Oban on the west coast of Scotland in 1979 by Golden Sea Produce Ltd, a fish farming company.

Since 1979, the company has grown from attracting 60,000 visitors to one centre in the first year to a total of 1. 75 million visitors in 1990 to the eightcentres then established.

The centres are directed towards the tourists in seaside holiday towns and emphasize the opportunity for visitors and children to explore the world of thesea. Most are concerned with coldwater fish but the centres at Oban and St Andrews are also concerned with rescuing and rehabilitating seals. Displays re-create natural marine environments and most centres have acrylic tunnels to provide underwater viewing.

In the case of Brighton, Sea Life Centres had the task of refurbishing a historic and listed Victorian aquarium, originally one of the first aquaria in Britain. Sea Life Centre at Hastings is located close to the beach harbour and the net houses of the old town. The sequence of the tour through the aquarium startswith a lobby (with gift shop and restaurant) leading to the first exhibits showing marine life in shallow pools and tidal water. Visitors then pass into a central space with a touch pool lined on two sides with raked seating to allow for educational presentations. Visitors then move down to an underwater tunnel that passes through a tank with shark and ray fish. The final space has further displays before visitors return to the entrance hall, shop and restaurant.


The Sea Life Centre at Scarborough located at the north end of North Bay is some distance from the popular area of the harbour and castle. The locationencouraged the adoption of a distinctive building profile. The three white pyramid roof forms rising above a flat beach site are clearly identifiable.

The visitor enters a spacious foyer with a gift shop at one side. The sequence of the tour is not dissimilar to the Hastings Centre, however, the 30 ft height ofthe building permits a first-floor restaurant and multi-level viewing over the ray fish touch tank, the education corner and the large pool with tunnelviewing. The space creates an atmosphere of observation and enquiry and provides a view of other visitors involved in exploring the touch pool.

Sea Life Centres has also extended its activities to technical services, supplying acrylic tunnels, viewing windows, preformed tanks and biological services (concerned with life support systems), marine lifesupply and educational services.

MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM, CALIFORNIA

Cannery Row, Monterey, gained fame though its spectacular harvests of sardines which peaked in 1945. The harvests subsequently failed leaving a line of disused waterfront cannery buildings. In 1978 the large Hovden Cannery was demolished, making way for the construction of an aquarium, devoted to the unique marine life of Monterey Bay. Offshore lies the extensive Monterey Canyon, deeper than Grand Canyon, Arizona. The bay’s cold nutrient-filled water nourishes plankton that supports a rich array of marine plants and animals.

The new aquarium building, designed by Esherick Homsey, Dodge and Davis of San Francisco, maintains the architectural character of the canneries, but with the addition of rock pools and terraces that interlock the aquarium use with the natural seashore. The building preserves the old Hovden canning factory pump house and boilers, the original smokestacks have been reconstructed and internal services are exposed in an industrial manner. These qualities preserve the connection with the original industrial waterfront buildings.


The aquarium exhibits were designed based on the philosophy of the marine biologist Ed Ricketts. Instead of using isolated tanks for individual species, habitat zones are created, each an arena in which groups of animals can co-exist.

The aquarium devotes separate areas to each of several Monterey Bay habitats, and includes a centrepiece live kelp forest in a tank equivalent to three storeys in height; an array of bay habitats from deep granite reefs to encrusted wharf pillars housing a range of animals from sharks to ocean sea fish; octopus and related animals; sea otters in a two-storey habitat; models of marine mammals of the bay; touch pools; and the sandy shore, an artificially created shore with slough, dunes and beach. A freshwater stream, surrounded by aspens, cottonwoods and filled with steel head trout and salmon, meanders through the building and out onto the deck overlooking the bay.

The kelp forest tank, open to the sky, is visible from three levels. Giant kelp is one of the fastest growing plants on earth and requires an abundance ofnutrient-rich sea water, sunlight and a steady wave motion. The kelp moves gently in the “tidal” surges. The tank receives up to 2000 gallons of sea water a minute providing a turnover of water every 79 minutes. The kelp tank is 28 ft high, 66 ft long and holds 335,000 gallons of water. The viewing windowsare 7 in thick acrylic panels. The surge water movement is implemented by a purpose made machine that creates suction (drawing water) and then releases the water, creating 8 in high waves across the top of the tank.

The “Monterey Bay Habitats” 90 ft tank populated by sharks, rays and salmon has two circular windows each 6 ft across, and several rectangular viewing panels. The tank depicts four aspects of life in the Bay: the sandy sea floor; the Monterey shale habitat; the granite reef and, at the shallow end of the tank, a man-made habitat represented by tall wooden pier pilings as removed from a nearby wharf and encrusted with 50 years of accumulated sea life. Thehourglass shape of the tank allows sharks a wide turning radius in the continuous swim-glide activity. The tank holds more than 1/3 million gallons of water exchanged every 40 minutes.


At night the aquarium tanks are filled with unfiltered sea water to provide necessary nutrients, whereas during the daytime the water is filtered so that viewing into the tanks is through clear water. A heat exchanger uses only ocean water to warm and cool the building. Plastic materials are usedthroughout to prevent corrosion in the extreme salty environment. The steel reinforcing is epoxy coated. The tanks are designed to contain no exposed metal parts. Most invertebrates and fish find heavy metals toxic, and sharks are highly sensitive to the electrical currents which can be inadvertently created by light fixtures or other metal parts on a tank.

The Great Tidal Pool, which lies between the aquarium building and the sea, is enclosed on three sides by the aquarium and on the fourth by artificial rocks that blend with the surrounding granite outcrops. This man-made tide pool forms a natural habitat for the bay’s intertidal life. Seals and otters visit the tidal pool to feed or rest. The pool also serves as a release point for sea otters in the aquarium’s sea otter rescue and care programme.

The otter tank in the Marine Mammal Hall is split level, 30 ft by 14 ft and open to the sky. It contains 40,000 gallons of continually circulating filtered sea water to provide the animals with clean water that would not affect the otters’ fur. The sea otters are particularly expensive to feed in that they consume 25% of their body weight each day, which at the time the aquarium opened cost $10,000 a year in seafood for each otter.

The main exhibits of the aquarium are supported by audio-visual displays explaining marine life and the effect of weather conditions.

The plant room houses six large filters that strain the sea water pumped in through 16 in diameter pipelines 980 ft long, drawing 2050 gallons of seawater per minute from a depth of 55 ft in the bay. The system allows flexibility regarding the number of times the water is filtered and also allows a closed system to be operated (usable for 2 weeks) in the event of an oil spill or algae bloom in the bay.

The aquarium has two classrooms, a research laboratory, ocean view restaurant, an auditorium, gift shop and bookstore.


The aquarium project took 7 years of planning and cost $55 million donated by David and Lucile Packard of the Hewlett Packard computer empire. The sitearea is 2.2 acres and the aquarium totals 216,000 sq. ft. The aquarium has in the order of 1.7 million visitors per year. The immediacy between the aquarium and the bay is realistically conveyed. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has fulfilled a dual role of providing a centre for the display of marine life andalso maintaining the interesting historic character of Cannery Row buildings. The future of other redundant Cannery Row buildings has been affected by the success of the aquarium. lt is the intention of the Californian Coastal Commission to achieve uses that are compatible with the heritage of the coastline.

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF AQUARIUM, TOWNSVILLE, QUEENSLAND

The Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, and stretching for half the length of the east coast of Australia, is the world’s largest marine park. Tointroduce the public to the immense treasures of the reef, an aquarium has been established at Townsville.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) is responsible for the care and development of the marine park. In his foreword to the publication concerned with the development of the aquarium, the Chairman of GBRMPA, Graeme Kelleher outlines the policy for the aquarium as “providing an excellent educational centre to support management of the Marine Park”.

Successful management of the park depends to a large extent on visitors voluntarily adopting a responsible code of behaviour. The objective for theaquarium is to create a living coral reef in a land based facility to enable the public (at low cost and in comfortable surroundings) to see and appreciate thewonders of the Great Barrier Reef. By visiting the aquarium. visitors are better prepared to enjoy and understand the reef itself, sustaining the GBRMPA goal “to provide for the protection, wise use, understanding and enjoyment of the Great Barrier Reef “.


CULTIVATED CORAL REEF

The primary requirement in the design and construction of the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium (Opened in 19871 was to simulate the environmental conditions found around a coral reef. Corals are particularly difficult marine animals to keep in captivity. They require large quantities of sunlight, wave action and a virtually nutrient free water environment. Thus, the tank is open to natural sunlight; tides, currents and waves are produced mechanically. An efficient water treatment system to reduce the nutrient content using algae is used.

To provide for public viewing, the principle was adopted to use a small number of large viewing panels rather than numerous small panels. The panels are 114 mm thick, 8 m square acrylic, each with a central steel mullion. There is also a 3 m diameter, curved 65 mm thick acrylic tunnel. The tunnel extends between the coral reef tank and a separate predator (shark) tank to give an underwater experience. The tunnel is also designed with a bend so that the exit cannot be seen from the point of entry.

TANK CONSTRUCTION

The tanks are constructed of reinforced concrete. The massive structure of tanks holding 4 million litres of water is supported on 11 m long foundation piles. The concrete specification for the tanks required that they withstand the effect of sea water for 50.

