The Normal Lights - EISRJC · The Normal Lights focuses on some ] ... modules on the hazardous + of smoking on people’s health be prepared ... SOLEDAD A. ULEP, Ph.D

The Normal Lights Philippine Normal University Journal on Teacher Education

Educational Policy Research and Development Center Philippine Normal University

2013

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Publication Board

ESTER B. OGENA, Ph.D.REBECCA C. NUEVA ESPAÑA, Ph.D.

BILL ATWEH, Ph.D. (Curtin University)ROSALIND MURRAY HARVEY, Ph.D. (Flinders University)GAVIN SANDERSON, Ph.D. (University of South Australia)

SHARON SENK, Ph.D. (Michigan State University)TIMOTHY TEO, Ph.D. (University of Auckland)

Board of Consultants

MARILYN U. BALAGTAS, Ph.D.WILMA S. REYES, Ph.D.Directors of Publication

V. LÁZARO MENDIOLAEditor in Chief

GINA O. GONONG, Ph.D.MA. VICTORIA C. HERMOSISIMA, MaEd

MA. CARMELA T. MANCAO, Ed.D.ANTRIMAN V. ORLEANS, Ph.D.

Managing Editors

VICTOR R. FUMAR, M.A.MARIA TERESA L. MANICIO, M.A.

RAMER V. OXIÑO, MATAssociate Editors

MARIBEL G. GERUNDIOLayout Artist/Encoder

RAYMOND JOSEPH M. TAGORIOCover Designer

MARS M. MAJULGraphic Artist

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Copyright © 2013 of the individual works reverts to the authors ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the copyright owners. Published and exclusively distributed by the EDUCATIONAL POLICY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER Philippine Normal University Taft Avenue, Manila Tel/Fax No. (632) 527-0366 Printed by the University Press ISSN: 1656-4413

FOREWORD

The Normal Lights focuses on some weighty issues assailing

ter ary and secondary educa on in this issue: assessment of qualifyingexamina n for graduate studi performance of literature majors inLicensure n for Teachers (LET) in high school designing/developing aculturally sensi ve curriculum material cum evalua on tool (CS CMET) inphysics for senior high schoolers. Al a study focuses on the ecompetence of students in a private university in Isabela. Then follows aresearch on the extent of implemen ng laws that ban smoking inschool campuses. Finall the book reviews on European humanism that haspermeated global cultu tempered by deconstruc g the Filipino psyche inselected essays and capped by peeling the Briton’s na al character viathe Queen’s (King’s) languages – words phrases expressions idioma ccultures whatever.

Fetalvero’s and Gerundio’s paper primarily analyzes and compares theGCAT (Graduate College Admission Test) examinees’ performance in varieddisciplines/specializa s o ered at PNU. Normally give the GCAT zeroes inve areas—general cloze tests in Filipino/English reading

comprehensio and numero reasoning. By and la poor performanceemerges in general informa English and reading; contr best resultin numero reading and in Filipino cloze test. There is a felt need to revise anumber of items to make them more in keeping with the es the researchersinsist.

Morales’ paper highlights the fact that physics teachers in secondaryschool have to resort to Filipino transla ons in dealing with Physics concepts tobe understood. U g four constructs of instr l congruence –framework in her she explains in detail: (1) The teacher’s role; (2)Subject speci c pedagogy of teaching model based on speci c culture model;(3) Language – Science/Learning literacy; and (4) Construc vism.

Marquez et al. in their assessment of the LET performance of PNUgraduates in Literature majorship from 2008 2010 reports that overall itscored much lower than their scholas c r gs and therefore their SR couldbest predict their LET score. They suggest that a separate test for Literaturemajors be as dis nctly contrasted to the English LET they normallyare asked to take. More importantly their in the research lead tomuch s for curriculum revision faculty assignmenqualifying requirements and administra ve support.

noitacudE rehcaeT no lanruoJ ytisrevinU lamroN enippilihPiv

In related ers, the aforesaid research study is complemented byNavas’ and Gineta’s research on the comm competence of privateuniversity students, using oral language performance and level of m v n aspredictors. Unexpectedly, their inve g n refutes previous ones as far asthe two aforecited factors are concerned. For her part, Abulon claims that thelax implementa n of smoking rules on campus necessitates that learningmodules on the hazardous of smoking on people’s health be preparedas part of the NSTP (N l Service Training program) for college students.

Three book reviews, all within the province of the humani es, subtlyunderscore the universal that no er how exact (and innova ve) thesciences are – or the teacher for that er – they would readily fall apart likeHumpty – Dumpty and all, were their range of humaneness measured

The Editor

Philippine Normal University Journal on Teacher Education v

vi

POOL OF REVIEWERS

SUPACHAI A. BASIT, Ph.D.Emilio Aguinaldo College

FILMA G. BRAWNER, Ph.D.DOST SEI

NENUCA FE M. CANLAS, Ph.D.De La Salle University, Manila

BRENDA B. CORPUZ, Ph.D.Department of Education

CAROLINE S. DE LEON, Ph.D.Miriam College

MARLENE FERIDO, Ph.D.UP NISMED

LEONORA C. FERNANDEZ, M.D.University of the Philippines PGH

JELY A. GALANGUniversity of the Philippines Diliman

ADELAIDA C. GINES, Ph.D.Philippine Normal University

JULIET A. GREGORIO, Ph.D.Philippine Normal University

FE A. HIDALGO, Ph.D.Foundation for Upgrading the Standard ofEducation, Inc.

MILAGROS D. IBE, Ph.D.Retired ProfessorUniversity of the Philippines

GENARO V. JAPOS, Ph.D.International Association ofMultidisciplinary Research, PhilippineAssociation of Institutions for Research

MA. CARMEN C. JIMENEZ, Ph.D.University of the Philippines Diliman

RICARDO T. JOSE, Ph.D.University of the Philippines Diliman

CARLO MAGNO, Ph.D.De La Salle University Manila

MYRA D. NICOLASFormer Faculty, PNU

DINA S. OCAMPO, Ph.D.Department of Education

JESUS A. OCHAVE, Ph.D.Former VP for PRE, PNU

MARIETTA R. OTERO, Ph.D.University of the Philippines Diliman

PAULO MARIA N. PAGKATIPUNAN,M.D./Ph.DPhilippine General Hospital Manila

LEONORA N. PANLASIGUI, Ph.D.Philippine Women’s University

MAE RAN PARK, Ph.D.Pukyong National University, Namgu,Busan South Korea

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TWILA G. PUNSALAN, Ph.D.AusAID Philippines

YOLANDA S. QUIJANO, Ph.D.Department of Education

ISABEL N. QUITASan Francisco State University

ELIZABETH D. RAMOS, Ph.D.St. Paul University – Manila

MYRNA S. RODRIGUEZ, Ph.D.University of the Philippines Los Baños

GIL NONATO SANTOS, Ph.D.De La Salle University Manila

BRO. JOSEPH SCHEITER, FSCDe La Salle University Manila

NILDA R. SUNGA, Ph.D.Phoenix Publishing House

EPIFANIA V. TABBADA, Ph.D.Centro Escolar University

EMILIANA V. TADEO, Ph.D.Technological University of the Philippines

MELCHOR A. TATLONGHARI, Ph.D.University of Sto. Tomas and PhilippineNormal University

SOLEDAD A. ULEP, Ph.D.UP NISMED

PAOLO NIÑO M. VALDEZ, Ph.D.De La Salle University Manila

ROSE J. VILLANEZA, Ph.D.Department of Education

CONTENTS

Foreword iv

Analysis of the PNU Graduate College Admission Test (GCAT) Lucilla R. Fetalvero and Maribel G. Gerundio

1

Non-Conve Processes in the Development of Culturally-Sensi ve Curriculum Material Evalua Tool (CS-CMET) Marie Paz E. Morales

