The Struggle for Control of Higher Education in a Developing Economy: Sri Lanka

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Comparative Education Volume 19 No. 3 1983 325

The Struggle for Control of HigherEducation in a Developing Economy:Sri Lanka

D. THENUWARA GAMAGE

INTRODUCTIONIt is a common phenomenon in many countries in the world and is also true of Sri Lanka thatthe development of higher education has reflected a struggle for power and control. Sri Lanka,which has inherited a British educational system as a result of her colonial past [1], has notbeen able to modify the goals of the colonial system significantly to meet local needs andaspirations, even after a period of 34 years of independent rule. While it is notable that, as aresult of policies emphasising universal primary and secondary education, Sri Lanka enjoysthe second highest literacy rate in the whole of Asia the percentage of students receiving highereducation is relatively low [2]. Although the first medical school was established in 1870 andfree education up to university level was introduced in the mid-1940s, the development offacilities for higher education has not kept pace with the rapid development of primary andsecondary education. On the other hand, the Government is faced with the difficulty ofproviding suitable job opportunities for the limited number of graduates produced by the SriLankan universities.

In 1948, Sri Lanka ended four centuries of colonial rule, when independence was obtainedfrom the British and Sri Lanka became a member of the British Commonwealth. On 22 May1972 the country became the Free Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Thepopulation was 14,848,634 at the 1981 census and was divided into many ethnic groups ofwhich 74% are Sinhala, 12-6% are Sri Lankan Tamils and another 5-6% Indian Tamils. Moors(7-1%), Burghers, Eurasians, Malays and others make up the remainder. On another dimension69-3% of the people are Buddhists and 15-5% are Hindus. Muslims and Christians each makeup 7-6% [3]. Sinhala, a language of Indo-Aryan origin, is the language of the majoritycommunity and the official language of the country. Tamil, the language of the minority, hasbeen declared a national language and is widely used in the Northern and Eastern parts of thecountry. English is widely spoken in urban areas and is the compulsory second language.Agriculture remains the principal occupation of the people and rice is the staple food. Tea,rubber and coconut are grown extensively and Sri Lanka is a leading exporter of thesecommodities.

THE BEGINNING OF HIGHER EDUCATIONTowards the end of the nineteenth century there were established systems of primary andsecondary schools (which were known as colleges) were founded by Christian Missionary

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326 D. Thenuwara Gamage

Societies then operating in Sri Lanka [4]. The colleges provided post-matriculation courses andprepared students for university degrees or for intermediate examinations as external candi-dates of the University of Calcutta and subsequently of the University of London. TheColombo Academy established by the colonial government was considered to be the leadinginstitution in this field. In 1859, the Academy was affiliated to the University of Calcutta, toenable the students to sit examinations conducted by that university. The amalgamatedCollege came to be known as Queens College [5]. However, in 1880, the affiliation of QueensCollege with the University of Calcutta was discontinued on the basis of a report submitted bythe Sub-committee of the Legislative Council appointed for the purpose of examining thefeasibility of external degrees. The college, renamed Royal College, started to prepare studentsfor the external examinations conducted by London University. In addition, from 1880, theUniversity of Cambridge conducted Junior and Senior School Certificate Examinations forstudents prepared by the colleges. The external examinations of the University of London werecontinued in Sri Lanka until 1968, when arrangements were made to transfer registrations touniversities in Sri Lanka [6].

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CEYLON MEDICAL COLLEGE

From the late 1830s, it was mainly in the field of medicine that the colonial authorities madearrangements for students to receive university education as internal students. Four studentswho returned from the Bengal Medical School in Calcutta joined the Island's medical servicein 1843 [7]. In 1869, the colonial surgeon in charge of the Northern province, pointed out thenecessity of providing medical education within the island for the purpose of improving thestandard of health among the citizens of the country. The colonial government accepted therecommendation and established the Ceylon Medical College in 1870, with Dr Loos as its firstprincipal [8]. The college which was first opened as an elementary medical school, providedpractical instruction in medicine, surgery and midwifery. The foundation staff consisted of DrLoos, who was the surgeon of the Northern province and two other lecturers drawn from themedical profession. The rapid development of teaching helped the college to go beyond theelementary stage in a short period of time. In 1888, the General Medical Council of the UnitedKingdom decided to recognise the Licenciate in Medicine and Surgery (L.M.S.) awarded bythe College and allow the holders of the certificate to register as medical practitioners in thecolonial list [9].

THE UNIVERSITY MOVEMENT AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CEYLONUNIVERSITY COLLEGE

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Ceylonese elite, many of whom were educatedin British univesities, were convinced that the external examinations conducted by theUniversity of London were no substitute for an internal university education. The colonialauthorities in Ceylon regarded this as a laudable ambition to be cautiously but firmlyencouraged [10]. In 1906 some of the leading members of the western educated elite formedthe Ceylon University Association under the leadership of Sir Pannambalam Arunachalam.The Association forcefully urged the establishment of a university adapted to local needs andargued that the London system was discouraging the development of oriental values andparticularly the language and culture. The association considered the university as an essentialfeature of national revival. The agitation and pressure for the establishment of a universitycame to be known as 'the University Movement' [11]. The Ceylon Social Reform League,founded in 1905, was in the forefront of the university movement and in its journal, TheCeylon National Review, Ananda Coomaraswamy, one of the leading advocates of a cultural

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Higher Education in Sri Lanka 327

renaissance, outlined a coherent scheme for a university in Ceylon [12]. In 1911, followingthese campaigns, Governor McCallum appointed a Committee of Inquiry to examine andreport on the requirements of secondary and higher education in Ceylon. The Committeesubmitted its report in the following year, recommending the establishment of a universitycollege on the premises of the new Royal College, for the purpose of preparing students forLondon University Examinations [13]. On the basis of this report the new Governor, LordChalmers, recommended to Whitehall the establishment of a university college in Colombo. Itwas agreed that it should have authority to grant diplomas in the first instance, be affiliated toan English university (preferably Oxford) with a view to converting the college eventually to afull university with power to award its own degrees [14]. The recommendation was approvedby the Secretary of State for Colonies, subject to the modification by the appointment of aCommittee of the Hebdomadal Council of Oxford University to advise the Governor. But theimplementation of the scheme was delayed by World War I. In 1920, Sir Edward Denhamrecommended that the university college should be started with the least possible delay as aninstitution affiliated to the University of London and not Oxford. Thus, in January 1921, theCeylon University College was formally opened in Colombo as a government institutionaffiliated to the University of London [5]. At the beginning of the academic year 1921/22,Robert Marrs of Oxford University assumed duties as the first Principal of the college.

