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The Reading Process –
from understanding to teaching
Broader sociolinguistic contexts
Immediate situational contexts
The reading process – The reading process – a transactional viewa transactional view
TextReader Transaction
Source: Weaver C, 1988
Reading Behaviours of a Reading Behaviours of a Proficient ReaderProficient Reader
Develops anticipation; activates prior knowledge
Decodes and samples with sufficient speed
Predicts as he reads
Reads on, re-reads, confirms or corrects
Develops anticipation; activates prior knowledge
Decodes and samples with sufficient speed
Predicts as he reads
Reads on, re-reads, confirms or corrects
Reading problems of our Reading problems of our students as novice readersstudents as novice readers
Little anticipation
Read word by word
Got stuck with a difficult word and give up reading
Skip difficult words and read on despite loss of meaning
Seldom re-read and self-correct
Little anticipation
Read word by word
Got stuck with a difficult word and give up reading
Skip difficult words and read on despite loss of meaning
Seldom re-read and self-correct
The Cueing Systems of the The Cueing Systems of the English LanguageEnglish Language
1. Graphophonic cues
2. Semantic cues
3. Syntactic cues
Graphophonic Cues (Visual)Graphophonic Cues (Visual)
Questions to ask:Questions to ask:
Letter-sound correspondences
Do I know the beginning / ending sounds?
Are there pronounceable parts?
Do I know any words of similar spelling?
Semantic Cues (Meaning)Semantic Cues (Meaning)
context of the sentence / passage
background knowledge / prior experience
Questions to ask:
What word would fit the meaning here?
Does this word make sense?
Syntactic Cues (Structural)Syntactic Cues (Structural)
grammatical patterns
Questions to ask:Questions to ask:
What word would fit into the structural pattern here?
Does it sound like English?
MiscuesMiscues – – What caused them?What caused them?
I can sleep those hiccups.
Elephant gives it a toy.
I can’t do out and I have nothing to do.
Can I read you a story, mum? // No, I’m tiger.
Grandma makes a hot in the castle.
(stop)(stop)
(try)(try)
(go)(go)
(tired)(tired)
(hole)(hole)
MiscuesMiscues – – What caused them?What caused them?
(sleeping)(sleeping)
(All)(All)
All animals are sleep.
As the animals go back to sleep.
Do you want to do you homework? (your)(your)
Quality miscuesQuality miscues – – substitutions substitutions that preserve meaningthat preserve meaning
(summer)(summer)
(elephant)(elephant)
“Why not clean your room?” Mum asks.
It’s a hot sunny afternoon.
Poor animal has the hiccups.
I can stop her hiccups. (those)(those)
(tidy)(tidy)
(has(has))
Quality miscues – self-corrections
(he)(he)
(our)(our)
“Boo!” her shouts.
We like sharing or candy.
He was the hiccups.
Explicit and planned instruction for
reading skills
Emphasis on interactiveness of reading
process – anticipation, prediction,
personal responses, critical and reflective
thinking, etc.
Wide reading of easy and interesting
materials
Explicit and planned instruction for
reading skills
Emphasis on interactiveness of reading
process – anticipation, prediction,
personal responses, critical and reflective
thinking, etc.
Wide reading of easy and interesting
materials
Implications for teachersImplications for teachers
A balanced reading program –5 essential components
1. Phonological awareness
2. Phonics
3. Sight words & vocabulary development
4. Reading fluency
5. Comprehension strategies
- Phonological awareness & phonics skills
A balanced reading programme
Phonological awareness ---Phonological awareness ---
Phonological awareness & Phonological awareness & phonics skillsphonics skills
awareness of constituent sounds of written words in learning to read and spell knowledge of phonemes, onsets and rimes and syllables influences the development of word decoding & reading
Phonics skills instruction ---Phonics skills instruction --- a way of teaching reading that stresses learning how letters correspond to sounds and how to use this knowledge in reading and spelling through various skills like decoding and blending
Phonics skillsPhonics skills
Phonics skills are means to the end of successful reading ---- ‘a catalyst which triggers the process of learning to read’
---- Maclean (1998)
Phonics skills are means to the end of successful reading ---- ‘a catalyst which triggers the process of learning to read’
---- Maclean (1998)
Teaching phonics in our contextTeaching phonics in our context
Questions to ask:Why do we teach phonics to our very young learners?
What should we teach? (knowledge of sounds or skills)
How can we teach phonics effectively?
Who is the best person to teach phonics in school? ………..
Teaching phonics in our contextTeaching phonics in our context
Characteristics of our learners inadequate language environment, limited prior
knowledge and repertoire of words
Q: What can we base on? Where should we start? Different approaches e.g. part-to-whole, whole-to-
part, phoneme-by-phoneme, onsets & rimes
Q: What are the rationale & purposes? How effective are they? How should the teachers and learners make their choice?
Different phonological characteristics between Chinese and English
Q: How should we focus on potentially problematic sounds and letter combinations?
Learner needs and differences e.g. background, learning styles, attitude, relationship between phonics and other areas of learning
Q: How should we cater for our learners’ needs and differences?