16

Teacher Educa n Ins (TEI) Stakeholders’ Knowledge and on Smoking and Extent of Implementa on of Its Related

Policies: Bases for New School Policies and Interve on Program Edna Luz R. Abulon

31

Predictors of LET Performance of PNU Graduates in Literature Majorship Florencia F. Marquez, Jennie V. Jocson, Victor R. Fumar, Russel R. Lomboy, Rosarito T. Suatengco and Cecilia M. Mendiola

54

College L2 Learners’ Oral Language Performance and Mo as Predictors of Communi Competence Elena A. Navas and Josie Jordan D. Gineta

70

Book Reviews

On Universalizing Humanism Isaac Donoso

83

Flip: Derogatory or Not?It’s More Than the Accent, my Dear! V. Lázaro Mendiola

85 87

The Contributors 89

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Philippine Normal University Journal on Teacher Education 1

ANALYSIS OF THE PNU GRADUATE COLLEGE ADMISSION TEST (GCAT)

_âv|ÄÄt eA YxàtÄäxÜÉ `tÜ|uxÄ ZA ZxÜâÇw|É Philippine Normal University

ABSTRACT

This study determined the Index of Difficulty, Index of Discrimination ofeach item, and the plausibility of options of the multiple choice items of theGCAT. It also analyzed and compared the examinees’s performance as well asdetermined the percentages of passing and failures in the differentspecializations. A total of 656 GCAT Answer Sheets in the years 2005 to 2007served as sources of data for analysis. The GCAT answers were analyzed usingtest type, college, and specialization as the units of analysis. The four colleges –CASS, CEd; CLLL; and COS – were all represented in the sample. The GCAT FormC has five components: General Information, English Cloze Test, English ReadingComprehension, Filipino Cloze Test, and Numero Reasoning. The results of thestudy revealed that the examinees performed poorly in Test I (GeneralInformation) and Test III (English Reading Comprehension). The Filipino ClozeTest and Numero Reasoning Test yielded the best analysis results.

Keywords: Item Analysis, Index of Difficulty, Index of Discrimination, Plausibilityof Options, PNU Graduate College Entrance Test (GCAT)

INTRODUCTION

The Graduate College Admission Test (GCAT) has been administered toall applicants to the graduate programs since the school year 1995 1996. Threeforms of the GCAT have been generated since then.

So far, only one graduate student has conducted a study on GCAT. In2011, Pedrozo, an MA student with specialization in Measurement andEvaluation, conducted an evaluation of the GCAT Form C using the Raschmeasurement model for dichotomous responses. The following were theconclusions drawn from the study: 1) the GCAT can provide linear and intervalmeasures; 2) it comprises adequate, effective and homogeneous item pool.independent of the calibrating sample; 3) it is a valid instrument capable ofmeasuring two distinct and substantially different aspects of ability: verbal and

Analysis of the PNU Graduate College Admission Test

The Normal Lights Vol. 7 No. 1 2

numerical competencies; 4) The applicant measurement on the GCAT variablesis highly stable and reliable, that is, the ability level of an applicant that theGCAT can identify may reflect a certain amount of competencies required tosucceed in performing graduate tasks; 5) the Rasch analysis detected someGCAT items which are potentially biased due to differences of applicants ingender, place of dwelling, type of school attended and intended area ofspecialization – vital for further refinement of the test; and 6) the total score anapplicant earns in GCAT adequately reflects his ability level’ which is a veryuseful indicator of predicting related performances. The researcher identifiedcertain items in the GCAT which can be revised. He recommended furtherstudies on GCAT, using other measurement models.

While the administration of an entrance examination is time testtradition, the significant question that must be asked is whether the testperforms the very purpose it is being used (PNU CREDE, 2002). Although therehas been a study conducted on the GCAT which found out that it is capable ofmeasuring two distinct and substantially different aspects of ability: verbal andnumerical competencies (Pedrozo, 2011), there is still a need to look moreclosely into the test items using traditional item analysis method. One of theobjectives of this study was to determine the difficulty and discriminationindices of the test items to identify the good and the poor items.

The GCAT Form C has been in use since school year 1998 1999. Aftermore than ten (10) years of using it to screen incoming graduate students, itwould be in order to conduct another study to determine and analyze thequality of the items, if not to establish further its effectiveness in identifyingwho will succeed among the applicants in pursuing graduate studies.

Statement of the Problem

This study cast further light to determine the extent to which theGCAT can perform its function to effectively identify applicants who are likelyto succeed in completing a graduate program at PNU. The study also sought todetermine the GCAT performance of student applicants in the differentspecializations.

Specifically, the research aimed at achieving the following objectives:1. Determine the characteristics of the GCAT test items in terms of: 1.1 Index of difficulty 1.2 Index of discrimination 1.3 Plausibility of options of the multiple choice items 2. Analyze and compare the performance of the examinees who

applied for admission in the different specializations.

Fetalvero, L.R. and Gerundio, M.G.


3. Determine the percentages of passing and failures among thestudent applicants in the different specializations.

METHODOLOGY

Utilizing the descriptive method of research, most of the dataanalyzed in this study were gathered from the GCAT Answer Sheets from thePNU Office of Admissions. Since the GCAT Answer Sheets are documents,documentary analysis was employed. According to Fraenkel and Wallen(2010), records or printed materials are classified as documents, which may bepublished or unpublished, and intended for private or public consumption. TheAnswer Sheet was filled out by an applicant. The items were analyzed todetermine the indices of difficulty and discrimination of each item, and theplausibility of options in the multiple choice items. To determine how theexaminees performed, when grouped according to intended specialization, thescores were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics.

A total of 656 answer sheets of examinees from 2005 to 2007 servedas units of analysis in this study.

Related specializations were fused because of small number ofexaminees in one or all of the specializations, like in English Language Teaching(ELT) and English Language Arts (ELA), Literature and Linguistics, allied scienceswhich include Home Economics, Health Education, Nutrition and Dietetics, andNon Formal Education.

Elementary Education registered the biggest number (123) ofexaminees. Not all these examinees, however, enrolled in the ElementaryEducation specialization. Instead of the specialization they intended to take inthe graduate school, they indicated their undergraduate course. Many of thesestudents enrolled in the Educational Management specialization, but theresearcher could not verify this fact anymore for it would entail looking into therecords in the different specializations.

These Answer Sheets in which specializations were neither indicatedby the examinees nor offered at PNU were excluded from the analysis. Theresearcher started with a total of 723 and ended up with just 676 afterexcluding invalid Answer Sheets.

The College of Education had the biggest number of examinees (305 or46.49%), while the College of Arts and Social Sciences, with only 97, had theleast takers. The College of Languages, Linguistics and Literature, and theCollege of Science had 127 respondents each.



The GCAT Form C was initiated and developed in 1994, when therewas a separate college of graduate studies, headed by a dean, and fivedepartment heads.

The GCAT Form C had the following components:Test 1 – General Information (10 items)Test 2 – Cloze Test – English (30 items)Test 3 – Reading – English (15 items)Test 4 – Cloze Test – Filipino (25 items)Test 5 – Numero Reasoning (20 items)

A cloze test is a test or assessment consisting of a portion of text withcertain words removed, where the participant is asked to replace the missingwords. Cloze tests require the ability to understand context and vocabulary inorder to identify the correct words or type of words that belong in the deletedparts of the passage (Wikipedia, 2013). To score high in a cloze test, readingcomprehension skill is necessary. Words may be deleted from the textmechanically (every nth word) or selectively depending on exactly what aspectit is intended to test.

Using the data gathered from the 656 Answer Sheets, the test itemswere analyzed. The U L method of item analysis was used to determine theindices of difficulty and discrimination of each item in the test. The plausibilityof each option in the multiple choice items was also determined by getting thenumber and percentage of examinees in each group that chose each option.