THE PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH A UNIVERSITY AND THE CONTROVERSY RE-GARDING A SITE

It is common to many countries that the selection of a university site has its politicalimplications. However, Marrs was intent on a rapid transition from college to university statusand in 1921, the College Council appointed an academic committee to make recomendationson the academic activities of the future university. By the end of academic year 1922/23, theoutlines of the programme of degrees and courses were ready, and in the following year aBoard of Studies drafted detailed syllabuses for the various subjects proposed. The preparationfor university status was completed from an academic point of view by 1924 and by thefollowing June Marrs had prepared a draft university ordinance based on the recommenda-tions of the Sadler Commission for Decca and Lucknow [16].

The site at the new Royal College premises provided only 18-5 acres, which was clearlyinsufficient for the new university college. Late in 1923 Marrs drew to the attention of theCollege Council the need for a larger site for the proposed university. The Council consideredthree sites in and near Colombo and recommended that the government allocate crown landalong Bullers Road (now Bauddhaloke Mawata) which was near Thurstan Road where thenew Royal College was situated. The Governor accepted the recommendation and in early1924 the Legislative Council voted the required funds for the buildings and equipment for theproposed university. The detailed plans and estimates were published in 1925 [17].

Throughout the deliberations on the question of a suitable site, a powerful group led by thepress magnate D.R. Wijewardane, whose newspapers the Ceylon Daily News and the CeylonObserver conducted a sustained campaign against a Colombo site and in favour of a site atPeradeniya, pointed out the virtues of a residential university at Peradeniya with its salubriousclimate and scenic beauty with opportunities for agricultural education and research facilitiesfor tea, rubber, cocoa and forestry. Claims for the Peradeniya site were supported with theargument that 600 acres of land were available there, and two hundred acres could be acquiredin Peradeniya for the price of three acres in Colombo. Sir Pannambalam Arunachalam, in aninterview with the Ceylon Daily News before his death in 1924, castigated the Thurstan Roadinstitution as a poor makeshift arrangement only to be tolerated as a beginning. Sir D.B.Jayatillake thought that the Thurston Road site would be utterly inadequate and unsuitable.Dr C.H. Hewaritarana and Rev. H.G. Fraser joined the chorus of opinion in favour

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of a shift to the Kandyan region, if not to Peradaniya in particular [18]. According to Sir IvorJennings, in 1923 there was a small university college operating at Thurstan Road which itwas practicable to move it to a much larger and better site at Buller's Road. Clearly, auniversity on 95 acres at Buller's Road was a better proposition than a score of universities onpaper [19].

In March 1927, the Legislative Council resolved that the proposed university should beunitary and residential, that it should be established in a site in Dumbara Valley at Aruppolaand that the Government should appoint a Commission to work out the details. During thesecontroversies, Marrs was consistent in his support of the establishment of the university in theneighbourhood of Colombo. A representative Commission consisting of 26 eminent peoplewas appointed with Sir Walter Buchanan Riddel (Chairman University Grants Committee,U.K.) as Chairman. Its report issued in January 1929, covered all aspects of the establishmentof a university in Ceylon [20]. The recommended draft constitution, became the basis for auniversity bill which received a second reading in 1930 but proceeded no further. There werethree reasons for a lengthy delay in establishing the university. The State Council electionsunder the Donoughmore Constitution were held in 1931. By this time the depression of theearly 1930s had taken hold, and a very severe malaria epidemic followed. It was on a motionby De Silva [21] in February 1937 that the State Council resolved to establish the university inKandy immediately. By December the Board of Ministers had submitted an estimate to theState Council for the purchase of a site at Aruppola. But the battle of sites was still beingwaged with the launching of a concentrated attack on Aruppola scheme. In September twopowerful social figures, Paul and Nell, had submitted a memorandum to the Board ofMinisters urging that Aruppola site be abandoned in favour of a larger and more salubriousone at Peradeniya. They were supported by Marrs and the memorandum made a very strongcase for Peradeniya as against Aruppola. Eventually the State Council was persuaded inSeptember 1938, to purchase a site at Peradeniya. Thus the battle of sites at last was over [22].

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON

The outbreak of World War II in 1939 and the world-wide dislocation of communications,rather than delaying the establishment of the university, which was still at discussion level,actually expedited action. In 1941, Sir Ivor Jennings assumed duties as the Principal of theCollege, filling the vacancy caused by the retirement of Marrs in 1939 after 18 years of service[23]. On 10 March 1942 in introducing the University Bill in the State Council, the Minister ofEducation stated that owing to the seriousness of the war situation there were considerabledelays in the receipt of question papers by the university college and answer scripts by theUniversity of London, leading to the delay in releasing examination results and causinghardships to the students. Further, the Minister pointed out that when students were preparedto sit London University examinations it led to adverse effects on secondary education inparticular and an alien orientation of the whole education system in general, and urged theCouncil to pass the Bill immediately [24].

