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the third year. The cholera, invasions of Europe since1866 have been mostly t,he fag ends of epidemics withno great vitality or inherent force of pushing on into newlocalities. Of this character probably was the cholera ofEgypt of 1883 and of Spain in 1885-6. Of the enormousforce and vigour of the present epidemic, the circumstancesfor its propagation being favourable, we may judge fromwhat has occurred at Hamburg, where, out of a population of600,000, the deaths from the middle of August up to datehave been between 9000 and 10,000. The diffusion of cholerain Russia appears to have been very general from the capitalon the Baltic to the Siberian coast and from the Caucasiandistricts to the extreme habitable north. With an epidemicso widely diffused it may be asked, Is it not possible that thegerm or contagium may be exhausted in a single season, andthat there may be no recrudescence in 1893 7 One would liketo believe in such a possibility, but such belief would be indirect variance to the recorded history of previous epidemicsof invasion which have not so quickly exhausted themselves.We are still very ignorant of the intimate nature of thecholera poison, but successive waves of epidemic invasionhave taught us this much, that while no two epidemics areprecisely alike in all points, yet in their main features there isvery little difference between one epidemic and another. Ascholera makes itself evident to us in one epidemic, so it will doin the next and the next, andfrom this peculiarity of the diseaseit is quite safe to anticipate that cholera invading a localityin any one year after a long period of absence will not abso-lutely leave that locality in the season of its invasion, butwill remain to be revitalised, increasing or decreasing inaccordance with surrounding conditions ; so that those wholook forward to seeing Europe clear of cholera in 1892 basetheir anticipations on some hazy notions in their own minds,and not on historical data. To have a clear perception ofthis feature of cholera is all important to sanitary officials.It teaches them that vigilance and precautions cannot besafely relaxed on the temporary cessation of local out-

breaks, and that the measures necessary for the pro- ’,tection of the public health will have to be persevered insteadily while there is the possibility of an epidemic revival. IThe probability of keeping cholera out of this country andAmerica is a question that comes home to all of us, and sofar the first attack of the enemy in both countries has been,thanks to the splendid service of the port sanitary authorities,repulsed. The great danger I apprehend may occur on therelaxation of the precautionary measures and when theseasonal revival begins abroad. Now if there is one factbetter established than another it is that the dejecta of acase of painless diarrhoea introduced into a new locality maybe the means of a subsequent outbreak of cholera in suchlocality. In epidemic seasons like the present sanitaryauthorities cannot afford to give heed to names which tendto minimise danger. Such names ought not to be used inomciat reports of cholera. Their use is due chiefly to im-perfect diagnosis and to the idea that every fatal issue ofcholera must necessarily be preceded by collapse, crampsand suppression of urine, whereas a very considerablenumber of persons actually affected by the cholera virusnever reach these stages of the disease, though the dis-charges from their bodies may, under certain conditions, be justas infective as those of the more advanced cases. It is in

regard to the very insidious approach of cholera through theform of what may be thought a simple derangement of thebowels that communities in this country are most liable tobecome infected. We want and must continue to urge asanitary stock-taking of the country, not by local officialsaccording to their own notions of sanitary provision, but byan independent staff accustomed to such work. That avery large number of sanitary areas will pass such anordeal with flying colours I make no doubt, but that astill larger proportion will be found defaulting in one

or more particulars as regards the public safety is also,I think, very probable. At the present juncture we donot want to wait for the appearance of cholera, to holdinvestigation, but to determine by careful survey whetherlocal areas are safe or unsafe as regards their sanitaryarrangements. The sanitary survey of which I speakought most certainly to include an account of our riversand streams. The way in which our water sources havebeen treated is a standing disgrace to the country. Num-berless commissions and committees have reported on the pol-lution of rivers, but practically nothing is done to remedy theevils resulting from manufacturers turning their waste pro-ducts into running streams and the use of such streams assewage receptacles. Clean, wholesome water is as much

a necessity of human life as clean, pure air, and the defilersof both have much to answer for in regard to preventablesickness and premature death. In the preventive medicalservice of your country you will find ample scope for allyour best energies. You deal with human life in the aggre-gate, and whatever you may be able to effect, in the way ofattaining higher standards of cleanliness, in air, food andwater, will be for the benefit of thousands, instead of theunits who fall into the hands of the practising physician.You will lose no opportunity of advancing your knowledgeor of applying the daily advance of science to the perfectingof your methods ; and if ever the glorious time is to comewhen men and women shall die of old age, just as ripefruit falls, and enjoy long and healthy days, you willhave the satisfaction of knowing that sanitary science,which has already appreciably added to the longevity ofhuman life, and to which you give your loving duty andservice, has been the chief factor. "

THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE.

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR MCFADYEAN.