To avoid the cost of galvanizing the reinforcing steel, the quality of the concrete became a priority and the reinforcing has 100 mm cover. However, an additional non-toxic epoxy paint protection was applied to the walls and floor. This coating was also to protect the concrete from being eaten by marine organisms, to facilitate cleaning and to stop free lime from leaching into the aquarium water. To reduce cracking, liquid nitrogen was added to the concrete mix prior to pouring to cool the concrete. Fibreglass and PVC are used for the water treatment algal turf farm trays. Where metals are unavoidable, and there is contact with the salt water, marine grade stainless steel is used. Painted galvanized steel and aluminium are used elsewhere.


On completion of the tank construction, the tanks were filled with fresh water to commission and test the mechanical systems and to promote autogenoushealing of the cracks that occurred in the reinforced concrete walls of the tanks. The acrylic panels are regularly monitored for movement or distortion.

The full length and width of the tank is serviced by a gantry system. A dual standby diesel generator is provided to power all essential services when mainspower fails.

WATER MECHANICS AND TREATMENT

The coral reef and predator tanks are “closed systems”. All sea water is recirculated through the algal turf treatment system. Original sea water andmake-up water for losses due to spills and filter back washes are collected at least 20 km offshore near the inner line of reefs of the Great Barrier Reef.

To achieve water movement, pumping systems are used to create tides and currents; wave machines are also used to generate waves. Reverse osmosis isused for both the production of pure fresh water from the municipal supply for topping up during the dry season (evaporation) and for moving surplus freshwater (rain) during the wet season. The turbulence caused by waves crashing on the crest of natural coral reefs is provided by an air operated wave machine. This was selected as there are no moving parts or metal in contact with the aquarium water, thus reducing maintenance and eliminating contamination problems.

To create currents to provide the natural mixing processes on the coral reefs, three circulating pumps draw water at the rate of 1000 cu.m per hour fromthe tunnel end of the tank and deliver it at the wave machine end, generating a net flow across and along the reef. The water turnover rate to the algal turffarm is once every 24 hours.


The quality of the water in the tank is carefully monitored, for light, temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, nutrients and trace metal contaminants. Water temperatures exceeding 30 °C are not tolerated by most Great Barrier Reef corals. The relatively small volume of the tank and consequently small heat capacity compared with the Great Barrier Reef means the tank temperature responds rapidly to changes in air temperature and the intensity of sunlight. The algal turf farm acts as a solar absorber and to reduce the heat absorbed, the algal turf farm is partly shaded in the summer. The problem of unacceptably high temperatures is resolved by cooling the water in the holding tank. Fans over the turf farm area also provide evaporative cooling.

The biological water treatment for both coral tank and predator tank is the algal turf system. The problem of reducing nutrient content, vital to the survival of the coral, is dealt with by the use of filamentous turf algae (or algal turf scrubber) as a filter to remove the animal nutrients. High intensity 1000 W lights are used effectively to extend the day length to 18 hours, increasing the productivity of the system. The removal of excess nitrogen and phosphorus, which would otherwise build up due to the activity of the animals and the decomposition of detritus by bacteria, is the primary concern. Multimedia sand filters are used to ensure water clarity and to remove the fine sediment generated on reefs by mechanical and biological erosion.

The algal turf scrubbers are the principal method of nutrient control, taking up surplus nitrogen and phosphorus. Harvesting and discarding the turf algae removes nutrients incorporated in the plant tissue from the system. While the reef tank is not “fed”, periodic additions of plankton are made to simulate natural reef processes together with supplementary aeration. Similarly, the carbon dioxide balance is maintained by the photosynthesis occurring on the algal turf scrubbers and algae in the coral reef tank. This keeps the pH of the water between 8.0 and 8.3.


ESTABLISHING THE CORAL

The programme for establishing the complex ecosystem of a live coral reef in the tank took 5 months prior to and 18 months following the opening of the aquarium. The objective was to allow all the animals in the food web to feed as on a natural reef, starting by establishing algae on the reef rocks.

In constructing the live coral reef within the tank, it was necessary to build up a large limestone substratum for the veneer of living coral. For this, 700 tonnes of carbonate rock and 200 tonnes of sand were used. The rocks were arranged according to a “landscape” plan to create a base for a typical mid shelf reef, complete with reef front, algal crest, back reef slope, lagoon and bommies. The plan also took into account orientation, areas of shading caused by the walls, location of viewing windows and water movement patterns. Species of coral were then added, followed by rocks containing small animals that are eaten by “grazing animals”, fish and invertebrates. The fish and other marine animals were then added.

As the reef community was established. there was a process of “fine tuning” as the corals were increasing to form a coral reef ecosystem.

PREDATOR TANK

The 750,000l predator tank houses a collection of reef sharks and other predators as well as green turtles and numerous non-predatory fishes. The reeftank is not large enough to support sharks as part of an ecosystem, and the sharks would produce large amounts of waste that would increase the nutrientcontent above that tolerated by coral. The predator tank is separated from the coral reef tank by the acrylic tunnel and overhead beams. This means that visitors can be aware of both tropical coral reef fish and predator sharks at the same time. The shark tank has its own algal turf scrubber water treatmentsystem, and additional aeration is normally not required.

Due to the high water quality maintained by the algal turf system, few animal diseases have been experienced.


SMALL TANKS AND INFORMATION

The Great Barrier Reef Aquarium also has smaller display tanks to show small creatures that would be otherwise difficult to see in the larger reef tank. The small tanks are constructed in glass. They range from 350 l to 1600 l in capacity. Each tank has its own filtration system combining an in-tank under gravel filter and an external percolating filter. The water in the tanks is subject to regular monitoring of temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen,ammonia concentration and nitrate concentration.

To make further information available to visitors there is an informative orientation area, an audio-visual display and special exhibits that interpretaspects of reef ecology. The 12-projector audio-visual programme introduces and explains the origin and the ecosystem of the reef. There is a display of reefcommunity themes, and the small tanks allow visitors to examine some of the intricate relationships in the reef community.

The touch pool provides first-hand contact with the animals, and visitors can explore the shapes and textures of a variety of reef creatures. The 16,000 ltouch pool is 300 mm deep. The water is treated as a separate closed system with algal scrubbers, sand filter, and an activated carbon filter to remove contaminants which might find their way into the water on the hands of visitors. The touch pool houses some of the hardier corals. A Discovery RoomPresents in-depth information about the coral reef ecosystem.

Skilled guides, education personnel and volunteers make up the staff of the aquarium. The guides answer enquiries from individual visitors and also present special talks for students and other groups. The education staff are concerned with programmes for visits by schools and other educational groups.Volunteers assist permanent staff in most of these activities.


THE TEXAS STATE AQUARIUM, CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS

It is the objective of the State Aquarium to highlight features unique to the marine life of the Texas Coast and the Gulf of Mexico. The total aquarium is to be built in four phases. The architects to the first stage, the Gulf of Mexico Exhibit Building, were Phelps, Garza and Bomberger of San Antonio, and the exhibit designers were Joseph A Wetzel Associates Inc, Boston, Massachusetts.

The story line starts with the estuaries and the important part played by marshes and sea grass. A sea star “Discovery Pool” provides the opportunity totouch animals of the Texas Coast. Displays explain the changing nature of the barrier islands, the power of wind and waves and the effect on marine life of an impending hurricane. The next area for discovery is the waters between estuaries and the deep sea, the crowded jetties and reef. Particularly relevant to the gulf, the marine life that has made a habitat from the sub-aqua structures of oil production platforms is displayed in a major 132,000 gallon viewing tank. The tank also houses predators such as shark and rays.

Audio-visual displays explain ocean technology and mariculture (deep sea exploration and research). The second major viewing tank is simulated FlowerGarden Coral Reef. Finally a special Exhibits gallery refers to ancillary and topical issues.

VIDEO DISC

The video disc exhibits combine the visual appeal of television, the information handling ability of computers and the presentation of experts. Theseprovide positive interaction between visitor and information. While video-tapes can provide information in a predetermined order for large audiences, the video disc can respond to the individual visitor’s interest by being moved from one topic to another, or back tracking to repeat information at the viewer’s request.


A request sequence of operation starts with the visitor pushing “Touch to start” revealing a “menu” frame giving visitors a choice of learning experiences. Having chosen one topic, the video reveals either still photography or running footage of the subject with an accompanying vocal description. The visitor can either continue with the topic or return to the main “menu” to choose another topic.

THE NATIONAL AQUARIUM IN BALTIMORE

The revival of the Inner Harbour at Baltimore has been a particular success story for urban renewal.

The National Aquarium buildings located on finger piers project into the water space. The distinctive profile of the aquarium and the marine animal pavilionindicates the sequence of internal spaces. The aquarium has a glazed pyramidic roof form housing a rainforest which is raised over the cylindrical form that represents the race-track shape of the shark and coral reef tanks. The total water capacity of the Aquarium building is 1 million gallons with 7000 marine and freshwater animals.