During this period, the country was on a war footing and the Civil Administration had beenplaced under military control and the State Council had accepted a set of Emergency StandingOrders for quick dispatch of business. The Council was by this mechanism required almostovernight to enact the legislation needed to meet the situation referred to by the Minister. Itwas natural for the State Council to accept, with certain modifications designed to conform tothe changed political scene under the Donoughmore Constitution, the Bill which had beenaccepted by its predecessor in 1930. The University Bill was enacted and brought intooperation on 1 July 1942, by a proclamation dated 6 June 1942 [25]. The Ceylon UniversityOrdinance was subsequently amended on three occasions: by Ordinance No. 26 of 1943, ActNo. 36 of 1956 and Act No. 12 of 1961. The first two amendments referred to the pension

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status of transferred officers from government service. The last amendment introduced a majorchange and authorised the university to conduct external examinations to enable those whowere not able to enter the university due to shortage of accommodation, to obtain degrees,diplomas and other academic distinctions as external candidates of the university [26].

The Riddel Commission of 1929 had recommended that the University of Ceylon should bea unitary, residential and an autonomous institution. The Ordinance of 1942 sought to carryout this recommendation by the incorporation of the Ceylon University College and theCeylon Medical College as a unitary institution with the name and style of the University ofCeylon. The seat of the university was ultimately to be at Peradeniya and when the transferwas complete it was assumed that the university would be completely residential. Until suchtime as the buildings were ready at Peradeniya, it was decided to open the university inColombo and suspend the provisions relating to residence of students in the Ordinance [27].The original Peradeniya scheme envisaged a university of 1000 students and a university parkof 363 acres. But very soon the increased demand for university places necessitated thealteration of plans to accommodate 4000 students and the acquisition of 1700 acres.

It was not possible to keep to the original schedule of transfer of students and faculties,owing to delays in the building programme. By 1949, the departments of Law, Agriculture andVeterinary Science were transferred to Peradeniya, but the students of the faculties of Arts andOriental Studies did not go into residence until 1952 [28]. The original plans for a secondmedical school at Peradeniya were modified; it was decided, in consultation with thegovernment, to establish a medical school in three stages at a much lower cost. The first groupof students for the second M.B.B.S. course, numbering 105, was admitted in January 1962. Inview of the increasing number of students seeking admission to the Faculty of Science, as aresult of the improved educational facilities in the science stream provided by the CentralSchools programme launched in 1943, it was decided to retain the Faculty of Science inColombo and to start a second Faculty at Peradeniya. The first group of students for thesecond Faculty of Science was admitted in July 1961. The transfer of the Faculty ofEngineering was effected in 1964. Thus a long struggle for the establishment of a unitary,residential and an autonomous university was completed in 1964; 58 years after the launchingof the 'University Movement' in 1906 [29].

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNANCE

In 1942, the university was started with four major faculties (Arts, Oriental Studies, Scienceand Medicine) and had 17 departments of study. Engineering opened in 1950, Agriculture andVeterinary Science in 1953, by which date the university had expanded to 43 departments. Aproposal for a Faculty of Law in the 1942 plan was altered subsequently to a department ofLaw in the Faculty of Arts. In the first two decades of the university's existence, the medicalfaculty as in many universities throughout the world, was clearly the dominant faculty.Medicine showed nearly a three-fold increase in the number of new departments of study.Beginning with five departments in 1942, the number was increased to 14 by 1955. By contrast,the Arts and Oriental Studies faculties taken together had a two-fold increase from eightdepartments in 1942 to 17 by 1959 whereas the faculty of Science continued with the fivedepartments of study started in 1942. The faculties of Engineering and Agriculture andVeterinary Science had four and three departments respectively [30]. The number of full-timestudents of the university increased from 904 in 1942 to 10,423 by 1966. The increase innumbers had been more or less gradual up to 1957, by which year the figure was 2718. By1962, this figure had doubled to 5117 and in 1965 it had doubled again to 10,423 students [31].The main cause was increasing demand for university places from youths educated in theindigenous languages, specially in the arts subjects. Numbers in the Faculty of Arts hadincreased from 1096 in 1957 to 7108 by 1966. However, during this period, the numbers of

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academic staff had increased from only 55 in 1942 to a mere 334 by 1966 [32]. Although thesefigures do not include temporary academic staff and visiting lecturers, who were working on apart-time basis, it is clear that staff-student ratio were impossibly high in terms of provision ofeffective teaching-learning relationships. Frequent student unrest leading to student confronta-tions with the University and governmental authorities in the late 1960s and early 1970s couldbe attributed to over-crowding and impossibly high staff-student ratio in terms of effectiveteaching-learning relationships.

The autonomy of the university was secured by making it a body corporate with usualpowers to sue and be sued and to act under its common seal. The university was not formallycontrolled by the Minister, as in the case of the former University College and MedicalCollege. It had its own machinery of governance and financial control. However, it had todepend on an annual grant from Parliament as the students were entitled to receive freeeducation up to university level in keeping with declared government policy. The 'autonomouscorporation' known as the University of Ceylon was made up of the Chancellor, the Pro-Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor, the Court, the Council and the Senate. The GovernorGeneral was made the Chancellor with authority to preside at meetings of the Court andConvocation. The Minister of Education assumed the role of Pro-Chancellor with authority topreside at Court and Convocation whenever the Chancellor was absent. The Vice-Chancellorwas required to preside over the Council and Senate. The first Vice-Chancellor was to beappointed by the Chancellor at his discretion, whereas the subsequent Vice-Chancellors wereto be appointed by the Chancellor after being elected by the University Court. He was electedfrom among the members of the academic staff and was responsible for the implementation ofthe decisions of the Court, Council and Senate. The legislative authority and the financialcontrol were vested in the Court which was required to meet at least once a year. The Councilwas vested with the executive authority while the Senate was the academic authority of theuniversity. Even though provision was made for lay representation in the Court and theCouncil, the majority of the membership were from the academic staff. This led to theacademic domination of decision-making at all levels of the university. However, there was norepresentation for students and non-academic staff [33].