The following numerical values with their corresponding verbalequivalents were used in interpreting the computed indices of difficulty of theItems:

Numerical Value Verbal Equivalent0.76 or higher Easy0.25 to 0.75 Average0.24 or lower Difficult

Source: Lamberte (1998) in Magno, C. P. and Quano, J.A. (2010) Designing WrittenAssessment for Student Learning. Phoenix Publishing House, Quezon City.



The computed indices of discrimination of the items were interpretedusing the following table of values and their corresponding verbal equivalents.

Numerical Value Verbal Equivalent0.40 and greater Very Good Item0.30 to 0.39 Moderately Good Item0.20 to 0.29 Marginal Itembelow 0.19 Poor Item

Source: Wiersma W. and Jurs, S.G. (1990) Educational Measurement and Testing.Allyn and Bacon, Massachusetts.

The mean scores of the examinees were calculated byspecialization/college, their computation sought to determine if the GCAT canreally identify the right applicants to enroll in graduate program specializationsof their choice, like mathematics and languages. The total score was the basisfor admission to the graduate program.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Difficulty and Discrimination Indices of the GCAT Test Items by Subtest,and the Plausibility of Options in the Multiple Choice Items

Test 1 – General Information

The majority of the items in Test 1 (6 or 60%) have average difficulty(Df=0.44 to .060), three are difficult (Df=0.04 to 0.16) and only one is an easyitem (Df=0.86). Of the 10 items, only one moderately difficult item wasretained; three items were rejected, while the others needed revision becausethey got low discrimination indices (between 0.10 and 0.30). The poor itemshave negligible discrimination indices of below 0.09. One of the rejected itemshas a negative discrimination index of 0.03, which means that more examineesfrom the lower group got the correct answer.

Analysis of the plausibility of the options in Test I, done in multiplechoice formats, revealed that only 4 items have no poor distracters. The sixother items have one or two poor distracters, which were either too attractiveor obviously not the correct answers.



Figure 1. Graphical Presentation of the Results of the Item Analysis of Test 1 Test 2 English Cloze Test

Test 2 of the GCAT is a 30 item cloze test in English. In this test, theexaminees were required to supply the words that have been deleted from thegiven text, where every seventh word was substituted by a blank. Only theexact words deleted were considered as correct answers. Partially correctanswers, e.g., synonyms, were not accepted so that some very difficult itemshad not one of the examinees or only 1% or 2% of the examinees answeredcorrectly. Very easy items, however, were answered correctly by 90% or moreof the respondents.

In terms of difficulty, the test can be considered as good, since themajority of the items (17 or 56.67% of the total number of 30 items) haveaverage difficulty. Five are easy, while eight are difficult items.

Thirteen of the items obtained discrimination indices which areinterpreted as either “Very Good” or “Moderately Good,” thus these itemsneed to be retained. Five of these items are “Very Good,” while the others“Moderately Good.” Nine of the items are to be revised, for having obtaineddiscrimination indices of 0.20 to 0.29. The other items, though, need to berejected for they obtained discrimination indices lower than 0.10.

As a whole, the test is not so good since only 13 items or 43.33% ofthe 30 items can be retained.



Figure 2. Graphical Presentation of the Results of the Item Analysis of Test 2

Test 3 – English Reading Comprehension Test

In the Reading Comprehension Test, the examinees read a shortselection before they answered questions in multiple choice format.

Most of the 15 items (11 or 73.33%) have average difficulty. Only twoare easy and another two difficult.

Only item No. 3 in this test can be retained since it obtained adiscrimination index of 0.38, interpreted as “Moderately Good”. More thanhalf of the items (9 or 60%) were of reject category for having obtained lowdiscrimination indices interpreted as “Poor.” Six of these poor items havenegative discrimination indices.

The option analysis of Test 3 revealed only four items with threeplausible distracters. The other items have one or two poor distracters forhaving been chosen by more than 30% or less than 3% of the examinees.

In general, this part of the GCAT, given the limited sample andanalysis, seems to have many defective or poor items. Perhaps the questionsare ambiguous. Then, too, the distracters are more attractive than the correctanswers. This needs qualitative or “clinical” review for validation.




Test 4 – The Filipino Cloze Test

An article in Filipino was used for the Cloze Test with every fifth worddeleted. This time, partially correct answers – those not exactly the same asthe deleted ones were accepted as answers.

The majority of the items (14 or 56% of the 25 items) have averagedifficulty indices – five are easy, while six difficult.




Based on the results of the analysis, eight items (32%) are to beretained, nine (36%) to be revised, and eight (32%) rejected. To be retainedare three very good items, and five moderately good items. One rejected itemhas a negative discrimination index. Two items have 0.00 index of difficulty,which means that not one of the examinees got the correct answers. Theseitems have also zero 0.00 discrimination index. One very easy item answeredcorrectly by 99% of both the upper and the lower groups has 0.00discrimination index. Another item with 0.00 discrimination index wascorrectly answered by 11% from each of the two groups.

Test 5 – Numero Reasoning Test

The 20 item numero reasoning test yielded the best results among thefive tests in the GCAT. Only one of the items got a low difficulty index of 0.15,interpreted as “Difficult.” In this item, there were more examinees in the lowergroup than in the upper group who answered correctly. All the other itemshave average difficulty indices of between 0.30 and 0.69. Only item No.10 ispoor, hence to be discarded. Fourteen of the items are for retention. Nine ofthese items are “Very Good” items. The five other items, while other five needrevision.

Based on the results of the item analysis, this test can be consideredvery good, but not perfect in that there remain items that need to be improvedfor having poor distracters. These very attractive distracters were chosen bymore than 40% of the examinees. Not one of the distracters was chosen byless than 3% of the respondents.





Table 1 sums up the number of items in each test classified as “VeryGood,” “Moderately Good.” Marginal,” and “Poor,” based on the results of theitem analysis.

Of the 100 items in the test, only 37 are to be retained, 17 of them arevery good items while the other 20 are moderately good items. Fourteen ofthese items are in Test 5 – Numero Reasoning Test, while 13 in Test 2 – EnglishCloze Test. Only one each from Test 1 – General Information and Test 3 –Reading Comprehension are to be retained. Twenty nine items are to berejected, most of which in Tests 2, 3 and 4. Table 1. Summary of the Numbers of Items in Each Test Classified as “Very Good,”

“Moderately Good,” “Marginal” and “Poor” Test No. Very Good Items Moderately Good

Items Marginal

Items Poor Items

Total

1 0 1 6 3 10 2 5 8 9 8 30 3 0 1 5 9 15 4 3 5 9 8 25 5 9 5 5 1 20

Total 17 20 34 29 100

Analysis and Comparison of the Performance of the Examinees who Appliedfor Admission in the Different Specializations

Table 2 shows the mean scores and their corresponding meanpercentages by college, in the different subtests. The specializations werebased on what the examinees wrote on their Answer Sheets.

Mean percentage was obtained by dividing the mean score by thenumber of items in the subtest, multiplied by 100. A mean percentage of 50 orhigher means that the mean score is at least half of the number of items in thesubtest.

In Test 1, the College of Arts and Social Sciences (CASS) got the highestmean score of 5.14 (or a mean percentage of 51.40%), followed by the Collegeof Science (COS) with 4.79, then by the College of Languages, Linguistics andLiterature (CLLL) with 4.72 and the lowest mean score of 4.69 was obtained bythe College of Education (CED). Since Social Science and History specializationsare in CASS, CASS got the highest mean score in Test 1 on general information.