The story-line, which represents the unity of life through water, starts at the top level in the dense foliage of a South american rainforest with river fish and free flying birds, the sequence leads to the two main oval tanks, circumscribing a descending ramp. The upper tank, 335,000 gallons in capacity and 13 ft deep, displays a coral reef and tropical fish. The lower tank houses sharks, rays and other game fish including sand tiger sharks 8.5 ft long. The tank has a capacity of 200,000 gallons and the oval profile allows for the continuous swim-glide movement of the sharks.

On the first floor a large 260,000 gallon water housed beluga whales. The open atrium space of the vertical circulation rises above the water with views from bridges, ramps, galleries (with small tank displays) and escalators to the water below. The tray tank has side panels to provide underwater viewing. It is now used as a ray tray and houses species of stingrays and common rays.


The ground floor houses the water treatment plant system. Externally, there is a marine animal pool adjacent to the entrance. Visitors approach the building from the deck of the pier, past the marine animal pool up an escalator to the entrance lobby, gift shop and introductory displays.

The initial aquarium was designed by Cambridge Seven Associates, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The financing was mainly funded by the City of Baltimore and construction costs totalled $21.3m. The aquarium was opened in 1981.

In 1990, a $35 million Marine Mammal Pavilion was added, designed by Grieves, Warrall, Wright and O’Hathick of Baltimore. The Pavilion is located on the adjoining pier and it is connected to the aquarium by an enclosed skywalk. The Pavilion features a 1300 seat amphitheatre to demonstrate “natural of the Marine Mammals”, a gallery of interactive exhibits and an Aquatic Education Research Center. A complex of four pools (with a total capacity of 1.3 million gallons of salt water) accommodates dolphinsand beluga whales. The main tank is 100 ft long and 22 ft deep, holding 728,000 gallons of water. There are two smaller holding tanks totalling 350,000 gallons (where the animals can rest when not on display). A fourth pool holds 14,000 gallons and the pool is shallow enough to be used for medical care duties. At night, the animals are free roaming through all the tanks. The pools are fed by municipal water mixed with salt.

The design has had three principal objectives: to create a healthy environment for marine mammals, dolphins and whales, to provide visitors with an exciting exhibit, and to develop an atmosphere that encourages interaction between animals and visitor. The project was funded from various sources: $16.5 million provided by the City and State, $6.9 million by gifts and grants, $8.5 million from Aquarium funds and $3.1 million from other sources.

The aquarium has a $9.6 million operating budget of which 75% is revenue from admission and remainder is raised separately, through membership, grants, donations and retail/food sales. It is run by a non-profit corporation with a volunteer 21 member Board of Governors and a full-time staff of 150.


The economic impact of the aquarium on the Inner Harbour was identified in 1984. People visiting the aquarium generated a total of $88.3 million in income to the region, and created nearly 3000 jobs.

The average annual attendance is 1.4 million visitors and it is anticipated that the additional pavilion will increase attendance to 1.6 million visitors a year. Seventy per cent of visitors come from outside the State of Maryland, 50% are adults, 19% children, 14% students, 7% senior citizens and 2% military personnel. The aquarium provides an important educational facility.

THE AQUARIUM OF THE AMERICAS, NEW ORLEANS

The Aquarium at New Orleans is part of the revitalization of the Mississippi waterfront. The aquarium has five major exhibit areas of which two have distinctive architectural forms. The South American-Amazon River-Caribbean Ocean exhibit is housed in a large truncated cylindrical structure, and the Mississippi River-Gulf of Mexico is housed in a “cube” structure, both faced externally in coloured porcelain, enamel and glass panels.

With the location of New Orleans as a geographical fulcrum of the two American continents, and with its cultural and mercantile connections with the two continents, the designers have developed the exhibits around a theme based on “The Americas”. Exhibits explore the aquatic environments of the North and South American continents and their adjacent seas and oceans. The basis for the exhibits is concerned with the large scale living representations of the various bio-geographical provinces of the Americas, with close-up views of the various plants and animals that inhabit those regions.


MARINE MAMMALS

In housing marine mammals, allowance must be made so that the species involved have adequate water space and haul-out space. The principal animals concerned in marine animal parks are cetaceans (whales, porpoises and dolphins), pinnipeds (seals, walruses and sea-lions) and smaller water-dependent mammals such as the otter. They are all animals with distinctive skills and intelligence. They all have qualities that can attract the interest of the public.

SPACE STANDARDS

Minimum pool sizes are regulated in the USA by the United States Department of Agriculture, Marine Mammals Standards and Regulations under the Animal Welfare Act. There is also protection of captive cetaceans under the Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972 administered by the National Marine Fisheries Service.

In Europe, a Directive is being prepared for the concerned European Parliament. Recommendations as to space standards are provided by the European Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM). In Britain, the care of animals is covered by the Zoo Licensing Act. A 1986 report by Dr M. Killowska and Dr S. Brown, “A Review of Dolphinaria”, prepared for the Department of the Environment, summarized recommendations that have been applied to existing British marine animal parks. Many fell below the standard and have closed down. The Report drew particular attention to the construction and layout of dolphin aria that have “nothing in common with the requirements for performances”, making an important distinction between basic approaches to enclosure design.

Water space is required for the natural energetic movement of the animals; their agility in the water is of particular interest to the public. It is alsocompatible with current zoological practice to keep social groups of animals with a view to breeding. The EAAM standards take this into account.


Marine mammals naturally and spontaneously jump, breach, spin and climb. Some require haul-out space to allow social behaviour that involvesdominance. Subordinate animals require provision of escape routes and retreat areas. Marine mammals are adapted to thermoregulate in water. As long asthe water remains within a suitable range, the ambient air temperature is not a major concern.

It would be difficult to simulate the natural habitat of a killer whale or dolphin. Those in captivity are displayed to show their physical skills, character andintelligence, and to identify their value as a species at risk of extinction. The rapport between marine mammal and trainer appears inexplicable, and the mammals are sufficiently at home in spacious pools to fulfil a normal breeding programme.

SHOWPOOLS

The most popular shows and exhibitions display the skill of the animals, and allow the public to have close contact with them. Showpools are designed tostandards that achieve a water depth and space appropriate to the number and size of animals concerned. Transparent panels on the front of the pool permit underwater viewing. This is particularly important where animals have underwater agility or gain momentum under water to leap into the air. Showpools require holding pools to separate animals that are not performing or that require medical care. A compere’s stage, platform and haul-out areas arealso required. Some pools have “stage props” to provide a setting for the performance but the “circus” approach to animals has been replaced by a demonstration of their natural skills.

Arena seating is required with viewing orientated away from the sun; and with shading or weather protection as necessary for the location. Seating can be splashed. For example, at large arenas such as those used by Sea World for the killer whale “Shaum” shows, which can accomodate 5000 visitors. part ofthe act entails the front rows of the audience being splashed (knowingly) by the whale falling forcefully back into the water.


WAVE COVE, OCEAN PARK, HONG KONG

It is easier to simulate the habitat of pinnipeds (sea-lions, seals, walruses), which spend more time at the water's edge. The Wave Cove at Ocean Park. HongKong, completed in 1977, set a new image in accommodation for sea-lions. Wave Cove, formed out of the wide trench of a redundant gun emplacementset high on a headland above sea level, was designed to exhibit sea mammals and sea birds in a naturalistic setting. This includes a considerable stretch of water, the use of a wave machine to activate the water, rocky islands and a beach area.

The tank was constructed from concrete walls and base. A sloping beach, rocky haul-out areas and islands sections were formed. A long gallery at one side ofme pool provides viewing at three levels: the lowest level for underwater viewing; other levels provide for feeding and an overview of the animals.

The pneumatic wave machine was arranged to produce a suitable wave length in relation to the rocky islands, the features and the profile of the tank.The final tank shape and location of features was a compromise between the science of wave propagation and the need to introduce irregularities to provide a pleasing overall aspect to visitors. The effect simulates an authentic habitat for the animals, with rocky islands and beach subject to calm water with intermittent periods of breaking waves.

SEA LIFE PARK, HAWAII

Sea Life Park, opened in 1964, is located in a 62 acre site on Makapuu in an exotic Hawaiian setting in the island of Oahu. Hills rise up on the landward side of the park and the Pacific Ocean is close enough to relate the water surfaces of the park to the sea. The park, designed by John Graham and Company, Seattle, was initially a research facility with three major exhibits, an aquarium, an ocean theatre and a lagoon.


The public section of the park is a simple loop plan with Reef Tank (aquarium), sea-lion show, Ocean Theatre (dolphins and penguins), monk seal care centre, bird sanctuary, Whalers’ Cove (showpool), seal and sea-lion pools, restaurants, touch pool, penguin habitat and Kaupo falls, a central landscaped area and a whaling museum.

The administration and education buildings, animal care and holding tanks are at one side of the park and have an independent service access. The animal care area has rest tanks, breeding tanks and touching areas for dolphins.

FEATURES

The public entrance leads into a terrace overlooking the park, and visitors start the tour either passing the Hawaiian Reef Tank or down a ramp into the maincirculation pathway.

The Hawaiian Reef Tank is designed to duplicate life in a Hawaiian Coral Reef. There are 4000 marine animal specimens (including sharks, rays and moray eels) in the 300,000 gallon tank. A spiral ramp takes visitors from surface level down to a depth equivalent to 3 fathoms. The water pumped in from the wells located on the beach at Motapiru Point (through 24 in diameter pipes), provides an hourly water change for the tank. At regular times, scuba divers descend into the tank feed the sea creatures, and provide a commentary and information about the animals concerned. The tank has a central rock and coral structure. Fish require escape and retreat areas from predators.