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF VIDYODAYA AND VIDYALANKARA UNIVERSITIESOF CEYLON

From long before the birth of the University Movement in 1906, the country's social andpolitical life was dominated by the English educated elite. By mid-1950s, however, there camea national emergence of forces dedicated to Sinhala Language, culture and Buddhism—thelanguage and religion of the majority community. Even though English education was thelicence to reach top positions in the society and to enter government service where one couldenjoy power and authority, that English education was beyond the reach of the children ofvast majority of the under-privileged masses. The Buddhist Commission Report and BuddhaJayanthi Celebrations (2500th year of the passing-away of Lord Buddha), scheduled to be heldin 1956, gave a further fillip to the re-awakening of the religious forces of the majoritycommunity. The twin causes referred to above and the frustration of the masses opposed to theEnglish-educated elite brought the downfall of the ruling party, limiting their representation toa mere eight seats in a Parliament of 101 members.

The Government of Mahajana Eksath Peramuna (M.E.P.) which was formed after 1956general elections was known as the People's Government. The Government, in its first year inoffice declared Sinhala as the official language of the country. A Ministry of Cultural Affairswas set up for the protection and promotion of Buddhism while affording necessary facilitiesto practise other religions. On 1 June 1956 (within one and half months after the formation ofthe new Government) a deputation from the Sinhala Basha Peramuna met the Minister of

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Education and urged him to take steps without delay to obtain university degrees in Sinhalamedium by the end of 1958 [34]. The Minister had consulted the Vice-Chancellor of theUniversity of Ceylon, who had advised that the most satisfactory way of giving effect to theproposal would be the establishment of a second university as it was impossible for theuniversity authorities to give an undertaking to switchover from English to Sinhala in such ashort time due to the non-availability of text books and other reading material as well asteaching staff. But the nation was asking for a quick change over to Sinhala.

The enthusiasm shown by a large section of the public was tremendous and the governmentfelt that there was no time to waste in view of the election pledges made by the new rulingparty. Therefore on 21 June, the Minister appointed a Committee, to advise him on the matter[35]. Subsequently, the same Committee was asked to report also on steps to be taken to conferuniversity status on one of the leading pirivenas [36] in the Island. The Committee submittedits report on 8 October 1956. In the meantime, it appears that the Minister had, at some stage,asked two leading pirivenas, Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara, each to prepare a draft for theconferment of university status on each of them and had suggested that they follow the modelof the University of Ceylon. On the basis of the drafts submitted by the two pirivenas, thegovernment decided to convert both pirivanas into universities with authority to establishfaculties of Aryurveda (traditional medicine), Philosophy and Languages.

In introducing the second reading of the Vidyodaya and Vidyankara Universities Bill in theHouse of Representatives in September 1958, the Minister of Education, W. Dahanayake, hadstated that the Bill was introduced in pursuance of an undertaking given on the eve of the 1956general elections by S.W.R.D. Bandaranarke, the leader of the M.E.P. Further, the Ministerhad stated that he regarded the pirivenas as the most valuable feature of Sri Lankaninheritance which had been kept suppressed, and that they should forthwith be given duerecognition. He had also indicated that he hoped the proposed legislation would achieve thefollowing objectives:

(i) giving Sinhala Language its due place in the scheme of higher education in the country;(ii) the training of teachers for the university entrance classes in Sinhala medium schools;

and(iii) the provision of additional facilities for higher education for the large number of

students who were seeking admission to the University of Ceylon but were beingturned away for want of accommodation [37].

The Bill which was passed by Parliament, was assented to on 19 December 1958, andbrought into operation on 1 January 1959. It is observed that, even though this Act ispopularly known as the Pirivena Universities Act, there is no reference in it to pirivenas or anyparticular pirivena. The only connection with the two pirivenas would appear to be theinclusion of the names Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara as the names of the new universities andthe presence in the Court and the Council of each of the universities, of members of theVidyadhara and Vidyalankara Sabhas [38] respectively. The major political significance,however, was that the Vice-Chancellors of these universities should be appointed from amongthe Buddhist clergy [39]. In keeping with their background as monasteries, these universitieswere open to males while females were allowed to graduate as external candidates. Bothinstitutions were granted authority to recognise other institutions especially other well devel-oped pirivenas in different parts of the country for the preparation of students for universityexaminations. Thus, the Government was able to reduce tension and satisfy public opinion bygranting university status to the two leading Buddhist educational institutions and providehigher education in Sinhala medum with the willing support of the pirivena authorities in theface of indifference shown by Ceylon University authorities.

The seat of the Vidyodaya University in the first three years was the premises of theVidyodaya Pirivena, at Maligakanda, Colombo but the expansion of the university necessi-

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tated the shifting of the university to a more spacious site at Gangodawila, eight miles awayfrom the city. By 1962, sufficient accommodation was made available for the university to moveen bloc to the Gangodawila site, under the Vice-Chancellorship of Rev. Welivitiye Soratha. In1966, there were four faculties: Buddhist Studies, Languages, Arts and Science with three, four,eight and four departments of study respectively. The most popular courses were Sinhala,Economics, Business and Public Administration. The student numbers which stood at 578 in1959/60 rose to 2036 by 1966/67. Vidyalankara University of Ceylon, too, was initiallyestablished at the premises occupied by the Vidyalankara pirivena at Peliyagoda, Kelaniya. Butarrangements were made to shift the university to a more spacious site at Dalugama, once thebuilding operations were completed. By 1966, Vidyalankara University had four faculties:Buddhist Studies, Languages, Arts and Science with three, four and five departments respec-tively. Both universities had a Department of Bio-Science in place of Botany and Zoology. Aspecial feature of Vidyalankara was the addition of a Department of Industrial Management tothe Faculty of Science. The student numbers which stood at 434 in 1959/60, rose to 1995 by1966/67. Both universities were opened to women students in 1966 [40].

THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION (NCHE) AND MINISTERIALCONTROL OF UNIVERSITIES

The enactment of the Higher Education Act of 1966 marked an important stage in thedevelopment of higher education. Since independence in 1948, successive governments hadgiven much of their attention to primary and secondary education, while higher education hadbeen left to develop on its own. This is clear from the fact that even when (in 1956) theGovernment noticed the attitude of non-cooperation by the Ceylon University authorities,instead of restructuring the university system the Government bestowed university status ontwo leading Buddhist educational institutions on the basis of the Ceylon University Constitu-tion of 1942 for the purpose of providing higher educational facilities in the official language.The type of autonomy enjoyed by the University of Ceylon was such that the universityauthorities were in a position to ignore government views on policy matters or adapt delayingtactics. This state of affairs prevailed for nearly two decades, in spite of the fact that publiccriticism of the then university administration was mounting and several Royal Commissionsand Committees of Inquiry had reported in favour of the re-structuring of the universityadministration in such a way to make it more amenable to national policy [41]. However, theHigher Education Act came as a big blow to university autonomy and many academicsresisted government control of the universities and concentration of powers in the hands of theMinister of Education and in the proposed National Council of Higher Education (NCHE).Yet, in view of student strikes leading to a break-down of the law and order situation in almostall universities, the Government was determined to implement the provisions of the Act. Interms of the Act, the NCHE was constituted, with non-university personnel charged with thefollowing powers and functions:

(a) the appointment and control of expenditure on higher education;(b) the maintenance of academic standards in higher educational institutes;(c) the administration of such institutes;(d) the co-ordination of higher education with the needs of the nation for social, cultural

and economic development; and(e) any other such matters as the Minister may refer to the Council for its advice [42].In terms of section 96 of the Act, the Ceylon University Ordinance and the Vidyodaya and

Vidyalankara Universities Act were repealed with effect from 30 Septemeber 1966. However,the Statutes, Acts and Regulations passed under those enactments were validated undertransitional provisions, until such times as the NCHE was in a position to make its own

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statutes, rules and regulations. On 1 October the Governor General and the Minister ofEducation assumed the roles of Chancellor and Pro-Chancellor ex-officio. The Board ofRegents, the Administrative authority of a transferred university, consisted of the Vice-Chancellor and 11 other members appointed by the NCHE and the Deans of faculties. Thelatter group were not entitled to vote. Thus, the new legislation effectively removed thedominant authority enjoyed by the academics, as the NCHE and the Boards of Regentsconsisted largely of lay members. In addition, the authority of the Vice-Chancellors and theDeans was restricted by taking away the right to vote at NCHE and the Boards of Regentsrespectively. Furthermore, Section 42, envisaged the appointment of the Vice-Chancellor froma panel of three names submitted to the Minister of Education by the NCHE. Under thisprovision, the Minister did not hesitate to appoint non-academics as Vice-Chancellors, therebyeffecting a shift to total external non-academic control of universities [43]. On a recommenda-tion made by the NCHE in early 1967, the Colombo section of the University of Ceylon wasconstituted as a separate university with the name and style of University of Ceylon, Colomboto be operative from 1 October the same year. The establishment of Junior University Collegesfor the purpose of providing two year terminal courses as well as preparatory courses to equipthe students for university admission too were envisaged [44].

The Minister did not hesitate to use his newly gained authority to the chagrin of theacademics by appointing two retired Civil Servants to the Vice-Chancellorships at theUniversity of Ceylon and University of Ceylon, Colombo while a Sorbonne academic and aPeradeniya academic were appointed to Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara Universities respec-tively. The Registrars of Universities were replaced with officers from the Ministry ofEducation redesignated as Secretaries. The university admissions hitherto done by the indivi-dual universities were taken over by a Central Agency for University Admissions set up underthe NCHE. Schemes of recruitment for both academic and non-academic staff and theprocedure for appointments were laid down by the NCHE. The regulation of departments ofstudy, determination of fees to be charged (if any) for courses, examinations and theconditions for the award of bursaries and scholarships too were vested in the NCHE.Furthermore, the NCHE was required to examine the qualifications of the members of theacademic staff of the universities to see whether they possessed the required qualifications andif not to discontinue them. Several academics were discontinued by the application of thecriterion [45]. Thus the government effectively removed the academic domination in universityadministration and university autonomy. This made the academics and students militant.Student unrest with the indirect support of the academics led to several student strikes incampuses, leading to confrontations with the university and government authorities. Theacademic and student communities were so outraged by the Minister of Education that theypetitioned the Prime Minister direct, and the Prime Minister had to intervene and bring aboutsettlements in certain areas of university administration. At the 1970 general elections theacademics and students were determined to defeat the Minister. They succeeded in doing so bya house-to-house campaign against his policies which went with the general trend against theGovernment.

In the meantime Colombo University emerged as a metropolitan university in the midst ofstudent strikes with regard to the nomenclature of the university and lack of facilities. Theuniversity originally called 'University of Colombo' was subsequently named as the 'Univer-sity of Ceylon, Colombo', with provision for students who were admitted to the Colombosection of the University of Ceylon to receive Ceylon University degrees on the basis ofexaminations passed in Colombo [46]. On 1 October 1967, the university was inaugurated withthe faculties of Law, Medicine, Arts and Natural Sciences. NCHE appointed ProfessorThistlethwaite, Vice-Chancellor of the University of East Anglia, to advise on the developmentof the university. Professor Thistlethwaite recommended that the university should capitaliseon its position as the university in the heart of the country's metropolis. It should draw

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strength and contribute to the characteristic activities of the capital city [47]. On the basis ofthe Thistlethwaite plan the Faculty of Arts was split into Faculties of Social Sciences andHumanities in 1969. At the commencement of the university, the student numbers stood at4960.