Table 2. Mean Scores and Mean Percentages by College CASS CEd CLLL COS Ave

Test I Ave 5.14 4.69 4.72 4.79 Test I MP 51.40 46.90 47.20 47.90 48.35 Test II Ave 12.78 12.62 13.15 13.29 Test II MP 42.60 42.07 43.83 44.30 43.20 Test III Ave 6.96 6.70 6.88 6.67 Test III MP 46.40 44.67 45.87 44.47 45.35

Test IV Ave 13.74 13.08 13.54 13.80 Test IV MP 54.96 52.32 54.16 55.20 54.16 Test V Ave 9.28 9.06 9.52 11.42 Test V MP 46.40 45.30 47.60 57.10 49.10 47.91 46.14 47.81 49.97 47.96

By specialization, History got the highest mean score, followed by

Social Science, then by Guidance and Counseling, finally by Values Education,all in CASS. Other specializations which got mean scores of at least half of thenumber of items are Physics, Educational Measurement and Evaluation andGeneral Science. Notably, only two examinees in Values Education representthe kind of students who enroll in this specialization. The same observationmay be true of Educational Measurement and Evaluation with only threerespondents. All the other specializations obtained less than 5.00 mean scoresranging from 3.71 to 4.90.

In Test 2 – Cloze Test in English, the highest score obtained by anindividual GCAT examinee was 22 out of the 30 items. Not one of theexaminees got the correct answer for item No. 17; two items (16 and 32) wereanswered correctly by only two examinees, while item No. 18 by only sixexaminees.

The overall average score for Test 2 is 12.87 (or a mean percentage of42.90), which is less than half of the total number of 30 items. Among all thefive subtests, Test 3 got the lowest mean percentage. Surprisingly, it is theCollege of Science, and not the College of Languages, Linguistics and Literature,which got the highest college average of 13.29 (MP=44.30) in the test of Englishproficiency.

The highest subject area mean score of 14.67 is shared by Guidanceand Counseling (CASS) and Literature/Linguistics (CLLL). Reading specializationranks 3rd. Biology, General Science and English, 4th, 5th and 6th, respectively, asto performance of subject area specializations in Test 2.



Analysis of the performance of the GCAT examinees in Test 3 –Reading Comprehension reveals that the overall mean score in this test is 6.77(MP=45.13), less than half of the 15 items in the test. The highest scoreobtained in this test is 13, and the lowest score 2. Comparing the performanceof the four colleges, the CASS obtained the highest mean score of 6.96(MP=46.40), followed by the CLLL with a mean score of 6.88 (MP=45.87).

Grouped by specialization, the Social Science group garnered thehighest mean score, followed by the History group. Library Science andGeneral Science are tied at rank 3.5. The reading specialization group, which isexpected to perform well in this test, is rank 18. Notably, the item analysis ofTest 3 shows that many of the items are poor, with low discrimination indices.So the poor performance of the reading group may be attributed to some otherfactors and does not necessarily mean that they are poor in readingcomprehension.

It is only in Test 4 – Cloze Test in Filipino where the GCAT examineesgot an overall mean percentage higher than 50%, and all the colleges got meanpercentages of higher than 50%. The overall mean score for the test is 13.41(MP = 53.64%). The COS got the highest mean percentage of 55.20%, followedby CASS with 54.96%.

Grouped by specialization, the highest mean score was obtained bythe Literature/Linguistics specialization group. This is followed by SocialScience specialization, then by General Science, and fourth in rank is Physics.The Filipino group which is expected to perform very well in this test is rank 17,but the mean score is still higher than half the number of items.

One examinee got the highest score of 21 in the Filipino Cloze Test.The lowest score is 2 out of 25 items in the test.

The test on Numero Reasoning yielded an overall mean score of 9.64(MP = 48.20%), less than half of the 20 items in the test. Only the COS got amean score of 11.42 (MP=57.10%), which is higher than half the number of testitems. The three other colleges got mean scores of higher than 9 but less than10. By specialization, Educational Measurement and Evaluation got the highestmean score of 14.33 (MP=71.65%), followed by Physics with 13.27(MP=66.35%). Third in rank is mathematics specialization (MP=63.80%),expected to get the highest mean score. Seven other specializations got MPsgreater than 50%, one from CASS, two from CLLL, and four from COS. Therange of scores in this test is 0 to 20. The one who got 20 could have been aforeigner because his/her score in Test 4 (Filipino) is 0.



Scrutiny of the individual overall scores of the examinees yielded thefollowing results. The highest score obtained by an individual examinee was 70and the lowest score 11. Less than half (280) of the total number of examineesgot scores of 50 or higher, 170 got scores between 45 and 49, and the rest gotscores lower than 45. This means that, including those on probation (scores of45 49), more than half of the 656 examinees were qualified to enroll.

As regards total mean scores obtained by the GCAT examinees byspecialization and college, all the four colleges got mean scores below 50, andthat the highest mean score of 49.97 was obtained by COS, followed by 47.91obtained by CASS. One specialization each from CASS, CED and CLLL got meanscores higher than 50. In the COS, only two specializations got mean scoreslower than 50. All the other specializations in the three colleges (CASS, CED,and CLLL) got mean scores lower than 50. The highest mean score byspecialization is 53.67, obtained by Linguistics/Literature, followed by 53.18 ofPhysics specialization, then 52.57 of General Science, then 52.06 of SocialScience specialization.

All four colleges got mean percentages higher than 50% in Test 4 –Cloze Test in Filipino. Among the specializations, only two got meanpercentages lower than 50 in this test.

Test 3 has the second lowest mean percentage. Only the examineesfrom the Social Science specialization got a mean percentage higher than 50%.All the rest, including those in the Reading specialization got mean percentageslower than 50%, but not one got a mean percentage of lower than 40%.

The overall mean percentage of Test 5 is the second highest, amongthe five subtests in the GCAT. Ten specializations got mean percentages higherthan 50% in this test, six of them are from the COS, one specialization fromCASS, one from CED, and two from CLLL. The highest mean percentage of71.65% was obtained by Literature and Linguistics, but there were only sixexaminees in these two specializations.

Looking into the overall performance of the different colleges in thefive tests in terms of mean percentages, one notes that CASS has two strengths– General Information and Cloze Test in Filipino. COS also has two strengths –Cloze Test in Filipino and Numero Reasoning, where the examinees got overallmean percentages higher than 50%. The two other colleges are strong only inthe Cloze Test in Filipino.

Of the 24 specializations, eight obtained mean percentages of at least50%.



Percentages of passing and failures among the student applicants in the differentspecializations

Table 3 shows that the overall percentage of passing (with scores of 50and above) is 40.70%, on probation (with scores between 45 and 49) compose24.39% of the total number of the 656 examinees, and 34.91% of therespondents failed in the GCAT.

Table 3. Numbers of Passers, On Probation and Failures by Specialization and College Specialization No. of

Passers Percen-

tage No. of “On Probation”

Percen-tage

No. of Failures

Percen-tage

CASS (97) 39 40.21 24 24.74 34 35.05 CEd (305) 108 35.41 73 23.93 124 40.66 CLLL (127) 49 38.58 39 30.71 39 30.71 COS (127) 71 55.91 24 18.90 32 25.20 Total (656) 267 40.70 160 24.39 229 34.91

Comparing the four colleges, we note that the highest percentage ofpassing, 55.91%, was garnered by the COS, followed by the CASS with 40.22%passing. The highest percentage of failures, 40.66%, was obtained by the CED,followed by the CASS with 35.05%.

Eight specializations have percentages of passing of at least 50%, six ofwhich come from the COS, and one each from CASS and CLLL.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The poor performance of the examinees in Test 1 could indicate that,generally, the students who go into the teaching profession are not so wellversed in general information. On the other hand, the items could be outdatedalready since they were generated in the mid 1990s. Revision of GCAT Test 1should include general information updates.