THE lecture was devoted to a review of the growth ofveterinary pathology during the past twenty years. Thelecturer said that there was no exaggeration in the state-ment that within the period specified veterinary science hadmade a greater advance than it did during the precedingeighty years. Every branch of veterinary knowledge hadshared in this advance, but in none had the progress been sorapid as in the domain of pathology. Pathological researchhad discovered new diseases, had revolutionised the viewsformerly held regarding many others, and was pointing theway to methods of cure and prevention that were scarcelydreamt of two decades ago. Taking as an illustration tuber-culosis, it was pointed out that twenty years ago this diseasewas generally ascribed to some mysterious quality of thetissues in certain breeds and individuals, in consequence ofwhich almost any irritant, such as would in other individualsexcite merely a transitory inflammation, might serve to lightup a degenerative or destructive process capable of spreadingthroughout the whole body. It was not then generallyadmitted by veterinary surgeons-in this country, at any rate-that it was contagious or infectious, but they believed thatthe disease might be generated in various ways, such as byclose breeding, exposure or improper feeding. At the presentday, on the other hand, they had no need to speculate regard-ing the cause of tuberculosis. It had been proved beyondthe possibility of doubt that tuberculosis was caused bythe introduction into the system of a vegetable parasiteor germ, and the disease had now to be classed with the con.tagious maladies. They knew further that tuberculosis wasidentical with the disease termed "consumption in the humansubject, and they had to reckon with the possibility of the,disease being transmitted from the ’ one species to theother. Anthrax afforded another illustration of therevolution which had been effected regarding the cause ofimportant diseases. In text-books published less than twentyyears ago anthrax was vaguely described as a disease inwhich there was a sudden change in the physical charactersand physiological properties of the blood. It was believedthat it originated spontaneously, and that geographicalclimatic and dietetic conditions played an important rdle inits production. Furthermore, it was regarded as a diseasethat assumed many forms, the two best known in cattle being.splenic fever and black leg. Every one of these notions hashad to be discarded. Anthrax was now known to be, liketuberculosis, a disease that owned but one cause-viz., theentrance into the body of a vegetable organism-the anthraxbacillus. The so-called black leg, formerly regarded as aform of anthrax, was now known to be a perfectly distinctdisease, caused by another bacillus, which,, broadly speaking,was as different from the germ of anthrax as a sheep was froma goat. Glanders, again, was a disease regarding whosecause they had acquired positive assurance only within the lastfew years. It, too, was formerly regarded as a disease that had:various causes, and that sometimes originated spontaneously,.but it was now known that every case of glanders was due.to infection with a germ derived from some antecedent caseof the disease. But perhaps the disease regarding whosenature and cause the most complete revolution of opinion hadbeen effected within the past few years was tetanus or lock-jaw-a disease which, from the suffering that it caused and itsalmost invariably fatal termination, ranked as one of the mostterrible maladies of man and the lower animals. In books

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published twenty years ago there could not be found thebarest suggestion that this disease might be due to a germ,- and yet it was well known to-day that the locking of the jawfrom which the disease derived its popular name was due to’the action of a deadly poison elaborated in the wound by abacillus. After referring briefly to actinomycosis, stranglesand other diseases the causal microbes of which had recentlybeen discovered, the lecturer proceeded to notice how much’knowledge had been gained regarding the means of curingand preventing diseases by a minute study of their pathology.It was a truism that the discovery of the cause of a diseasewas the first step towards the discovery of the means of cureor prevention. It had, perhaps, to be confessed that the

discovery of remedies has yet lagged a long way behind thediscovery of causes; but still, magnificent results had alreadybeen achieved in the case of some diseases. As an example,the Pasteurian method of protecting animals againstanthrax by means of attenuated cultures of the anthraxbacillus was cited-a method which, it was stated, had duringthe last ten years saved many thousands of pounds annuallyto the stock-owners in France. Similar methods had, withmore or less success, been applied to combat several otherdiseases. At the present time they appeared to be on thethreshold of still greater discoveries regarding the means ofcombating diseases that had hitherto defied every therapeuticeffort. It had recently been shown that it was possible toprotect even horses against tetanus by the use of what wastermed a "chemical vaccin, " and the blood serum of animalsthus protected was found to be capable of conferring im-munity when injected into other animals. What was stillmore remarkable, and pregnant with promise of the mostbeneficent results to both man and the lower animals, it hadbeen discovered that the blood serum of horses thus artificiallyrendered immune against tetanus was actually curative wheninjected into animals affected with tetanus. But even inthose cases where the discovery of the cause of the diseasehad not yet been followed by the discovery of anything of thenature of a protective or curative vaccin, " the positionto-day was infinitely better than before. Take, for example,the case of tuberculosis. There was unfortunately no knowncure or preventive for that disease, but the discovery of Koch’s’oacillus and the study of its life-history had given clearnotions regarding the manner in which the disease was spread,and pointed the way to confine its ravages, and possibly evento stamp it out. In the concluding part of the address’Professor McFadyean discussed the place that the study ofpathology ought to occupy in the education of the veterinarystudent. He said that it was time that they gave up thenotion that every veterinary surgeon who "knew a horseand could diagnose lameness was a "good practical man."The veterinarian who wished to deserve that name could notafford to be ignorant regarding pathology or bacteriology.At the present day a veterinary surgeon might easily bringdiscredit on himself and even endanger human life througherrors in diagnosis from which a little bacteriological know-ledge might have kept him free. It would be folly to expectevery veterinary graduate to be able to carry out a difficultpiece of pathological research ; but although it was not ex-pected that a veterinary practitioner should be able to carryout a chemical analysis in a case of poisoning, the study ofchemistry was considered a most essential part of the