THE SINGLE UNIVERSITY CONCEPT AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THEUNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA

The United Front which came into power at the general elections held in May 1970 had,during the election campaign, given a definite pledge to effect drastic changes and reforms inthe sphere of higher education. In keeping with this undertaking, the Minister of Educationappointed Committees of Inquiry in order to determine the shortcomings in each of the fouruniversities then in existence. Subsequently, another Committee headed by Osmand Jayaratnewas appointed to report on the reorganisation of the higher education system as a whole. TheJayaratne Committee recommended the establishment of a single university in keeping withthe situation then prevailing in the country [48], even though the Committee felt that the idealwould be to have several universities, each having the freedom to develop and expandaccording to the needs of the area in which the particular university was located [49]. Thus, theUniversity of Sri Lanka Bill sought to implement some of the recommendations made by theCommittee. On 4 January 1972, Badiuddin Mahmud, the Minister of Education, in movingthe second reading of the Bill stated that the highlight of the Bill was the concept of a singleuniversity for the whole country [50]. In terms of the provisions of the Act, the existing fouruniversities were to be converted into constituent campuses of the University of Sri Lanka andwere named as Peradeniya, Vidyodaya, Vidyalankara and Colombo campuses. The College ofHigher Technology at Katubedda was raised to the status of a fifth university campus. A sixth,Jaffna campus, was added in 1974.

The structure of governance envisaged in the new Act was a major deviation from that ofthe Higher Education Act of 1966. The new Act repealed the old Act and did away with theNCHE. The university was to have a board of Governors as the Chief Executive authority,consisting of the Vice-Chancellor, the Campus Presidents, government officials of the relevantministries, parliamentarians, persons of eminence appointed by the Chancellor, representativesof both academic and non-academic staff and students, thus democratising the system ofgovernance in the university. At campus level provision was made for a Campus Boardconsisting of campus officials and representatives of students, and both academic and non-academic staff. The Faculty Councils had similar representation, while the Academic Commit-tee of the faculty and Departmental Committee consisted of all permanent academic staff notbelow the rank of assistant lecturer and some representatives of students and temporaryacademic staff [51]. Furthermore, the democratic principle was reinforced by the provisions forthe election of the Heads of Departments from among the senior lecturers and above, Deansfrom among the Heads of Departments, the President of a Campus from among the Deansand the Vice-Chancellor from among the Campus Presidents. Thus, the new Act removed theexternal non-academic control and restored the academic domination of the universities. Onthe other hand, the traditional concept of a professor assuming the Headship was replacedwith the election principle enabling more junior members of the staff to participate in theadministration of the university.

However, provision was made for a transition period of two years, with the possibility ofextending the period annually at the discretion of the Minister, subject to Parliamentaryapproval. The first Vice-Chancellor, Campus Presidents, Registrar and Treasurer were to beappointed by the Minister in terms of the transitional provisions. The Deans and Heads ofDepartments were to be appointed by the Vice-Chancellor and Campus Presidents on therecommendations of the Presidents and Deans respectively. During the transitional period, the

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power and authority of the Board of Governors and the Senate was vested in the Vice-Chancellor with provision for delegation of authority [52]. In addition to the Campuses,several institutes such as Post-graduate Medicine, Post-graduate Agriculture, Aesthetic studies,Workers' Education, Buddhist studies and External Examinations Agency were established asintegral parts of the University of Sri Lanka. Thus, on 15 February 1972, the University of SriLanka was inaugurated under the transitional provisions with a set of academics appointed bythe Minister to the posts of the Vice-Chancellor and the Campus Presidents. In the first yearthe rationalisation of faculties, departments of study, and courses were implemented onministerial direction. The faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences at Colombo Campuswere amalgamated into a Faculty of Arts. The faculties of Buddhist studies, Languages andArts at Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara were amalgamated to form one faculty of Arts in eachcampus. A faculty of Economics, Business and Public Administration was created at Vidyo-daya. In the process many inter-campus transfers of both academic and non-academic staff aswell as students were effected. The rationalisation programme and inter-campus transfers ledto tension and strife within the university community on a larger scale than ever before. Agood number of departments were scrapped along with the faculties, and staff were transferredto other campuses, causing much inconvenience. Several strikes were launched by the studentswhich the authorities answered with lockouts and an extension of the transitional period inorder to impose government decisions through appointed officials [53].

Thus, by the end of 1978, the university of Sri Lanka was a large and complex organisationwith six campuses, several institutes and an External Examinations Agency, yet facing acontinuing threat of fragmentation into several independent universities in keeping with anelection pledge given by the United National Party Government [54]. However, the so-calledperiod of transition never ended, and the university was experiencing its seventh year of'transition' under the firm hand of the Vice-Chancellor assisted by some of the statutory bodiesconvened in an advisory capacity. The Senate stipulated under Section 15 of the Act, as theChief Academic Authority was not even constituted until the end of 1978. The Vice-Chancellor, the Campus Presidents and even the Registrar resigned their offices at the end ofthe statutory transition period of two years; but the government was not willing to end thetransition, leaving room for the restoration of the university autonomy and the electionprinciple. This resulted in the extension of transition and the appointment of successive Vice-Chancellors, Campus Presidents, Registrar and Treasurer by the Minister of Education [55]. Inthis context, it could be said that the so-called democratic structure proposed in the Actbecame an autocratic structure, with a formal hierarchy of authority consequent upon theappointment of the Vice-Chancellor and others as against the election principle and theCommittee structure embodied in the Act.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC) ANDTHE RETURN TO A MULTI-UNIVERSITY STRUCTURE

The university reforms embodied in the Universities Act of 1978 could be described as a returnto the multi-university structure of the 1960s and to the system of governance embodied in theCeylon University Ordinance of 1942 with certain modifications. The Act which came intooperation on 1 January 1979 repealed the 1972 Act and reconstituted the campuses of theUniversity of Sri Lanka as independent universities. Thus, Peradeniya, Colombo, Vidyodaya,Vidyalankara, Katubedda and Jaffna campuses came to be known as Peradeniya, Colombo,Sri Jayewardenepura, Kelaniya, Maratuwa and Jaffna Universities [56]. Certain other specialfeatures in the new legislation were the provision for the establishment of a University GrantsCommission (UGC) with substantial authority on the basis of the former NCHE under theHigher Education Act of 1966, University Colleges, Campuses, Institutes, an Open Universityand an Appeals Board for university employees. The UGC as envisaged in the new Act is a

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buffer between the universities and the Government, and has much greater powers andresponsibilities than that of a traditional UGC. The Commission is charged with theresponsibility of the planning and co-ordination of university education, apportioning offunds, control of expenditure, maintenance of academic standards and regulation of theadministration and admissions of all higher educational institutions [57]. In terms of theprovisions of the Act, the Ruhuma University College and Balticaloa University College wereestablished in 1979 and 1981, while Dumburra Campus affiliated to Peradeniya University toowas opened in 1979. The integrated Institutes of the former University of Sri Lanka werereconstituted as Institutes affiliated to some of the universities on the basis of relevance andproximity [58]. The opening of the Open University of Sri Lanka in July 1980 created wideropportunities for Sri Lankans who missed or missing opportunities to receive higher educationdue to various factors including limited number of places in traditional universities.