The Cloze Test in English is quite difficult for the examinees becausethe material may not very familiar to them.

The questions in the Reading Comprehension Test may be vague andconfusing, and the examinees may not be familiar with the text.

The Cloze Test in Filipino and the Numero Reasoning Test are goodand if ever the GCAT is to be revised, similar items may be included.

Students in some specializations perform poorly in the GCAT. As aresult, very few students pass the admission test, thus only a few enroll inthese specializations. To address this problem, the following are



recommended: 1) Items in subject areas where they can have a betterperformance be included; 2) A lower cut off score be set for these particularspecializations; 3) A different instrument be used to screen student applicantsin these specializations.

REFERENCES

Fraenkel, J. R. and Wallen, N.E. (2010). How to design and evaluate research ineducation, 7th Edition. McGraw Hill International.

Gronlund, N.E. and Linn, R.I. (2000). Measurement and assessment in teaching.New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Magno, C. P. and Quano, J.A. (2010). Designing written assessment for studentlearning. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House.

Mancao, M.T. and Orleans, A. V. (2010). Revisiting the Philippine NormalUniversity admission test (PNUAT): Basis for procedural enhancementand test item revision. Research Series No. 127, Philippine NormalUniversity.

Pedrozo, M.G. (2001). An evaluation of graduate college admission test usingthe Rasch measurement model. An unpublished master’s thesis,Philippine Normal University.

Philippine Normal University Center for Research and Development inEducation (PNU CREDE) (2002). Development and validation of anational admissions test for teacher education. A research andDevelopment Project commissioned by the Commission on HigherEducation.

Wiersma W. and Jurs, S.G. (1990) Educational measurement and testing.Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.


NON-CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURALLY-SENSITIVE CURRICULUM MATERIAL EVALUATION TOOL

(CS-CMET)

`tÜ|x cté XA `ÉÜtÄxá

Philippine Normal University

ABSTRACT

This study highlights qualitative and non conventional approaches inthe design and development of Culturally Sensitive Curriculum MaterialEvaluation Tool (CS CMET). The evaluation tool intends to assess the integrationof language and culture in Physics teaching with the use of Culturally SensitiveCurriculum Materials in Physics (CS CMIP).It presents the evaluation componentof cultural and language integration in learning sciences where a significantresearch theme known as local responsiveness can be identified. Nonconventional processes focused on the use of empirical data from pilot study tocome up with the statements and constructs for the instrument compatible withInstructional Congruence Framework (ICF) were used. Significant contribution ofthis study can also be tracked in the field of product development.

Keywords: Scientific literacy, Instructional congruence, Non conventionalapproach

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

A large percentage of Filipino students cannot apply concepts to reallife. Most students, even high school seniors, can neither understand what theyare reading nor do the necessary calculations to solve scientific problems.Students’ ability to think conceptually and spatially is weak which mayeventually worsen the scientific literacy (SL) problems of Filipinos.(UPNISMEDReport, 2005& DOST SEI Report, 2005).

Efforts to improve the scientific literacy and science and mathematicsachievement of Filipino students were initiated by UPNISMED Report (2005)through Science and Mathematics curriculum enhancement integrating

Morales, M.P.E.


“Community Based” enhancement of concepts and skills. Guided by the aimsand goals of UNESCO’s (1993) Scientific and Technological Literacy for All, thePhilippines’ K+12 curriculum has been visualized to bring significant positivechanges in the low level scientific and mathematics literacy of Filipino students(DepEd, 2010). This attempt of the Philippine education sector to establish aneducational system that is at par with international standards maintains acomplete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the needsof the Filipino people and the society. Thus, the new curriculum also envisionseducation as “going global by being local.”

Such schema conforms with the claim of Jordan, Carlile, & Stack (2008)that culture determines what is considered worthy of study. Learning set toone’s cultural background promotes sustainability and preservation ofindigenous knowledge, as foreseen by DOST SEI to be the future roadmap tobetter scientifically literate Filipinos (Brawner, 2011). Accordingly, this followsthe trail of UNESCO’s Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD)centered on Indigenous Knowledge. Among the four sustainable development(SD) pillars, cultural pillar is emphasized with the following thematic SDpriorities: Cultural Heritage, Cultural Preservation and Indigenous Knowledge –the current theme known to many as Education for Sustainable Development’s(ESD’s) life long learning and learning for life. Our educational system is notnew to this area. Efforts such as inclusion of mother tongue based multilingualeducation as a separate subject to elementary level up to grade 3 and as anauxiliary language until grade 12 are considered to attain the major goal ofscience education – scientific literacy for all.

In the teacher education sector, these efforts are within the strand oflocal responsiveness. It is primarily focused on indigenous studies andlocalization of the curriculum where the teachers are empowered to developtheir teaching materials and design their pedagogy on the grounds of the localcommunity to make learning very meaningful, culturally sensitive and highlyadapted to the local perspective of the learners. Several researches (Popov,2006&Aikenhead, 2001)were able to deduce good results in terms of studentachievement using cultural integration Thus, development of curriculummaterials to promote integration of culture and language in the teaching andlearning of physics concepts adopting Instructional Congruence Framework canalso extend to being influenced by context based learning and communitybased learning. Accompanying these curriculum materials are curriculummaterials’ evaluation tools are necessary for the validation and standardizationprocesses.

Non-Conventional Processes in the Development of Culturally-Sensitive Curriculum…


Purpose

The aim for scientific literacy forms the integral part of the scienceframework promoted by the K+12 curriculum. To achieve this goal, one way isto utilize the indigenous knowledge (IK) of students as materials for learningand learning within culture. Culturally sensitive curriculum materials should bedeveloped to capture learning and learning within culture. This process utilizesand develops as well the indigenous knowledge of the students. However,there are no available evaluation tools specifically to assess culturally sensitivecurriculum materials in Physics.

Thus, the present objective of the study is anchored on productdevelopment, specifically, the Culturally Sensitive Curriculum MaterialEvaluation Tool (CS CMET) to help pre and in service teachers assess thequality, congruence and coherence of culturally sensitive curriculum materialsin physics (CS CMIP) that they have developed through localization.

Specifically, the present study aims to focus on the non conventionalprocesses in the development of CS CMET to:

Identify pre deterministic constructs, criteria and indicators of aculturally sensitive curriculum material in Physics based on literaturereviews, experts’/teachers’ views, course content and the Filipinoculture;

Develop a corresponding evaluation tool based on the predeterministic construct, criteria and indicators of a culturally –sensitive material;

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Integration of Culture MTB MLE ICF (Instructional Congruence Framework) Constructivism

CS-CMET Constructs Teacher initiatedintegration of Cultureand language

Learning Science andLearning Literacy

Constructivism

NCP (Non-Conventional

Process) Teachers’ views Literature reviews Course Content Filipino Culture

Culture Sensitivity

Morales, M.P.E.


The first attempt to develop the evaluation tool was guided by theprinciples of culture sensitivity that include integration of culture and languagein the curriculum materials, use of the mother tongue based multi lingualeducation, instructional congruence framework, and constructivism. Nonconventional process was used to come up with items for the evaluation tooland constructs that thematically group these items. Non conventional pilotstudy with inputs experts’ views, teachers’ views and literature reviews oncourse content and Filipino culture were gathered through focus groupdiscussions, interviews, panel discussions and intensive research of literatures.These were used to determine specific items and features teachers would needto see in a culturally sensitive curriculum material.

Language: Focus on Mother Tongue Based Multi Lingual Education (MTBMLE)

Culture, however, is highly identified with languages and languagediversity. Koiichiro Matsura, the Director General of UNESCO in UNESCO’sDeclaration on Cultural Diversity (2001), cited how linguist Claude Hage’gehighlighted the link between language and humanity in an interview withmagazine L’Express (2000):

“Our languages are what make us most human. A good reason todefend them.”