How can we help our learners learn phonics effectively?
Teaching phonics in our contextTeaching phonics in our context
active phonics skillsproactive teaching
Implications for teachersImplications for teachers
Phonics should be a meaningful and integrated part of our curriculum (reading program), with ample opportunities for learning, application and solving learning problems.
Teaching must build on what students already know and give them space to see patterns and draw inferences.
Implications for teachersImplications for teachers
Q: Is it advisable for teachers to use a separate package to help students learn phonics and tackle their learning problems?
Q: Should phonics be treated in isolation and handled by one teacher alone e.g. NET?
What are the problems?
1. Unfamiliar vocabulary --- difficult to draw analogy
2. Unrelated to their studies --- extra burden & can’t help to solve learning problems
3. No application --- no explicit teaching of skills and how to apply them in new texts
4. No feedback or assessment
Integration
Planning: phonics & our curriculum
Variation
Application
Textbook(framework/
context/ language focus)
Activities / tasks
Games ……..
Other resources:
Supplementary /
Grammar / Phonics worksheets …..
Big Books
Small readers
Poems / Plays
Reading / Listening materials….
input input
input
guided writing / free writing / reading aloud / reading interest / project…….
output
intellectual
developmen
t
life experiences aesthetic
experiences
authentic and meaningful use of language
Curriculum Curriculum Restructuring & Restructuring & IntegrationIntegration
Textbook Unit 5: Telling the time, describing
habitual actions
Unit 6: Days of the week
Unit 7,8: Weather and seasons
Activities : songs & rhymes, sharing of students’ work
Other resources:
• teacher’s diary
• worksheets
• sounds (ay, og,
ice)
Big Books:
1.What’s the time ?
2.Every Monday
3.All through the week with cat and dog
4.What’s the weather like today?
5. Weather machine
Small readers:
1. The busy giant
2. Winnie and the cat
free writing — ‘My diary’: describing particular activities & expressing feelings in short
paragraphs
output
authentic and meaningful use of language
Connecting with the Natural World
life experiences
inputinput
inputintellectual
developmen
t
aesthetic experiences
Planning: phonics & our curriculum
Embed phonics with all other areas of learning & make full use of all existing resources ---textbooks, big books, readers, sound books ….
Build on what students already know & encourage active learning --- analogy
Teach different essential skills explicitly
Give feedback and reflect on student learning --- observation, formative and summative assessment
A balanced reading programme
-- Sight words
Words that are recognized
as wholes, on sight
What are sight words?What are sight words?
one, two, you, have, father, the, they….
Words that cannot be phonically produced
the, and, I, book, play, happy, big….
High-frequencyHigh-frequency words
Words of special interest
witches, spell, magic, frogs,
castleSnow White,
Billy Goat Gruff, Biff, Chip
The role of sight words in reading
Quick word recognition reasonable reading speed less interference with comprehension better meaning construction
Good sight words more attention on new words vocabulary expansion
see the word in context many times
hear the word and say it aloud
identify the word, in context and in isolation
To learn a sight word, the To learn a sight word, the students must:students must:
Learning sight words through games and activities
• Reading sight word cards with partner
• Snap cards and Pelmanism
• Snakes and Ladders
• Dominoes
Useful ways to ‘anchor’ words:
word walls / semantic mapping
class dictionary / personal vocabulary books
word building /word analysis (tied in with phonics)
using words in writing
Vocabulary Development
through intensive and extensive reading
-- Reading Fluency
A balanced reading programme
Fluent oral reading (with expression)
(SILENT) READING FLUENCY
Access to models of expressive reading
Comprehension Word recognition (fast & accurate)
Chunking words (syntactic cues)
(Source: Oakley, G. 2001)
Repeated ReadingRepeated Reading
reading of short, easy & interesting texts over and over again
well-researched method to improve fluency (Samuels 1979, 2002)
often results in improved comprehension (Hasbrouch, Ihnot, & Rogers 1999)
most students enjoy it; a favoured activity among low-progress readers
(Lipson & Wixson 1997)
-- comprehension strategies
A balanced reading programme
“…. Reading comprehension has come to be viewed as the ‘essence of reading’”
---(National Reading Panel, 2000, p.4-1)
Different approaches
linear approach (comprehension takes place through progressive analysis of small units, beginning with the word and ending in the sentence) v.s.
psycholinguistic approach (emphasizing the paragraph as basic text unit and focus on mental process leading to global comprehension)
Transactional view of reading:
Meaning is constructed through multiple & evolving complex transactions between the reader, text and context
Reading is a ‘psycholinguistic guessing game’
--- from hypotheses to confirmation/rejection
--- a ‘cyclical process of sampling, predicting, confirming & correcting’
--- K.S. Goodman
Comprehension is not just the by-product of accurate word recognition… comprehension is a complex process which requires active and intentional cognitive effort on the part of the reader.
Transactional view of reading:
Both the outcomes of comprehension and the process itself are interactive and dynamic.
Q: How can students work actively to integrate textual information with preexisting knowledge structure / schemata?