The new Act reverted to the system of governance envisaged and practised under the CeylonUniversity Ordinance of 1942 with a Court, Council and a Senate. But care has been taken toensure a lay majority in order to reduce the much criticised academic domination whichexisted in the university of Ceylon Court and Council prior to 1966. However, provi-sion was made to have elected representatives of the students and non-academic staff in thecourt while the representatives of the academics could sit both in the Court and Council.Provision for the election of a student assembly too has been made. Other than the first Vice-Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellors and Deans have to be elected. The Heads of Departmentsare to be appointed by the Council on being nominated by the Vice-Chancellor. TheUniversity Services Appeals Board is a quasi-judicial body independent of the UGC anduniversities.

A critical analysis of the official records shows that although there have been a series oflegislative enactments and much direct intervention by governments in the affairs of theuniversities in Sri Lanka, during the four decades after the establishment of the University ofCeylon in 1942, the same governments showed much concern and dissatisfaction with regardto the outcome of their reforms. One could see that the governments' perception of universityproblems seemed restrictive and at times different from what the real problems were.Commission after commission had been appointed to diagnose university problems andrecommend remedial measures and at times they were successful in highlighting some realissues. At times, the governments had resorted to the appointment of Commissions of Inquiry,perhaps to give an opportunity to the aggrieved parties to moderate their heat and shelve theissues, rather than with the genuine intention of facing up to the issues and implementingthose recommendations likely to resolve them. On several instances, such recommendationshad been ignored in favour of what at first sight would have appeared as easy solutions. In1966, as well as in 1972, the governments had the benefit of several reports submitted bycommissions and committees of inquiry, on a problem-solving basis [59]. Yet the governments'responses were to ignore those and revert to changing the system of governance in such a wayas to enable them to have stricter control of the universities.

The system of free education has brought the children of rural areas into the centre of theeducational system. It is no longer possible to think of university education as being confinedto the children of western-educated elite, with only a system of scholarships to safeguard theoutstanding students of the rural schools. However, the number of university places haveincreased only by 1300 since 1966, even though the number of universities and colleges hasincreased from three to eight by 1982. The limited nature of facilities could be seen from thefact that in 1982 alone 578,000 [60] advanced-level students were expected to compete for 5000university places. On the other hand, the colonial system of education which was introduced to

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produce white-collar workers in 1921 had hardly changed in keeping with the new require-ments.

The limited number of university places, the lack of adequate facilities and the problem ofgraduate unemployment as well as underemployment are some of the real issues in highereducation in Sri Lanka. While there are thousands of Arts graduates who are unemployed,thousands of vacancies exist in scientific, technological, medical and developmental institu-tions [61]. This shows that, even though the governments were bent on imposing their will inthe name of national interest, they never bothered to indicate in specific terms what theymeant by national interest by defining national needs. The inadequacy of minimum facilitiesin universities and the insecurity of their future leads to student unrest; but the governmentsblame the opposition and move to control the student movement rather than attacking the rootcause of the problem. It is true that no government would be able to provide white-collar jobsfor all the educated youth in the country. Hence the needs of the economy should be properlyassessed in a way which would enable the government to restructure the secondary and highereducation system as a whole. As it is, when individuals fail to obtain employment after 10years of schooling, they feel they would be able to do so with 12 years of schooling; and failingthat, too, their expectations rise to obtain a degree. But owing to the problem of graduateunemployment the heavy investment in their education becomes a waste as far as the economyis concerned.

A modern university must be a seat of higher learning and research in an active and creativesense. A university must have aims both immediate and ultimate, have obligations in thepresent and for the future. It must periodically take stock of the context of its existence, adjustand reshape its policies; it must accommodate new sources of inspiration without sacrificingessential ideals of university education. The character of university education developed in adependent country may have to change its direction and emphasis, if it is to become a vitalforce and be a partner in contributing to the achievements of the nation's objectives. If thecadres necessary for the country's development in numerous fields are to build up, universityeducation has to provide the individual with much more than certificates or examinationsuccess. A review of the national wage structure, with more incentives to seek jobs other thanwhite-collar jobs and narrowing the gap between occupational levels, would lead to a changeof attitudes of the society and facilitate the restructuring of the educational system. Then thetypes of research, courses of study, methods of teaching and examining, the kinds of trainingand interests imparted to undergraduates and graduates must be re-examined and wherenecessary refashioned and remodelled in accordance with a more realistic role for highereducation in a developing economy.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[1] The coastal belt of Sri Lanka came under Portuguese rule in 1505 and was transferred to Dutch rule in 1657. In1802, these areas were captured by the British; in 1815, with the fall of Kandyan Kingdom, the whole countrycame under British rule.

[2] Statistics released by the Department of Examinations reveals that 128,124 students sat the G.C.E. A LevelExamination in August 1982 and 450,000 were expected to sit the December 1982 Examination. This shows thatonly 0-8% of these would gain admission to universities.

[3] Statistics released by the Department of Census and Statistics after the 1981 Census.[4] St Thomas' College, Mt Lavinia (1851) and Trinity College, Kandy (1857), were founded by the Anglican

missionaries, Jaffna Central (1870) and St John's, Panadura (1891), by the Church Missionary Society; JaffnaCollege (1872) by the American Mission; Wesley College (1974) by the Methodists. St Joseph's College,Colombo (1892), was the centre of higher learning for Roman Catholics while Ananda College (1895) wasfunded for Buddhists. There were several Hindu Colleges in Jaffna.