Defending the languages and language diversity was one of the majorgoals of UNESCO’s Education for All (EFA). The same objectives were revealedin several researches (Agnihotri, 2008; Collier, 2004; Fafunwa & Soyinka, 1989;and Benson, 2002) which gave results or evidences that the longer a child istaught in his or her home language, the higher is his or her academicachievement in school.

These research findings on the vitality of Mother Tongue instructionwas not far from the efforts and outcomes of researches in our country as well.The Lubuagan First Language Component (FLC) Multilingual Education (MLE) in1998 discussed by Yolanda Quijano, as cited by Castillo Llaneta (2010) in herarticle, “The Language of Learning: Mother Tongue Based MultilingualEducation in the Philippines. The major results of this program highlycontributed to the success of the Mother Tongue instruction.

Our legislators, seeing the benefits of the Mother Tongue Basedinstruction, had promulgated House Bill 3719 known as the MultilingualEducation and Literacy Bill which aimed to promote literacy and learning bymaking the native tongue as MOI during the formative years of basic education.This is consistent with the Roxas Bill (2008) known as the Senate Bill 2294 or



otherwise known as the Omnibus Education Reform Bill, introduced by Sen.Mar Roxas. It proposes "to strengthen the Philippine education systemthrough timely interventions on the quality of teachers, the medium ofinstruction (Mother Tongue from Grades 1 to 3) used and the evaluation ofstudents' aptitude, among other aspects.”

In response to this progress of using the mother tongue in instruction,the Department of Education (DepEd) mandated the use of the Mother Tonguein instruction through DepEd Order No. 74 (s. 2009): Institutionalizing MTBMLE.The agency through such an order aimed to promote the use of more than 2languages for literacy and instruction as a fundamental policy in the WHOLEstretch of formal education including pre school years. Part of the agency’splan was the full scale implementation of DepEd Order No. 74 in the new K+12curriculum. In this curriculum, mother tongue will be taught as a separatesubject from pre school to Grade 3 and taken as a separate subject, as much asone of the media of instruction used in the whole stretch of formal education.

Instructional Congruence Framework

Many researchers believed that integrating culture in the curriculumhas a good future in attaining success as to learning content. It is claimed thatstudents’ culture as a relevant source and strategies of teaching and learning isexpected to make teaching of science more interesting and meaningful tostudents. In this way, students see and evaluate their funds of knowledge (preconceptions) as different from the other and that these depend on the type ofexperience obtained from their respective environment. Such idea led Lee,et.al. (2007) to believe that incorporating students funds of knowledge into theteaching of science could be achieved through instructional congruencestrategy.

Instructional congruence is the process of mediating the nature ofacademic content with the students’ language and cultural experience (Lee,et.al. 2007and Johnson, 2005). In addition, cultural experiences consist of theknowledge that students have obtained from their community, whereasstudents’ language experiences stress the languages used in their daily life. Asreiterated by Lee & Lykx (2005), when the knowledge of science wereincorporated with students’ language and experiences, students would bemore engaged in the learning process and science would be easier, meaningfuland relevant to them. Learning environment that puts emphasis oninstructional congruence could make students become bicultural, bilingual andbi literate persons not only in terms of knowledge, values and practice inscience, but also in aspects of their language and culture.

Morales, M.P.E.


Accordingly, instructional congruence (Lee & Fradd, 2001 and Johnson,2005) has these characteristic features:

Role of Teacher. The teacher should identify what the students need,their culture and their daily language. These are to be integrated inthe instructional design.

Instructional congruence is subject specific pedagogy of teachingmodel based on particular cultural model. Johnson (2005) mentionedthat teachers need to give similar emphasis between scientificknowledge and the actual inquiry process with the students’ languageand cultural experience. Furthermore, teachers are expected to teachscience in the context which allows students to create connectionsbetween their languages so that science content is easily understood,meaningful and relevant to students.

Learning Science and Learning Literacy is believed to be able toimprove students’ mastery of writing skills, encourage more discussionand allows more sharing on cultural experience.

Instructional congruence is constructivist in approach. Studentsdevelop knowledge by integrating their experiences with theenvironment which also promote academic achievement in scienceand literacy (Cuevas, Lee, & Deaktor, 2005and Lixin, 2006). Finally,instructional congruence also emphasizes scientific values andattitudes in learning science, such as curiosity, interest, honesty, openand critical mind, reasoning, argumentation, questioning etc.

Though these may seem to complete the whole process of culturalintegration in the teaching and learning of physics concepts, developedcurriculum materials need to be assessed before implementation. Evaluation ofthe curriculum materials is a necessary process, if one has to ensure thatquality and coherence are demonstrated by the developed curriculummaterials. It is also necessary to detect whether developed materials adhere toinstructional congruence framework (ICF) which forms the basis for thedevelopment as well as the envisioned process of enhancing scientific literacyand preservation of indigenous knowledge for sustainability as well. Thus, thiscalls for Culturally Sensitive – Curriculum Material Evaluation Tool (CS CMET) toevaluate Culturally Sensitive Curriculum Material in Physics (CS CMIP).

Development of a new instrument entails a lot of quantitative analysis,but qualitative approaches are also needed to delve further, clarify andestablish verified quantitative results.



These processes (quantitative design and qualitative approach) werevery prominent in the development of Views on Nature of Science andEducation (VOSE) and Colorado Learning Attitude Science Survey (CLASS).Adams (2006) used literature reviews, existing survey instruments and pilotstudy which included student interview and face & content validation byexperts focused on qualitative approaches to extract probable content and predeterministic constructs of the intended survey instrument. Comparably, Chen(2006) used quantitative design with qualitative approaches in thedevelopment of Views on Nature of Science and Education (VOSE). She furtherclaimed that the results were dependable because the items originated fromthe respondents’ point of view instead of from the researcher’s presumption ofreasonable answers, thus has a high reliability.

METHODOLOGY

Using qualitative research design in the development of the first draftof the evaluation instrument, the study intended to assess developedculturally sensitive curriculum materials in physics. Survey research was usedto determine the feasibility of the instrument in the field of evaluation ofculturally sensitive learning packages in Physics. Pilot investigation was themajor methodology used to gather empirical data needed in the design ofitems and pre deterministic constructs of the intended evaluation instrument.Literature reviews focused on cultural perspective of learning, scientific literacyand instructional congruence were utilized to theoretically validate the predeterministic constructs identified in the pilot study. Basically, the instrumentwas highly influenced by the 4 major characteristics of InstructionalCongruence: role of teacher; specific pedagogy of teaching model based onparticular cultural model; learning science and learning literacy believed toimprove students’ mastery of writing skills; and constructivism.

The pilot study included preparation of interview protocol, focusgroup discussion guides and interviews of high school physics teachers (inservice of Arellano Cayetano High School) with senior high school students todetermine their initial views on the integration of culture and language in theteaching and learning process of physics concepts. Both groups were askedwhat they were expecting in curriculum materials integrating culture andlanguage. A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with five (5) Physics faculty ofCayetano Arellano National High School was conducted to determine thereadability of the items, the appropriateness of the language used and thecomprehension level of the items. The FGD provided information and insightsinto how physics teachers view the teaching and learning of physics conceptsintegrating culture and language. They were able to give their preliminaryviews on how to use this integration procedure and learning materials meantto effectively integrate culture and the language in physics learning

Morales, M.P.E.


environment. They also provided insights into the necessary criteriacharacteristics expected from culturally sensitive curriculum materials inphysics. Data extracted from the pilot study and the information drawn fromliterature formed the bases of the content and format of the evaluation tool.