Current practice
‘Teachers taught comprehension less than one percent of the time, and that this instruction was more than a matter of ‘mentioning’ than actual explanation or demonstration’ ------ Dolores Durkin (1978-79)
Comprehension instruction remains inadequate in our classrooms. ---- Michael Pressley (1998)
Current practiceCurrent practice
Reading ---- ‘the most thoroughly studied and least understood process in education today’
Reading has been sorely neglected in foreign language classrooms, and most recent methodological innovations have little to say about the development of reading comprehension.
Comprehension of text is not a visible act, nor is it audible.
Current practiceCurrent practice
A typical comprehension lesson:
1. Start with word-by-word decoding and translation (using controlled vocabulary)
2. Followed by comprehension questions (who, what, when, where etc) most of which involve direct-lifting answers (literal comprehension)
3. End with checking answers with little/no explanation
Repeated practice = teaching=good performance in comprehension??
Current practiceCurrent practice
Problems: no training of higher-order comprehension skills:
interpretive (read between the lines)critical (read for evaluation)creative (read beyond the lines)
no development of students’ skills in syntactical, semantic, lexical, stylistic analysis and making excursion to their knowledge of the world to confirm meaning
loss of contextual focus, overview, and immediate frustration as soon as the reader encounters an unknown word
What do our students think?What do our students think?
‘I used to believe that I have to know all the words in the English readings in order to understand the readings. Therefore, I read in English with the dictionary beside me all the time. I read English readings only for homework before I came to this reading class. I never read any English readings because I wanted to read them….. I like to read in my first language, but I just could not read in English with the same feeling as I read in Chinese. The belief that I have to know all the words in order to understand the reading made me lose interest…..’ ---- Li, an ESL student
‘Younger and poorer readers often rely on a single criterion for textual understanding: Understanding of individual words’ ---- Garner & Alexander (1989)
What affect comprehension?What affect comprehension?
students’ experiential background students’ sensory & perceptual abilities students’ thinking abilities students’ affective aspects (self-concepts,
attitudes & interest) word recognition strategies comprehension strategies
* greatest obstacles to comprehension are students’ dispositions towards reading---- Villaume & Edna
Transactional strategies Transactional strategies instructioninstruction
Help students to activate their prior knowledge make predictions generate questions, answer questions and draw
inferences monitor their comprehension & seek clarification
when confused create pictorial mental imagery & mnemonic
imagery create summaries of what they have read evaluate what they have read
Transactional strategies Transactional strategies instructioninstruction
Predict:think about the title, the illustrations, and what you have read so far;Tell what you think will happen next or what you will learn
Question:Ask yourself questions as you read
Monitor/clarify:Ask yourself if what you are reading make senseIf you don’t understand something, reread, read aloud, or use the illustrations
Summarize:Think about the main ideas or the important part of the storyTell the important things in your own words
Evaluate: Ask yourselfDo I like what I have read?Do I agree or disagree with it?Am I learning what I wanted to know?How good a job has the author done?
Explicit teachingExplicit teaching
Direct explanation (describe what the strategy is and explain why the strategy should be learned and used)
Modeling (model it and provide examples of the circumstances under which the strategy should be used)
Guided practice & scaffolding Feedback Application
* increase students’ metacognitive awareness and use of reading strategies
Implications for teachers Implications for teachers
Issues to consider: comprehension or psycholinguistic guessing
skill can & should be taught students’ comprehension is developmental reading comprehension should be a dynamic
interactive exchange between teacher & students
students can compensate for a lack of English proficiency by increasing their awareness of reading strategies
extensive reading practice is essential in building both fluency & knowledge (extensive v.s. intensive reading practice)
Implications for teachers Implications for teachers
Things to do: draw in / activate students’ prior knowledge develop students’ awareness of clue-searching
strategies select text based on students’ interests and
knowledge and make comprehension an integrated part of the curriculum
use different reading materials (including readers) and design a variety of tasks for different purposes
Not so ‘typical’ comprehension Not so ‘typical’ comprehension exercises ---exercises ---
guessing game & confirmation / correction
brainstorming & mind-mapping
semantic webbing & story mapping
cloze --- with specific purposes focusing on particular skills e.g. reference skills, using semantic or syntactic clues
matching e.g. vocabulary skill
proof-reading questions
personal response
reading-writing connection
ConclusionConclusion
It is important that a full range of instructional approaches be considered within a variety of contexts that address both developmental and cultural differences in how children best learn to comprehend.
The Reading ProcessThe Reading Process
(Source: Burns, Roe and Ross, 1999)
See and perceive the symbols
Follow the sequence of words
Relate ideas to past experience
Make inferences/evaluate
Deal with personal interests and attitudes that affect reading
Associate symbols and sounds
Associate symbols and meanings
Follow the grammatical patterns
TransactionTransaction
Putting everything together to construct a personal meaning for the text
Communicating thoughts and emotions between reader and writer
Putting everything together to construct a personal meaning for the text
Communicating thoughts and emotions between reader and writer
Reading sight word cards with partners
Snap cards and Pelmanism
Snakes and Ladders
Dominoes
Fluent oral reading (with expression)
Models of expressive reading
(Silent) Reading Fluency