The Hawaiian Ocean Theatre is a circular structure with a circular tank and tiered seating for display and explanation of dolphins. The surrounding tieredseating area is roofed over to provide shade and the ceiling allows for at least a 15 ft leap by the dolphins. The sides of the pool are constructed of transparentpanels for underwater viewing. The dolphins remain in the pool between performances.

The monk seal care centre provides a refuge for injured or stranded monk seal pups. Monk seals are an endangered species. Sea Life Park provides care to these seals until they are well enough to be returned to their native habitat.


The bird sanctuary provides an open habitat for native ocean birds, some of which have adopted the sanctuary as a permanent home.

The Whalers’ Cove is the main show pool and dolphin/killer whale exhibit. On recent years a cross between dolphin and whale, wholphin, was born at Sea Life Park, and is an exhibit of particular interest. Close to one side of the Cove, at 5/8 full-size replica whaler is moored which provides both underwater viewing(glazed panels in the hull), a setting for the dolphin show (that relates to the whaling days of Hawaii) and the enclosing structure to holding pools, Whalers’ Cove has tiered seating for spectators and, from the seating, the water surface relates visually to the sea beyond.

The seal pool and sea-lion feeding pool are overlooked by viewing terraces and also the terraces of the restaurant. Visitors are able to feed the animals from feeding bays that project into the enclosure with fish food supplied.

A Pacific Whaling Museum includes artefacts of former Hawaiian whaling days and includes a carefully restored skeletal system of a giant whale.

The touch pool exhibits a range of invertebrates for close inspection. The penguin habitat houses Humboldat penguins, an endangered species, native to South America. The central landscaped area with Kaupo Falls is used for imu culinary ceremonies during evening hours, and for island wedding.

There is one snack bar inside the park. The restaurant, cafe, shops and rest rooms are outside, the ticket controlled area. The restaurant terrace overlooks the park but does not intrude.

The number of visitors a year averages 700,000 including school children and the marine animal park has a capacity of 1500-2000 visitors at one time. There are 140 staff (including shift work).

As a marine life park, Sea Life Park serves both to display animals to tourists to Hawaii, and acts as refuge for endangered species; it provides an educational facility, and is a centre for research and observation of marine animals. The character and concern for the animals is consistent with Hawaii’s traditional close association with dependence on the sea.


CHAPTER VIPLANNING, FACILITIES AND TECHNIQUES

Many theme parks provide a harmless fantasy illusion and the and a safe environment in which visitors can relate to a significant subject, whether scientific, zoological, historical or cultural. A restatement or caricature of traditions, presented. in the context of leisurely fun, provides meaningful information in an enjoyable atmosphere. Educative subjects such as zoos (Chapter 3), can be presented with realism as well as adopting theming techniques. In all cases the theme must be marketable, preferably with an identity, attractive to the relevant age and social group, and conveyed in a popular idiom. A dominant theme can also provide design cohesion for the total park.

Similarly, visitor attractions are conceived to convey information within an entertaining and experiential context. Visitors leave having gained a vivid impression through simulated images and through audio-visual and sensory techniques.

The design objective for a theme park or attraction is primarily concerned with creating an environment in which people are prepared to pay to enjoy the entertainment and facilities provided. The facilities will include the principal features expressing the theme and the main exhibits, supplemented by thrill rides, shows, stage or incidental entertainment, displays of cultural, historic or scientific features, animal habitats, play equipment, in-park transportation, and food and merchandise outlets. For most leisure parks, it is necessary continually to improve or add to the facilities to maintain the interest of the visiting public.

The majority of visitors could be local people, and the park could provide a days’ outing for na average family. Some larger parks will represent a destination for vacations, and will be supplemented by hotel accommodation.


PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

The design process may consist of establishing a basic concept or masterplan (providing a perspective of objectives) followed by a market survey and feasibility study, to establish the potential demand and the level of revenue it could sustain, as well as consideration of management and operatingprocedures.

INITIAL STUDIES

Before launching into a detailed feasibility study it is usually necessary to carry out a market survey to establish the potential demand for such a facility and the level of revenue that it could secure, and the cost of running and sustaining it. To perform a market study on an idea that is imaginative but unfamiliar to the public concerned can be difficult. Audio-visual presentations can be used to create the impression of the “experience” or feature to be displayed, in a way that conveys the quality of the potential enjoyment.They can also relate the idea to known experience.

The market analysis measures the level of effective support for a park in a specific site whether it is serving a local market or providing a vacation destination. The analysis should identify the spending characteristics of potential visitors, seasonal limitations and reliability of the weather, as well asas ancillary facilities such as provisions for educational services, the availability of essential elements within the project and the availability of staff. It is important to project the attendance levels over a period of years as well as within a one year period, to establish optimum and maximum attendance for which the project is to be designed. The projected attendancewill provide the basis for a financial analysis showing revenue, operating costs, cash flow and the justifiable investment that the project can support.

The process of developing a project continues with a feasibility study to establish the scale and menu of facilities and the revenue in relation to an investment target. The study aims to identify the market strategy, the age groups of potential visitors and the catchment area. The study should identify the suitability of the site for the park or building. It will also assist in


exploring the sources of finance for the project and whether the proposals are financially viable.

If the project is a commercial scheme, zoning, land costs, access and visibility from major thoroughfares, area of usable land, topography, ground conditions, vegetation, availability of services and necessary supplies, and compatibility with neighbouring uses are fundamental to the initial considerations.

DESIGN STUDY

The feasibility study, if showing the project to be worth pursuing, should conclude with basic recommendations that initiate a design study and, ifthe site has not yet been selected, the basis for site selection. The land must be zoned for the appropriate leisure use.

The design team may include architects, designers, project management consultants, engineers, quantity surveyors, as well as specialist consultants (safety officer, zoologist, marine biologists, landscape designer, historian, graphics and audio-visual creative designers) and specialist suppliers.

Common to theme parks, leisure centres, zoos and aquaria is the basic design process. This ranges from initial planning considerations, relating the number of visitors circulating in the park or attractions with the features displayed, to techniques concerned with simulating reality or fantasy and techniques for conveying information either as graphics or through audio-visual equipment. The creative input will vary from securing the authenticity of a fantasy world, to the restructured landscaping in a zoo that provides a sympathetic environment for the animals.

For the proposals, parking standards and manoeuvring of cars, adequate space for future facilities and relevant safety and health standards should be identified. The provision of services, electricity, water and drainage, gas and energy must be ascertained. Energy and water demand should be assessed at an early stage.


The provision of water for a water fun park, marine animal park or aquarium may be from the sea or taken from the municipal supply. Where marine animals are involved, the service and quality of the water could be crucial to the feasibility of the project. A natural source of water requires careful analysis over a period of at least a year to achieve an accurate chemical and biological profile of the water. An extensive amount of water storage may be required.

It is also necessary to consider the effect of emptying tanks or pools in emergencies or for maintenance. The method of dealing with backwashwhen filters are cleaned requires early consideration. The municipal drainage and sewerage system may be able to cope with outflow backwash, but frequently leisure park locations are not provided with public drainage and are in environmentally sensitive areas.

An overall plan and model for the site development showing phasing will provide the opportunity to focus on issues such as access, parking, overall design objectives, theming, visual impact, movement of guests through the park and spaces for future attractions. The individual features are thenconsidered by the design group in more detail with the cooperation of specific technical specialists. Descriptions and specifications of specialist items areprepared for pricing, and for establishing terms of s reference with suppliers.

CIRCULATION THROUGH THE PARK

A design process then elaborates on the features and techniques to be adopted. A simple park layout consists of a loop plan or a star plan with entry through a range of ticket counters (relative to the number and in-flow of visitors); an orientation space to capture the mood and to include retail outlets, information and guests services; a circuit or radiating pattern of features and an exit space to linger and shop at will.

The ticketing and in-park purchasing must be relevant to local purchasing patterns. Methods of ticketing vary from a single ticket for all features in the park, to voucher tickets relating to particular rides.


The sequence and relationship of features is important to avoid congestion in any one part of the park. To avoid disappointment there should be obvious alternatives to rides or principal attractions that could become over-subscribed.

The method of conveying people through the park, widths of routes and intersections are significant. The rate of in-flow must be accommodated to avoid bottlenecks. Cul-de-sac spaces should be avoided and particular attention should be given to intersections. A crossing of main pedestrian routes should have the route clearly signposted and there should be sufficient space to allow people to intermingle. An intersection could be a feature area taking advantage of a concentration of visitors.

It is advisable to avoid queues extending into intersections. Lines of visitors waiting can be contained by railed queues in a zig-zag layout, which can also promote socializing.

Some projects, such as Jorvik, move the visitors by conveyor to maintain the rate of flow and to avoid overcrowding the exhibit space. Visitors are then able to move at their own speed in the specialist display space and book/gift shop. In other parks, visitors have a choice of walking or (if distances are significant) being conveyed by mechanical transportation designed with a relevant theme.

MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

The cost of the project is monitored against the feasibility budget. Also, parallel with the design process, a management and implementation study should be made taking into account the number and standard of personnel, training and requirements for seasonal staff. In zoos, marine animal parks and aquaria, the acquisition of animals must be considered. A period of acclimatization for new animals may require temporary enclosures or holding tanks.

Landscaping may require early acquisition of plants and space for nursery cultivation. Acquisition of furniture and equipment may require early storage facilities. Subsequent phased development of future features would be located to allow access for construction without it being detrimental to areas of:h the park in use.


The construction programme should allow time for commissioning and tuning equipment as well as allowing a period of acclimatization by the animals. Time is required for training staff. As many attendants are seasonal employees, allowance should be made for training programmes at the start of each season.

Time is also required for pre-opening marketing, and for developing a logo and “housestyle” which will act as a cohesive element in visual displays.Allowance should be made for obtaining uniforms and dealing with a range of management issues including the ticketing, cash management, supplies,merchandise, menus, maintenance contracts and refuse disposal. On completion of the construction, the operator will require operating manuals and certification of specialist equipment, emergency procedures and insurance coverage.

LOGO GRAPHICS AND INFORMATION

An early consideration will be the “logo” housestyle. This will act as a cohesive element in visual displays, from graphics providing general information within the park, to stationery, sculptural forms, display and staff uniforms. Graphics and signage are not only a means of conveying information but also convey character to the park.

Although a simple loop plan will reveal all features if a visitor keeps to the route, there will be cross-circulation and minor routes that must be identified clearly. Once the feature appears on a signs top, it should be consistently “signed” until it is located. Displayed park plans or models, identifying strategic lead points that relate routes to principal landmarks, canassist visitors to understand the park layout. With growing inter-community travel within Europe, signage in a selection of European languages or use of standardized symbols would be beneficial.


FOOD, ENTERTAINMENT AND RETAIL

The design for stage entertainment, restaurants and food outlets are well covered in technical literature. In theme and leisure parks the design will be related to the theme of the particular location. For example, European themes at Busch Gardens and Europa Park create a particular national ambience with the appropriate cuisine. At Asterix a restaurant space is enclosed in giant replica fruit and vegetables.

As park restaurants are usually designed to seat a large number of people and the kitchens are sometimes also used to prepare food for other food outlets in the park, a discreet service access and service area is important. In animal parks, the location of food outlets should aim to avoid food being passed to animals. In an open zoo such as Apenheul, Arnhem, the restaurant is away from the animal enclosures.

The style for food outlets and dining will respect local custom. For young people, the rides or features are the reason for visiting the park and thus a method of limiting the time spent on eating is appealing. Fast-food outlets are becoming universal with variations as to whether payment is made prior to or after the point of collecting food. A fast-food service should avoid the compounding of delay time caused by visitors choosing from menu or display boards, time spent in handling money and time spent preparing the food. The majority of parks would also have a range of beverage, ice cream and light snack outlets, as well as self-service and waiter service restaurants.

However, more leisurely dining and quality food is part of the outing for many Europeans, with the diversity of food representing various national cultures. This provides an opportunity for imaginative cuisine, themes and design. Similarly, show entertainment can be enclosed to give the appropriate ambience. The entertainment area at Middle Kingdom, Hong Kong, is based on the Empress Theatre of Beijing. The Oktoberfest at Busch Gardens conveys the Bavarian character.


Space is required for outdoor shows that animate a park. Whether located on equipment, on a bandstand or moving through the park, an outdoor event canadd colour and a shared experience to the visitors. At Europa Park, there are promenading ladies in eighteenth-century costumes and promenadinguniformed bands; there are music groups located in bandstands and trapeze artists, all of which give the park a corporate enjoyment in contrast to the more individual or family experience of the rides.

The range of cinema projection techniques to convey a vivid experience is extensive. Omnimax, Imax, 3D, 70 mm, circular cinema, multi-projection and auditoria with full audio-visual and sensatorial effects may be used. At Futuroscope near Poitiers, France the different cinematographic techniques include the use of a dynamic motion simulator cinema as developed by Intamin. The auditorium has hydraulically operated seats with movement synchronized with the events of the film. The projection system is Showscan (K) 70 mm with sound on five camera. A designed auditorium seats 45 people and the show cycle is 4-5 minutes, providing an hourly capacity for the cinema of 600 persons. The auditorium requires a space 13 m x 19 m and 6 m high.

At Last Labyrinth, Lands End, Cornwall, multi-screen projection is used with stage scenery type effects to provide an audio visual drama.

Retail outlets are an important source of revenue. A circulation system through a park or building would direct visitors through a retail area before they leave. Access by the public (not actually visiting the park) to retail outlets is advantageous.

CHILDREN’ S PLAY

Children’ s play areas are necessary for small children and are appropriate to all parks including animal parks. In zoos it is interesting to relate children’ s play activity to the animal play activity. Primates are particularly curious as to children’ s behaviour. Play equipment is well covered in technical and trade literature, but the theme element can further the experience of the park. At Asterix, the play area is formed within the “Roman Camp”.


FACILITIES

Park facilities usually include information desks, and a guest relations office. Some parks include lockers for luggage at the entrance.

Lavatory accommodation Will DC governed by local standards, but particular consideration should be given to baby care, to the normal parental role withsmall children. to the handicapped and to the elderly. Vandalism could be a problem, in which case the fittings and protection of and access to services should be appropriately designed.

In activity parks provision must be made for changing into sports clothing. Changing facilities and the storage of clothes and possessions are providedby various systems, from traditional male and female changing rooms (with back-up lockers or supervised storage) to a more open arrangement whereIndividual and family changing cubicles are available; clothes are then secured in lockers. There should also be showers for use before entering and after using the pools or sports facilities.

Allowance should he made for conveying small children (strollers), the handicapped or the elderly. Provision should be made for medical attention and dealing with injuries and providing access for ambulances, in particular where there are thrill rides.

Car parking should relate to the optimum capacity of the park at any one time, with provision for coach unloading and loading, turning and parking. The parks where visitors are delivered by coach should have a rest room for drivers.


MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY

Public safety and fire precautions are usually a matter of local standards. Fire standards will be concerned with flammability of materials, fire lighting equipment, access for fire appliances, means of escape, crowd control and the definition of escape routes. The safety of thrill rides is covered by various local codes such as DIN and TUF in Germany. Water parks will have their own safety routine with safety officers’ aware of the alarm system and safety drill.

With fast-food and self-service restaurants provision must be made for the disposal of refuse. “Trash” or rubbish containers require careful design and regular emptying. The standard of cleanliness achieved in the Disney Park is significant characteristic of successful leisure parks. An efficient refuse system that keeps the public areas continuously clean and free from clutter and rubbish is essential. Visitors respond to an environment they appreciate with good behaviour.

Staff and service access should be independent of visitor circulation. Shift staff require canteens and space for rest or relaxation. Service areas should be well screened. Allowance should be made for the accommodation of in-park service vehicles. Also provision is required for maintenance workshops and storage. In animal parks there will be animal care space and holding areas away from public view.

TRANSPORTATION AND RIDES

Mechanical transportation can control the rate at which people move through an area. The alternatives range from passenger conveyors and escalators, independently powered vehicles (including horsedrawn carriages), to vehicles on rails, boats on water, cable cars and suspended rides.

Amongst the manufacturers of park transportation and thrill rides are Arrow Dynamics Ltd. (USA), Vekoma International (Holland), Huss Maschinenfabrik (Germany), Heinrich Mack (Germany) and Intamin (Switzerland), Big Country Motioneering (USA) and Chance Rides Inc. (USA). The categories of transportation illustrated are not limited to the manufacturer represented.


In-park transportation systems are either at ground level, elevated above normal pedestrian level or are used to raise visitors up to a particular activity level. In many parks, there is a peripheral transportation system at ground level, and systems extending across the park are raised or bridged over by pedestrian routes.

The speeds of in-park systems vary from a controlled boat that would move at 3 km/h to an elevated monorail that could travel at 11 km/h. With close proximity of the public the avoidance of noise and fumes is critical. Electrical power is particularly unobtrusive. The overhead monorail can have live cables at the sides of the tracks; whereas on-ground transport needs to be operated by battery, magnetic transfer technology or by overhead power cables.

The Inductran transport system of the Inductran Corporation, Berkeley, California, is based on magnetic power transfer technology which excludeslive electrical contact other than the vehicle’s tyres. The vehicles are powered, guided and controlled by an inductor that is installed in the roadway.

Monorails elevate in-park transportation above normal pedestrian circulation and provide a scenic view of the park. The German company Mack recommend an average height above ground of 3-6 m for their monorail systems which can handle 800-2500 people per hour. The cars use non-service friction wheel drive through three phase short circuit motors and one driver can take up to three trailers. The Swiss Company Intamin manufacture a Panorama Electro Train consisting of battery operated traction with a capacity for pulling two coaches providing for 48 persons, achieving a speed of 12 km/h. The Intamin Expo battery powered train, which operates on a 600 m track, provides for 120 persons using four coaches.