veterinary curriculum. And so it ought to be with patho-logy, which deserved to be taught, theoretically and prac-tically, to as full an extent as chemistry or any other branchof knowledge included in the professional education. At thepresent time this was not possible, for the simple reason that thethree years of study prescribed did not admit of justice beingdone to the teaching of pathology without curtailing the timethat had to be devoted to other subjects. The present wasthe last session during which a student could enter under thethree years system. After that the veterinary curriculumwould extend to four years, and every teacher ought to hailwith satisfaction the near advent of the new arrangement,under which it would be possible to give a course of instruc-tion in keeping with the times and adequate to the require-ments of modern practice. Allusion was also made to theioundation of the chair of Comparative Pathology in theRoyal Veterinary College by the Royal Agricultural Society.The lecturer said that this step could not fail to give a muchneeded stimulus to the study of veterinary pathology in GreatBritain-a study which could not fail to bring knowledge ofgreat value in their struggle with animal diseases, and whichmight also throw light on the cause and treatment of humanmaladies.

OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER.INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS BY DR. BBOADBENT.

THE lecturer took as the subject of his address the Intel-lectual Interest of the Study and Practice of Medicine.Prefacing his remarks by an appreciative reference to the lateProfessors Morgan and Ross, he gave a rapid summary of hisreminiscences of Manchester medical schools, and thenentered on the main question he set himself to discuss.

"What," he said, "are the conditions of happiness in aman’s life, and how far are these satisfied by a medicalcareer 7 The first is satisfaction of the ordinary wants-theenjoyment of the simpler comforts and freedom from care forthe future of himself and his family. Unfortunately, I can-not say that the medical profession affords all of us sucha livelihood as to assure us from pecuniary anxiety andthe means of providing for a family ; but I can say thatthe general level of comfort and security among medical menis high and the proportion of wrecks and failures low.What is it which, to those who are mentally and morallyfitted for it and who enter it from genuine inclination, makesthe medical profession the happiest career a man can choose ? 7For such it really is. To this I answer, first and foremostthe opportunity for free and continuous exercise of the intel-lectual faculties. With the elevation of the race have beendeveloped intellectual appetites. There is a hunger andthirst after knowledge and a passionate desire for achieve-ment, and the pleasure and satisfaction attending the attain-ment and employment of knowledge are as much higher andmore durable than the gratification of the senses as mind ishigher than body-as intellectual operations are superior tosensation. All the sciences are laid under contributionby medicine. As you master the principles of chemicalstructure and affinity, as you come to understand therelation between chemical action and the absorption or

evolution of energy, thermal, electrical, and nervous,

your ideas are enlarged, your imagination is excited,and the intellectual interest is awakened, which is gratifiedat each further step you take, but never satisfied. Patho-

logy at the present moment surpasses in interest everyother department of study and research. For a long time itwas almost identified with morbid anatomy, and concerneditself chiefly with results; but it has emerged from this stage,and the attention of the new school of pathologists is con-centrated upon processes, and the method of experiment intheir hands is yielding results of surprising value and im-portance. The discussion before the Pathological Society onphagocytosis was as exciting as a debate in Parliament, andthe combats between the cells and invading bacteria asrealistic as one of Homer’s battles. A septic wound is made,the leucocytes crowd to the spot, block up the avenues bywhich the hostile bacteria seek to gain entrance into thelymph spaces, and engulph and destroy them, the bacteria atthe same time multiplying with amazing rapidity, and endea-vouring to disintegrate the cells and to force a passage. Thislocal war is defensive inflammation. If from any cause-theamount of virulence of the infective inoculation, or, in otherwords, the number, character or activity of the microbes, or,on the other hand, the imperfect afflux or defective vigour ofthe phagocytes-that is, the inadequate local reaction-theline of demarcation and limitation is imperfectly drawn, themicrobes obtain access to the circulation, and in the bloodand fluids find an unlimited supply of food and unboundedopportunities of multiplying. It has been known ever sincepost-mortem examinations were first made or dissection waspractised that if a dissection wound were followed by in-flammation and abscess the mischief would probably not gofurther, but that if there were only a little pain at the seatof the cut or puncture, while the lymphatic channels andglands became swollen and painful, fatal septicaemia or

pyaemia was probably impending ; but it is only now thatthe defensive process can be understood and explained.

" When I was a student the name zymotic disease had, it istrue, obtained a footing in medical terminology, but underprotest from many distinguished men who distrusted theoryof all kinds. It was pointed out that the analogy betweenthe action of yeast on a solution of sugar and the course of afever was but weak at best, and was open to the objectionthat the successive stages of incubation, invasion and declinemight represent not the life and work and organism in thesystem, but the stages of the reaction of the system. Espe-cially were we warned against basing treatment upon such un-certain grounds. Now we know that the parallel holds gooddown to the smallest particular, just as the yeast grows and