As stated earlier, the project seeks to develop an evaluation tool thatwill be used to assess culturally sensitive curriculum materials in physics.Literature reviews and empirical data deduced from the pilot study with 5 highschool physics teachers of Cayetano Arellano National High School were usedto identify the pre deterministic constructs and indicators of culturallysensitive materials. Accordingly, almost all the teachers interviewed expressedthat the idea of integrating the culture and language or mother tongue in theteaching and learning was good, adding the difficulty for children to learn theconcepts when taught in pure English as the MOI. They affirmed that bothgroups of students (above average and slow learners) alike need translations inorder for them to completely assimilate the concepts. In the conduct ofexperiments the teacher needs to translate the instructions to the mothertongue for the students to understand and be able to follow. Transcribedinterview results with these teachers were provided below:

Researcher: Ano po yong nakikita ninyong motivation nila kayanatututo sila?(What motivates kids to learn?)Teacher A: Yung madaling matututunan, activity.(The one that iseasiest to learn involves activity)Researcher: Activity paano, activity based…(activity based)Teacher A: Activity at saka itatransfer po sa Tagalog yung words.(Activity and words should be translated to Tagalog)Teacher B: Bilingual talaga. (Bilingual)Teacher A: BilingualTeacher A: Oo, English muna (English first)Teacher C: Sunod agad yung Tagalog(Then translate everything toTagalog)Teacher B: Yung mga books natin puro English eh..(All our bookshowever are written in English.)

Based on the transcribed excerpt of the interview, teachers used themother tongue (Tagalog) to further explain the concepts or procedures for thestudents to understand. This practice was claimed to be done, especially bythose teachers teaching the student of low mental ability. They also claimedthat students could neither express themselves in English nor participate inclass discussion. Often, students request that they speak in the mother tongue



during discussion and even in written discourses. Some other excerpts providedthe same results in relation to the use of mother tongue in the teaching andlearning process.

Researcher: Kailan po kayo hindi nagsimulang gumamit ng Englishlanguage? Kailan po kayo nag inject ng Tagalog talaga?(When didyou start using Tagalog in your discussions?)Teacher D: Mga 1990s eh…kasi 1972 ako dito eh. Sige, 1972 hanggang1990 strictly English nagkakaintindihan ang mga estudyante. (Around1990s. I was here as early as 1972 and until the 1990s strictly I wasspeaking English and my students understood English.)Teacher A: Pati behavior nila iba. (Now even their attitude andbehavior is quite different as before.)Teacher C:Hindi kasi masyadong naiintindihan ng bata yung pureEnglish, yung science po kung minsan nga ang hirap itagalog yuneh.(Students do not really understand what you are teaching if youteach using pure English. In science, however, it is very difficult totranslate terms in Tagalog.)Researcher: Nakikita n’yo talaga agad kung naiintindihan nila o hindi,sa aksyon nila.(You are able to observe based on their actions if theyreally understand what is taught.)Teacher A: Tsaka sila, nag eenjoy sila, kasi learning takes place.(Theyalso enjoy since learning takes place.)

However, most of them claimed that they use the bilingual systeminstead of using pure English or pure Tagalog. They often start with the Englishinstructions and introductions and then continue discussions and other oraldiscourse using Tagalog. But the teacher also said that they do not translate allwords. Technical terms were retained in their English format. From some othertranscribed excerpts of the interview or Focus Group Discussion, theproponent was able to identify the teacher’s expectations with regard tocurriculum materials that would integrate culture and language or the mothertongue as follows:

Teacher D: parang improvised. (Some improvisations)Teacher A: yung ano, yung enough lang ang time. (Consider timeelement. Activities can be done in about just enough time.)Teacher A: 1 hour and 30 mins, ngayon 1 hour na lang (Before thecontact time for science is 1 hr and 30 min. Now we have to make dowith 1 hour.)Teacher B:1 hour and 12 min., tapos 1 hour na lang.

Morales, M.P.E.


The interviewed teachers pointed out the use of locally availablematerials in the activities to be developed. Some sort of improvised apparatuswere suggested as part of the materials. Discussion flow should also becontinuous and that the language used, although basically mother tongue,must also address the mental capability of the students in the lower mentalability spectrum. Finally, they were expecting that the activities included in thewould be developed curriculum materials should cover the 1 hour and 20minute schedule. These expected characteristics of a culturally sensitivecurriculum material in physics were included as part of the items of theevaluation tool. From the excerpts presented, there are several things toconsider in developing such type of materials – the teacher must fairly knowthe students cultural background, their language used (mother tongue), theirprior knowledge, and activities they are interested in or find very relevant tothem.

Literature reviews, on the other hand, provided the proponent withalmost parallel constructs, criteria and indicators of a culturally sensitivecurriculum material in Physics based on literature reviews, expert’s/teacher’sviews, course content and the Filipino culture. Pre deterministic constructs ashighlighted in this study included the four constructs of InstructionalCongruence Framework: (1) Role of Teacher, (2) subject specific pedagogy ofteaching model based on particular cultural model, (3) Learning Science andLearning Literacy, and (4) constructivism.

The first version of CS CMET included 31 items designed in Likert scale.The items identified were based on the gathered data from the pilot study andliterature reviews. To determine whether these items conform to ICF theinstrument was subjected to two methods of content validation by the experts:descriptive and quantitative content validation. Only descriptive validation wasdone for face validation. Descriptive validation highlighted the use of phrasesor words to describe the assessment of the items. These were presented as theexpert’s comments, remarks or suggestions. Quantitative content validationmade use of the 18 item validation checklist (Appendix A) adapted fromInstructional Congruence Framework and Project Rekindling Tradition byAikenhead (2001).



Table 1. Content and Face Validity of CS-CMET v.1 Experts Average Comments/SuggestionsExpert 1 4.83 Corrections for typographical and spelling errors

There might be a missing word on item 26

Expert 2 4.56 Corrections for typographical and spelling errors Item 2, Item 18, item 22, and Item 26

Expert 3 4.83 The evaluation checklist is very comprehensive to evaluate instructional materials

Average 4.74

The means of the individual experts were determined by getting theratio of the sum of the ratings per expert and the total number of items in thechecklist. For a more reliable computation, Statistical Package for SocialSciences (SPSS) generated output was used, instead of manual calculations. Allevaluators had rated the developed test 4.74 out of to 5.0 (Table 1) indicativethat the raters evaluated the instrument within the highest continuum of theLikert scale. This suggested a good quality tool in construction and validcontent wise and in terms of the ICF constructs identified such asconstructivism, teacher’s role, subject specific pedagogy and learning scienceand learning literacy. The third column provided the suggestion and commentsof the experts. The proponent conducted a panel interview with the 3 experts,while they were on the validation process to clarify their suggestions andcomments. As part of the non conventional process, the panel interviewensured the empirical reliability of the ratings and validation processes of theexperts. Expert 3 expressed that the instrument had to be pilot tested toensure that the developed instrument would be standard in assessingculturally sensitive curriculum material evaluation instrument. Experts 1 and 2identified the items to be revised, while Expert 3 commended the instrumentas provided in the comments.


The development of an evaluation tool to assess culturally sensitivelearning materials in Physics started by determining pre constructs, criteria andindicators of fitting curriculum materials integrating culture and language. Nontraditional approaches to the development and design of the items were donethrough interviews, panel discussions, and focus group discussions with stakeholders (students, teachers, and experts). Data extracted from the pilot studyserved as bases in the design and development of items that comprised theevaluation tool. The constructs identified were the role of the teacher basicallychosen as one of the considerations of the materials. The teacher must be wellversed in discussing the concepts in contexts, as provided by the material. Thelearning materials should be something that models congruence between

Morales, M.P.E.


scientific knowledge and the inquiry process, with students’ language andcultural experience. The emphasis on the improvement of students’ mastery ofwriting skills encourages more discussion and allows more sharing on culturalexperiences of students. Constructivism, the last identified construct, allowsstudents develop knowledge by integrating their experiences with theenvironment. From these identified constructs, local responsiveness as a themecomes into play, where the designed curriculum to fits the local setting of thelearners. CS CMET can be utilized to determine the appropriateness of thecommunity based learning materials.