Purpose-built reproductions and themed vehicles can add authenticity to a fantasy or re-created historic setting. The illustration shows a period locomotive as manufactured by Chance Rides Inc. Of Kansas. Horse-drawn carriages and wagons provide a popular tour of a park and contribute to the atmosphere.


Travelators and escalators can achieve controlled and efficient conveyance of visitors. Cable car systems can also provide aerial viewing.

Ocean Park, Hong Kong is served by both a cable car system that rises over the hilly terrain of one side of the headland (180 m above the sea) and byimpressive escalators that ascend the other side of the headland.

The cable car system, designed, supplied and erected by Agudio (Nuova Agudio, Milan), consists of two parallel ropeways in which the track and hauling rope of each ropeway forms a loop running continuously between the opposite terminals. Each ropeway has 126 cars which travel at 14.5 km/h, andcan achieve a maximum capacity of 5000 passengers per hour in each direction. The ropes, the supporting tressels and cars had to be designed for the excessive wind speeds of the location exposed to the South China Sea. Also safety and rescue operations had to be carefully considered. The door of the cars cannot be opened from the inside when the car is in transit. Some cars are equipped with facilities for invalid people in wheelchairs.

However, the original cable cars were vulnerable to high wind conditions and were not permitted for evening use. A new policy for the park focused on additional use including evening activities, and escalators were selected. The two track escalator system rises 115 m in four sections with a maximum single rise of 34 m. An intermediate level of the escalators provided a site for new attractions including a boat flume ride. A suitable 30° route was established so that the escalators were set close to the natural ground surface. The total length of the escalators is 252 m and they can carry 4500 peopleper hour in each direction. The location of the escalators provides panoramic views.

VIEWING TOWERS

Panoramic views can also be provided by viewing, towers and elevator platforms. These structures can also form a landmark feature for a park. The range of installations manufactured by Intamin and Huss include observation towers, fixed platforms and gyro towers with elevating and rotating observation cars.


THRILL RIDES

Thrill rides have a universal appeal but the degree of apparent danger must be related to experience. Visitors learn to cope with new experiences and in due course will seek more adventurous rides. There is a two-way interaction of designing to suit the visitors’ anticipation and capabilities, and at the same time educating people to enjoy the park. In order to maintain the interest of the public, there is also a need to add new features in a systematic programme.

“HARD” RIDES

Fun and thrill rides include track rides, bobsleigh rides, rides on horizontal or vertical axes and combination rides. The thrill of the ride comes from the “G” force (or gravitational pull) it exerts on the body and the apparent dangers. The trough of a “big dipper” might produce 3 G; a civil aircraft produces about 1. 5 G on take-off; a fighter plane could exert 9 G. The axis in which the ride moves, the speed and the time taken for the ride are all significant to the experience. A 28 m high freefall can produces a force of 5 G. The majority of rides do not exceed 4.5 G (not more than 4 G where riders are travelling upsidedown), or maximum speed of 80 km/h. A consensus would suggest that a statutory limit of 5 G would be appropriate but this has yet to be determined.

Some rides have warning notices for pregnant women, people suffering from heart conditions and those suffering from back problems. Also access tothrill rides is usually controlled by a height limit to avoid young children, or children who would not be properly restrained by safety gear, from using thevehicles.

The safety standards adopted in the design of rides, DIN 4112 (German Code for Amusement Rides) and the TUV rules (German Inspection Authority for Amusement Rides), and the VED Standards for electrical components are acknowledged throughout Europe and many States in the USA as being a sound basis for public safety. Local standards must also be observed.


TRACK RIDES

Track rides range from simple themed vehicle rides for small children and gentle track rides such as the Cycle Monorail, to the intricate roller coaster andspeed rides. The roller coaster is a priority for a “thrill ride” park geared to all age groups. The structures range from the traditional evocative timber-framed “big dipper” to the column supported ride with twists, loops, butterflies, side winders, boomerangs and corkscrews.

The Magnum XL200 roller coaster in Cedar Point, Ohio, created by Arrow Dynamics, has three hills of which the highest is 201 ft and the ride is 5106 ft long and reaches speeds of 73 mph. A recent version of track ride is a suspended coaster such as the Vampire Ride (by Arrow Dynamics) at Chessington, where the cars are suspended below the track and they swing out from the track on the bends.

The designs of thrill rides by CAD computer system assess the dynamic loads from the train on the track and onto the support structure. The actual “G” forces are also estimated. The dimensions of rail pipes, support pipes, columns, foundations of anchors are calculated. The “G” forces are measured during test runs when the train is loaded with sand bags. Braking systems and emergency simulated tests are also carried out.

DARK RIDES

Fast moving coaster rides and leisurely boat rides are incorporated in “story” or indoor themed adventure rides such as the space journey of Space Mountain and the more leisurely boat ride in “It’s a Small World” (Arrow Dynamics), both at Disneyland. In conjunction with moving visitors along a set route, automatic guided vehicle systems can be adopted to rotate the seating of each car, so that the attention of the visitors is directed towards particular views during the journey.

A standard dark coaster “Nightmare” uses a Vekoma Mark 700 track system which permits the tight radius turns suited to a coaster in a small area of 25m X 30m. The track length is 350 m and one train operates with 12 coaches of two passengers each. A three point track gripping wheel configuration holds


the train to 4 in rail pipes. The wheels are covered with polyurethane to reduce friction and vibration. Passengers are held into the seats with a lap bar adjustable to accommodate one or two people.

An innovative combination of audio-visual techniques and coaster ride is the Vekoma “illusion”. This consists of an indoor ride with a theme which can be changeable but suited to the particular location. The building consists of a nucleus and an exterior ring. Parabolic film screens of 20 m diameter extend from the ground to the ceiling. Seventy millimetre films are projected onto the screens creating the imagery, which is combined with synchronized 4 channel sound effects. The train rises within the nucleus and then descends through the exterior ring. Both spaces are surrounded by the projected images. The Mini Mission, a later development, combines laser (by Laser Fantasy Company) and film (by Midland Productions).

CAROUSELS

The horizontal rotating rides or carousels include traditional “roundabouts”, and more complex arrangements where the rotating section is also rotating or moving horizontally or vertically. Formats vary from the traditional American Dentzel style carousel with jumping horses (as made by Chance), to complex rides with themed boats, planes and science fiction features. The rides provide a simple and even rotation, or include swinging out, wave-like motion, switchback action and intricate arrangements where the cars are individually rotating. The “Happy Spider” (Intamin) combines three movements to give passengers the experience of quick changes in acceleration and direction. The Flight Trainer (Intamin) simulates solo flying and passengers can pilot the movement of their cabins. Of the level rides an interesting example is the ”coffee-cup” ride at Europa Park (Mack) in which the cars are designed as Delft cups rotating around a coffee pot.

Rides with horizontal movement include the traditional “dodgem car” format. In the “Mega Ball” (Intamin) which represents a pin ball machine, the cars move down the “board” hitting and bouncing against various obstacles.


WHEELS AND FREEFALL

The vertical rotating rides such as the original Ferris wheel have increased in scale and complexity. The variations based on wheel, boom and swing devicesprovide rides such as the Giant Wheel (Intamin) that can rise up to 53 m in height. The 27 m high Giant Gondola Wheel (Chance Rides Inc.) has 20 gondolas and a total capacity of 120-160 passengers. The ride is decorated with 6000 multi-coloured incandescent lamps and 16 computerized programmes create kaleidoscopic effects providing a light show feature within the park. The gondolas have high back seats for safety and automatic closing doors. The gondolas remain horizontal, whereas in another format, the “Sky Diver” (Chance Rides Inc.), the passenger cars are secured to the wheel so that the passengers move into an upside-down position as the wheel rotates.

There is a range of swing boats, such as the Sea Dragon (Chance Rides Inc.) with a 65° swing and the Looping Starship (Intamin) which passes through a complete loop. The "Top Swing” (Huss) is a variation on the swingboat. The car is supported at either end by booms that rotate; the car itself is also rotated.The “Sky flyer” (Vekoma) consists of two boats working on the same pivoted axis, each gondola carrying 16 passengers. The booms and gondolasrotate in opposite directions. The “Canyon Trip” ride has the ends of a boat suspended from two rotating arms; the boat itself consists of two sliding partsproviding a lineal movement. The “Freefall” (Intamin) takes riders to a height of 39 m and they drop in a gondola through a height of 29.5 m reaching a speed of 88 km/h.

WATER RIDES

Rides based on water are either ”dry” rides where users are out of the water (but may be splashed), or “wet rides” where they are in swim wear, and areoccasionally immersed in the water.


“DRY” RIDES

The “dry” rides include log flumes, consisting of boats moving through channels and chutes: rapid river rides, with rafts moving down through turbulent water; and more sedate controlled boat rides. Manufacturers in the USA and Europe include Intamin, Arrow Dynamics, Big Country Motioneering, and Heinrich Mack.

In the fast moving log flumes, users sit in a boat-shaped “log” or themed boat that is manoeuvred through a circuit. The circuit includes raising the boat to a high level, the boat then speeds down a chute into a channel. The ride requires a loading station, a chain lift (to haul boats up an inclined plane), a reservoir of water and substantial pumping to keep the water flowing through the flume. Rides are usually designed to wind through themed or landscaped areas. The “Spill Water” chute ride (Intamin) achieves a speed of 61 km/h as the boat hits the “run out” water and the “Shoot-the-chute” (Arrow Dynamics) plunges the 20 passenger boats 60 ft down a chute that has a camel back dip to add to the experience.