[5] MALALASEKARA, G. P. (1969) Beginnings of university education, in: MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, Education inCeylon: A centenary volume, Part III, p. 867 (Colombo, Government Press).

[6] SIRISENA, R. D. (1969) Examinations, in: MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, Education in Ceylon: A centenary volume,Part III, p. 1026 (Colombo, Government Press).

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[7] MALALASEKARA, G. P. (1969) op. cit., p. 868.[8] idem.[9] University of Ceylon Calendar for Sessions 1963/64 and 1964/65, (1965) p. 34 (Colombo, University Press).

[10] PEIRIS, R. (1964) Universities, politics and public opinion in Ceylon, Minerva, Summer, pp. 444 445.[11] PEIRIS, R. (1964) op. cit., p. 443[12] These views were expressed in articles of the League's Journal, The Ceylon National Review, in its first issue of

January 1906.[13] MALALASEKARA, G. P. (1969) op. cit., p. 870.[14] Dispatches relating to the Establishment of a university college in Ceylon. Sessional paper XVI of 1915.[15] University of Ceylon, op. cit., p. 35.[16] Jennings, Sir W. Ivor, (1951) The foundations of the University of Ceylon, University of Ceylon Review, IX, pp.

156-162.[17] MALALASEKARA, G. P., op. cit., pp. 872-873.[18] JENNINGS, Sir W. IVOR, op. cit., pp. 226-228.[19] Ibid., p. 228.[20] Ceylon Government Sessional Paper, IV of 1929.[21] George E. de Silva was a prominent politician who represented Kandy in the State Council.[22] Jennings, Sir W. Ivor, op. cit., p. 249.[23] University of Ceylon, op. cit., p. 38.[24] State Council Debates (Hansard), Vol. 1, 1942, p. 453.[25] The Bill was enacted as the Ceylon University Ordinance No. 20 of 1942.[26] University of Ceylon, op. cit., p. 95.[27] Ibid., p. 97.[28] Ibid, p. 39.[29] idem.[30] Malalasekara, G. P., op. cit., pp. 877-878.[31] National Council of Higher Education, Report of the NCHE 1966/67, Colombo, Government Press, 1968 and

University of Ceylon Calendar.[32] idem.[33] The Ceylon University Ordinance No. 20 of 1942.[34] Ceylon Government Sessional Papers XVI of 1962: Report of the Universities Commission 1962, Colombo,

1963, p. 15.[35] idem.[36] The Pirivena, as an institution of learning, primarily meant for Buddhist clergy, is a well established feature of

Sri Lanka from ancient times to the present day. However laymen too are admitted to these monastery schools.[37] Ceylon Government Sessional Papers XVI of 1962, op. cit., p. 14.[38] Sabhas were the Councils of Management consisting of Buddhist clergy and laymen responsible for the upkeep

and development of Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara Pirivenas.[39] Section 11 of the Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara Universities Act No. 45 of 1958.[40] National Council of Higher Education, op. cit.[41] Needham Commission Report of 1959 and Gunawardena Commission Report of 1963 recommended structural

changes to the administration of universities.[42] Section 8 of the Higher Education Act No. 20 of 1966.[43] The Minister appointed three retired civil servants (Walpita, De Silva and Perera) as the Vice-Chancellors'

Competent Authority of the Universities of Ceylon, Colombo and Vidyalankara, while a Buddhist priest (Rev.Rahula) who was teaching at the Sorbonne was appointed to Vidyodaya.

[44] Part XVI of the Higher Education Act No. 20 of 1966.[45] National Council of Higher Education, op. cit.[46] Ceylon Government Sessional Papers VIII of 1968 (Amarasinghe Committee) pp. 28-30.[47] Ceylon Government Sessional Paper XXVI of 1967 (Thistlethwaite Committee), p. 4.[48] This refers to the situation which was prevailing in the country after the 1971 insurrection leading to the deaths

of thousands of youths.[49] The Report of the Committee appointed by the Minister of Education to report on the Reorganisation of Higher

Education, Colombo, NCHE, 1971, p. 9.[50] Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) House of Representatives, 04.01.72, Colombo.[51] Sections 11, 19, 22, 24 and 26 of the University of Ceylon Act, No. 1 of 1972.[52] Section 85 of the University of Ceylon Act.[53] There were several strikes on matters pertaining to particular campuses as well as on general matters requiring

government intervention and appointment of several Committees of Inquiry.[54] United National Party-Election Manifesto, 1970, Colombo.[55] During the period of transition from 1972-78, the Minister had to appoint three Vice-Chancellors, four

Registrars and two Treasurers in succession to fill the vacancies caused by resignations. But each one had to

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exercise authority as the First Vice-Chancellor, First Registrar and First Treasurer in keeping with the provisionsof the Act.

[56] Universities were named after the places where they are located except in the case of Vidyodaya which wasgiven the name of the new capital.

[57] Parts I and II of the Universities Act No. 16 of 1978.[58] This was done by the publication of Ordinances passed by the University Grants Committee.[59] In 1966, there were the Needham Commission Report of 1959, the Gunawardena Commission Report of 1963

and Wijesekara Commission Report of 1966 while in 1972, there were the Thistlethwaite Committee Report of1967, the Amarasinghe Committee Report of 1968, the Jayasuriya Commission Report of 1968 and the reportsof the four Committees of Inquiry appointed by the Minister of Education in May 1970 to report on the affairsand shortcomings of Universities of Ceylon, Colombo, Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara.

[60] Students sitting the General Certificate of Education (A Level) Examination in August and December 1982(Vide Sri Lanka News of 29 July 1982 and 15 October 1982).

[61] Sri Lanka News of 14 October 1982.

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Documents

The Struggle for Control of Higher Education in a Developing Economy: Sri Lanka