The rapids ride is based on rafts moving down a turbulent river. The ride starts with a revolving platform where riders can clamber onto a raft as rafts continue to move in the flow of the water. The raft usually consists of a large circular tyre (approx 2.5 to 4 metres in diameter) with a ring of seats (6-12persons) and a central grab rail. Each ride is purpose designed to a course with the water activated by pumps and obstacles. An adventurous ride would alsoinclude additional water features (cascades, geysers, jets), synchronized with the movement of the rafts. The difference in levels between access platform andthe base of lift could be 2-4 m.

“CONTROLLED” BOATS

The relaxed movement of the controlled boats is operated by cable or by the speed of the water in the channel. In the Towboat Ride, boats are driven by anunderwater cable system which is installed in the floof of the water area. Access to the boats is from a revolving platform as the boats are continuouslymoving. The boats travel at around 3 km/h. The speed and quiet operation provide a particular characteristic to the ride. A similar controlled boat ride can


be achieved by creating a flow of water through a channel, the boats moving with the current. The channel is as wide as is necessary to contain the boats whereas the water area can be more extensive. Towboats are used in conjunction with themed, educational, dark and adventure rides.

Examples of slowboat rides are the Batavia Ride at Europa Park and the boat ride around the Asterix Island.

WET WATER RIDES AND WATER FUN

The development of non-competitive enjoyment of water has led to an extensive range of water rides and features that aim to provide excitement or leisurely indulgence. The main groups consist of activity pools including wave pools and play pools; channel rides and slides; jacuzzis; toboggan rides, (including mechanical towing systems) and overwater aerial rides. Features include water jets, wave generators, fountains, geysers, cascades and water canon. There is an extensive range of suppliers, the majority of which are members of the World Waterpark Association, Kansas, USA.

WAVE POOLS

The pleasure of wave pools ranges from the enjoyment of lying or swimming in the wave movement, the pleasures associated with waves breaking on a “beach”, to the expertise of surfing on substantial breaking waves. Wave generators such as those developed by Imhof (Germany), Biwater (UK)A Wavetek (now Aquatic Amusements Associates, USA) that are pneumatic, avoid contact between machinery and water. The generator has a series of chambers that take in water from the pool and then release the water either all at one time or in a sequence to achieve a desired wave profile. The normal pneumatic wave machine can be operated to create parallel or diamond wave patterns with a maximum wave height of approximately 90 cm (3 ft). The typical original pools were fan-shape with dimensions of 25 m at the wave machine end to 41 m at the “beach” end, with an overall length of 55 m. Themaximum depth was 2.4 m (8 ft). The profile of the pool would be designed to avoid undertow. More recently wave machines are used with free form pools to


provide an exciting configuration of water movement against vertical surfaces, sloping and curved sides, and surging into adjoining pools.

For surf riding, the large surf pool “Big Surf” at Tampa Arizona, discharges 1.8 m (6 ft) high waves across the full 48.8 m (160 ft) width of the pool to travel 131 m to the beach. This is achieved by large pumps filling a reservoir tank at one end of the pool. When the reservoir is full and providing a 3.7 m (12 ft) head of water, gates open and the water is released to pass over a “reef” to form a “singular translatory wave of the spilling breaker type” moving the length of the pool to dissipate at the beach end. A similar system called “Tsunami” was developed by Wavetek in the USA, and several pools have been built to achieve a surfing wave. The “Surf King” wave machine by Barr and Wray can produce an 2.4m (8 ft) high wave in controlled conditions. There are also wave machines that use an extensive paddle or hinged flap to generate wave movement.

ADVENTURE POOLS

Adventure and playpools include equipment relevant to the age concerned. Adventure pools present a range of challenging activities. A typical arrangement includes: slides and tube rides down into the pool; raised levels for divers; a cable trolley over the water allowing a person to glide over and drop into the water; and “lily pads” consisting of rubber rafts chain anchored to the floor of the pool forming an insecure sequence of stepping stones. The lily pads have an overhead rope net to assist the crossing. There are also water jets and water cannon.

Playpools may be designed for small children with sitting space for supervising adults and should be located away from areas used by more vigorous older children. The water should be shallow with play features such as small slides, chutes, water cannon, sprays and fountains and climbing structures. Many parks adopt a theme such as a galleon, shipwreck orcaricature animals, to provide a central structure incorporating slides, climbing nets and water cannon.


FLUME RIDES

Channel “flume” rides like mechanical thrill rides are continually subject to innovative ideas. The current aspects for innovation are speed, “freefall”, twists and turns, switchback experience and opportunities for socializing. A new form of flume ride is a switch back with the ride rising as well as running horizontally and descending to the splashpool.

The single person channel is constructed either as a half round channel 21 in to 54 in (with sides raised at bends), or a complete tube ride 30 in or more in diameter. The open ride is particularly suited to landscaped locations or where the expression and performance of the users are visible to provide interest and entertainment to other people. The complete tube ride is particularly suited to tight turns and the cold weather situation where rides extend outside temperature controlled leisure space. The inherent rigidity of the tube section can reduce frequency of ground support.

Flume rides are supported direct on the ground, weaving through landscape or rocks caped topography, or supported on timber, steel or concrete posts. The architecture of flume structures, discharge platforms or towers, the superstructures, access walks, stairs and discharge pools can dominate the visual character of a water fun park. The complex forms of interweaving multiple flumes are often used to express the fun activity as seen from outside the park area.

In addition to normal flume rides, there are speed slides and “freefall” slides. The freefall is a near vertical drop with an extensive runoff channel. The speed slides have a series of dips which provide a sensation of being airborne.

If visitors go down the ride in an inflated tube it is necessary for users to be able to collect a tube prior to entering the ride. This means either that potentialusers must pass a point where tubes can be deposited by previous users of the ride, or a mechanical conveyor is used to transport the tubes up to the discharge platform. Rides are supervised at the point where users enter the ride and at the splash pool or runout. The splash pool is consistent with the water fun park character but runout or aqua catch arrangements are being recommended as being less dangerous. The very fast rides tend towards runout channels to avoid collision between riders. Some speed flume rides are monitored by speed indicators so that riders can record their speed down the ride.


Flume or canal rides up to 12 ft in diameter that provide for socializing are particularly popular. “Rapid river rides” and “lazy canal” provide a wide channel and either a simple continuous flow (as in the case of the lazy canal) or a series of flumes or chutes with intermediate whirlpool situations that require negotiating. The congestion and spills are pan of the experience. Overhead cascades and jets or water cannon at the sides add to the adventure.

The majority of proprietary water rides are constructed in fibreglass. Particular attention should be given to the architectural appearance of the supporting structure. The choice of steel or timber is determined by the site’s topography and space allowances. Handrails and launch platforms are designed in relation to the flumes, and can be planned to provide potential riders an opportunity to view others using the ride.

Most equipment suppliers provide a design and engineering service. The German Standard (DIN 7637) has been used by designers and manufacturers in Europe as a basis for design. In the UK standards of safety are issued by the Sports Council and the SHO, the Safety in Leisure Research Unit and the Institute of Baths and Recreation Managers.

A report by the Safety in Leisure Research Unit makes recommendations for the design and management of waterslides in the UK. These recommendations include attention to the need for non-slip surfaces along access and exit routes, separation between those queuing for a particular slide and other visitors, heigh restriction (as age limits are difficult to enforce) and disallow non-swimmers from using flume rides unless the slide is designed with runout or aqua catch. Regarding the slide path, sharp changes in the direction, particularly where there is an increase in acceleration by the rider, should be avoided. The end section of the ride should be designed to reduce speed and eject the rider in a manner that is controlled (with an angle of entry parallel with the surface of the water). Favoured end sections are those involving hydrostaticbraking or aquacatches in preference to splash pools, to prevent riders from hitting the base of the splash pool. Splash pools should have clearly indicated exit points. Where a splash pool is part of a larger pool, there should be some form of physical separation.


The World Waterpark Association. Kansas, USA publish comprehensive recommendations regarding water park design and management. The Association also represents a comprehensive range of equipment suppliers.

TECHNIQUES

In addition to maintaining natural landscaping, techniques necessary to achieve a high quality of environment, using simulated landscaping orartefacts, are important to leisure parks, zoos and aquaria. Authentic features for zoos can provide a naturalistic setting for animals and can convey the specific habitat that could been endangered. Also it is possible to benefit from the close proximity to animals in a zoo by audio-visual and tactile techniqueswhich can convey particular qualities of natural life and animals. Simulated surroundings are open to comparison with TV coverage of natural habitats.Techniques are also used to create essential themed features. Re-created artefacts must be convincing and methods can be used to convey dramatizedpresentations of historical or scientific subjects.

The artistry of simulated rockwork and reconstructed artefacts has benefited from mould techniques and new lightweight glassfibre-based materials. Audio-visual techniques have benefited from the advance in cinematographic, video, lighting, holography, laser and sound technology, electronic systems, animatronics and innovative arrangements, many of which have their origins in Exposition exhibits.

ROCKWORK AND FEATURES

The skill and techniques of experienced rock and art work contractors can provide a high degree of realism and a basis for natural planting or water features. Also skill has been devoted to reproducing historical or scientific artefacts and elements of fantasy. The rockwork shown in previous chapters includes work by the US companies Larson of Tucson, Arizona, Cost of Wisconsin and David L. Manwarren of Plancentia, California.


Design work is developed in three-dimensional model form which can express the proposed massing and textural character. The techniques involved arecement based (ranging from conventional cast or sprayed concrete), textured plaster finish, to lighter weight glass reinforced concrete which is cast in moulds. For more detailed work, glassfibre or expandable urethane foam with an acrylic finish is used. The less expensive techniques are suitable for items seen at a distance.

CEMENT BASED TECHNIQUES

The rock forms are created on a metal armature which is sprayed or plastered with cement or concrete, and hand carved to the appropriate shape and texture, or latex moulds are applied to form an imprint on the wet surface. Sprayed concrete techniques include gunite and shotcrete.

The format of the armature steel is related to the character of the rockwork. A release agent is used so that the concrete can be imprinted. As the concretesets, the three-dimensional cracks and crevices can be carved.

An economic technique used by the US Company David L. Manwarren employs tin-foil. After applying the concrete to the armature, the surface or anapplied thin coat of cement plaster is imprinted with heavy-duty foil to achieve the surface texture. A plastic wrap is used to provide smooth areas. The foil is removed when the concrete is nearly hard, and the concrete can be carved to achieve the final definitions. The surface is imprinted with latex skins of the relevant rock character.

GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE

Glass reinforced concrete is sprayed into rubber moulds, cured and installed as castings onto a structural backing. The castings can be made in a workshop and then assembled on site, and the technique can provide an accurate reproduction of natural surfaces. When the castings are installed on site the junctions between the castings are filled and sculptured to provide continuous surface. The GRC technique is relatively expensive and is appropriate for rockwork, trees or artefacts seen at close range. (up to 6 metres)


GLASSFIBRE AND EPOXY

The realism achieved in trees and coral rockwork dependent on the skill and artistry of the sculptor. Trees as constructed by the US firm Larson andCompany are built up around the main trunk consisting of a layered fibreglass skin coated with epoxy for hardness. Textured and painted lichens dabbed on with paint. Branches are made separately, formed with a long steel pipe bent into the desired shape and secured into the tunk. The exposed pipe is sprayed with a quick drying, expandable urethane foam. The hardened foam is then carved into branch-like forms. After being covered with epoxy, the branch is textured and finished.

Leaves on the trees are usually real plants bedded in hidden pockets within the artificial tree structure, or are real vines growing around the artificial trunk,Where vegetation is planted into rockwork, non-toxic, non-dissolvable acrylic paint is used.

AUDIO-VISUAL AND ANIMATION

The creative and technical skills concerned with presenting information or conveying imagery, communicating through experiential or interactivedevices, audio-visual or electronic equipment are highly specialized. The techniques include mechanical equipment such as the hydraulics and pneumatics used in animatronics, computerized games that provide a sequence of situations to explore a subject, audio-visual monitors or three-dimensional projection holography, video disc or laser scanning, computergraphics, infinity optics, speech synthesis, etc. These techniques are in the forefront of entertainment, trade shows and commercial presentations; they are used in themed adventure rides, museum display and visitor attractions.

Projects combine the skills of creative design with systems engineering. The “story line” is used as a basis to develop the interpretive presentation. The technology is selected so that the subject, experience and unique ambience remain predominant. Obvious equipment that one would associate with the everyday domestic or work environment could compromise the effect.


The interactive exhibits at Adventure Island, Los Angeles, the audio-visual techniques uses at Last Labyrinth, Cornwall, have been referred to in previous chapters. Multi-media representations, such as 16 projector show linked to lighting, video and mechanical effects, have been utilized by the creative designers Event (London) to elucidate the story of cellulose in the “Thread of Life” exhibition at Kew Gardens, London. At Museum of Children, Halifax, children are encouraged to question their knowledge of their own physical make-up. The fully interactive exhibition “Me and My Body”, designed and installed by Imagination (London), consists of a number of themed areas with hands-on exhibits that focus on different aspects of a child’s mind and body.

At the Natural History Museum, London, animatronics has been used to provide realism to an exhibition on dinosaurs. The presentation by Imagination aims to make a prehistoric species as credible as familiar living animals, by using computer graphics, animated full-size models, audio-visual, fibre optics, visual project and a range of other visual techniques. The four life-size dinosaurs are moved by pneumatically powered cylinders built into the body of each dinosaur. The outer skin of the animals is made of a flexible but durable silicone rubber.

The Tussauds Group attraction, the Rock Circus in Piccadilly, London, combines audio/animatronics with a revolving auditorium split into three sectors, each seating around 120. The figures are animated by a series of computer controlled movements and activators with precision valves fed by high pressure air; acrylic body shells surround the working electronics, while the faces and hands are made from a rubber-based artificial skin.

Animatronics, audio-visual, video and three-dimensional techniques have been used by Media Projects (London) in both the visitor attraction in Sicily, the Sicilian Carousel, and the Pirate Dark ride in the Gardaland theme park, Italy.


The systems engineers for the Rock Circus, the Museum of the Moving Image, the Dinosaurs Gallery, Granada Studios Tour, and many pavilions at Expo 92, were Electronics (Dartford), who have designed and provided audio, laser, video, video disc, animation, lighting and mechanical effects, systems and equipment.

The technology in both static re-created artefacts and landscaping, and animation techniques involving electronics and mechanical systems, are highly specialized, creative and innovative. The possibilities for communicating, educating and entertaining are extensive; nevertheless, each project has a limited financial budget and a unique character that have to be respected.

With the increase in leisure time and disposable income, leisure facilities are providing not only relaxation, but also a positive contribution to the quality and experience of life.

The economic significance of leisure is reflected in Governments concern. Governments are compelled to focus upon both leisure facilities available to the community and the encouragement of the tourist industry as a source of employment and tax revenue. There is intergovernment and inter-city competition to attract major tourist activity, world games, international expositions or investment by proven leisure companies.

Within Europe alone, the changing structure has yet to be expressed in the leisure market. The cultural tradition and history of the East European countries have yet to be fully explored.

Leisure as a force to improve the environment will continue to regenerate urban surroundings as urban life continues to be compared with the quality of thevacation environment. Historic locations, which would otherwise fall into disuse, can be re-used in a leisure context.

There could be a constructive interaction between theme park operations and the presentation of historical location or cultural issues. The capacity to attract and manage millions of visitors to Walt Disney World makes tourist figures to some historic cities, rich with inherent attractions, look unenterprising.


Tourism can promote a greater understanding and respect between people of different nationalities.

The value of the leisure environment can also be assessed in relation to the quality of life, the widening of human experience and understanding, aided by the quality of architecture and artefacts produced.

Within normal social life, leisure attractions have a cohesive effect underlying the value of interdependence. Parks aim to provide attractions that span across age and ability, compensating for social stratification that is part of modem life. Family life is continually threatened. If it is to remain a cornerstone of our social structure then provision for family enjoyment is essential.

The quality of life is enhanced by humour and understanding. Many theme parks present basic values in a caricature or humorous situation. Thesevalues are endorsed by the quality of the establishment.

Visitor attractions convey serious subjects in a popular idiom to make them easier to understand. There is no pressure to learn and the subject is explored at will. These facilities are all constructive to human learning and understanding. There is value added to “knowledge” in the context of leisure and choice. Equally, activity centres provide sporting facilities in a non-competitive context, which promote the desire to maintain good health and longevity, a universal objective.

The health of the natural world is also becoming of supreme importance. Destructive pollution and relentless consumption of nature’s resources arebecoming universally condemned. The role of the zoo and animal park is vital to underline the significance of animals, their habitat and ecological continuity. Bio-diversity underlines the interdependence of man with the natural world.

The association of leisure with education and research is particularly evident in animal and botanical parks. The ability to re-create ecosystems isinteresting. The bio-park zoo, an ecological balanced habitat for animals, will provide a life-support structure for animals, the human equivalent of which is also being seriously researched so that man can exist in space.


The advancement of techniques enriches leisure pursuits, provides more exciting rides, greater realism in re-created artefacts, architecture andlandscaping, and more experiential substance conveyed by audio-visual and sensatory techniques.

Theme parks and leisure attractions will continue in the commercial context, competing with each other to attract visitors. But there would be a case forregionalized parks that focus on local historical, cultural and mythological issues as well as animal parks that concentrate on local fauna and flora. Thesewould exist alongside the major leisure attractions that include large zoos, marine animal parks and theme parks. The regional theme parks would illustrate matters of local relevance, an extension of the museum or historical location. They would act as leisure centres as well as part of the educational facility. Likewise, the bio-park would help people to understand and appreciate their immediate natural environment.

Man has a capacity for enjoyment and it is important that this is not exercised at the expense of the environment or humane values. Leisure enjoyment can be used as a force to improve the urban environment, human experience and understanding, and our regard for the natural world.


Documents

Theme Parks Leisure Centres Zoos & Aquaria