Results suggested that the developed evaluation tool exhibited allthese qualities and characteristics. CS CMET’s reliability was establishedempirically through the pilot study where the intended users identified theindicators of curriculum materials integrating culture and language. Suchindicators parallel those identified through literature reviews.

However, some aspects of the study have to be polished, sincesampling only included a small group of participants in the pilot study. It issuggested that more participants be invited to the focus group discussion.Preferably, the participants should be composed of teachers from the differentethnic groupings. Comparative study of the raw statistical constructs and thepre deterministic constructs may be done to further establish the indicators ofgood culturally sensitive curriculum materials. Since the Philippines isconsidered to have many ethnic groupings, an extensive study on the culturallearning styles of the different ethnic learners may be done to determine, if theindicators identified in the study also fit the other ethnic groups of learners.

REFERENCES

Adams, W. K. (2006). A new instrument for measuring student beliefs about physics andlearning physics: the Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey.Available at www.phet.colorado.edu/.../New%20Instrument%20For%20Measuring%20Student%2Beliefs.pdf.Retrieved on June 6, 2011.

Agnihotri, R. K. (2008). Continuing debates over the native speaker: a report on asymposium on English in India and Indian English. English Today 24 (4), pp. 5157. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266078408000400. Retrieved onJune 5, 2012.

Aikenhead, G. S. (2001). Integrating Western Aboriginal Sciences: Cross Cultural ScienceTeaching. Research in Science Education. 31(2) pp. 337 355. Available at:http://www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/aiktsuji.htm. Retrieved onJune 3, 2011.



Benson, C. (2002) Bilingual education in Africa: An exploration of encouragingconnections between language and girls' schooling. In Melin, Mia (ed)Education—A Way out of Poverty? Research presentations at the PovertyConference 2001. New Education Division Documents No. 12. Stockholm:Sida, 79 95.

Benson, C. (2002) “Real and Potential Benefits of Bilingual Programmes in DevelopingCountries,” In International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,Vol. 5, No. 6. Bristol, U.K.: Channel View Publications.

Brawner, F. G. (2011). Paper presentation: Gearing K to 12 Science to acceleratenational development. Electronic enablers for excellence in education –science (E4 – Science) forum November 5, 2011 (Saturday), CSB Hotel, Malate,Manila

Castillo Llaneta, C. (2010). The Language of Learning: Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education in the Philippines. The Forum 11(2).

Chen, S. (2006). Development of an instrument to assess view on nature of science andattitude toward teaching science. Wiley Interscience. Available atwww.interscience.wiley.com.Retrievedon June 1, 2011.

Collier, V. and Thomas, W. 2004.The astounding effectiveness of dual languageeducation for all. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, Vol. 2 No. 1.Availableat http://njrp.tamu.edu/2004/PDFs/Collier.pdf.Retrieved on June 23, 2011.

Cuevas, P., Lee, O., Hart, J., & Deaktor, R. (2005).Improving science inquiry withelementary students of diverse backgrounds. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 42(3), 337 357.

DepEd Order No. 74, s. 2009. Available at: www.deped.gov.ph. Retrieved on May 11,2011.

______2005 DOST SEI Annual Report. Available at: www.sei.dost.gov.ph/ts/ar2005.pdf.Retrieved on September 2, 2011.

Fafunwa, A., Macauley, J. &Soyinka, J. (eds) (1989). Education in Mother Tongue. The IfePrimary Education Research Project (1970 1978). Ibadan: University Press.

House Bill 3719.Multilingual (MLE) and Literacy Bill.Available atwww.congress.gov.ph/download/journals_14/j011.pdf. Retrieved on June 1,2012

Johnson, C. C. (2005). Making instruction relevant to language minority students at themiddle level. Middle School Journal. November 2005 • 37(2) pp. 10 14.Available at www.nmsa.org/Publications/MiddleSchoolJournal/Articles/.Retrieved on October 2, 2011.

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Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack,A. (2008).Approaches to Learning: A Guide For Teachers.New York: Open University Press, McGraw Hill Education. ISBN 10: 0 33522670 1 (pb) 0 33 522671 X (hb) ISBN 13: 978 0 33 522670 2 (pb) 978 0 33522671 9 (hb) L’Express, 02 January 2000, “Une Langue Disparaittous lesquirizajours”.

Lee, et.al. (2007). Science achievement of English language learners in urban elementaryschools: Results of a 1st year professional development intervention. Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching. 45(1), pp. 31 52.

Lee, O., &Fradd, S. H. (2001).Instructional congruence to promote science learning andliteracy development for linguistically diverse students. In D. R. Lavoie & W M.Roth (Eds.), Models for science teacher preparation: Bridging the gap betweenresearch and practice. (pp. 109 126). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: KluwerAcademic Publishers.

Lee, O. & Lykx, A. (2005). Dilemmas in scaling up innovations in science instruction withnon mainstream elementary students. American Educational ResearchJournal. 42(3), pp 411 – 438.

Lixin, X. (2006).Bridging the gap between teaching styles and learning styles: A Crosscultural perspective.TESL EJ (Teaching English as a Second language).Vol.10(3).

Senate Bill 2294.Roxas Bill Available at: www.senate.gov.ph/lis/billres.aspx?congress=14&q=SBN 2294. Retrieved on June 12, 2012

UNESCO. (1993). Project 2000+.International Forum on Scientific and TechnologicalLiteracy for All. Final Report. Available atunesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000952/095246eb.pdf. Retrieved on June14, 2011.

UNESCO (2001). Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, principal author: KoichiroMatsura. Available at www.unesco.org/culture.Retrieved on October 25,2011.

UPNISMED (2005).Classroom Level Impact of SMEMDP, in CICE Report in press.

UPNISMED (2005).TIMSS 1999 Micro Analysis Report. NISMED Printing UP Diliman.



Appendix A

Validation Checklist for CS-CMET v.1 and v.2 Dear Evaluator:

This checklist is intended for use by expert evaluators to determine the extent of standardization and validity of the “Culturally-Sensitive Curriculum Material Evaluation Tool” (CMET). It aims to help in the development of a valid and reliable evaluation tool capable of assessing culturally-sensitive curriculum materials. Please tick on the appropriate cell. Thank you very much. (5)- Strongly Agree; (4) – Agree; (3) – Undecided; (2) – Disagree; and (1) - Strongly Disagree

Criteria 5 4 3 2 1 1. Language used is simple and easy to understand. 2. Statements are simple and direct to the point. 3. In general, unnecessary difficult vocabulary is avoided. 4. All statements are free from grammatical, spelling, punctuation, and

typographical errors

5. Lay-out and format of the items are clear and in a consistent manner. 6. Directions are clear and easy to follow by the intended users. 7. Readability of the text is appropriate for the intended users. 8. The CMET includes statements on all the pedagogical constructs such as

assessment, skill development, and content.

9. All attributes of an effective and acceptable curriculum material are considered.

10. Statements focused on how culture and language integrated in the material are just enough for the evaluation process.

11. There are statements focused on how culture and language will be delivered to facilitate the evaluation process.

12. The CMET includes evaluation statements directed to the concepts of education for sustainable development.

13. There are evaluation statements assessing how the curriculum material exhibits constructivism.

14. CMET is capable of determining coherence of the materials from the objectives to the assessment part.

15. CMET is capable of determining consistency of the intentions or goals of the curriculum materials with the national standards (science framework).

16. CMET includes statements to assess the appropriacy of using local materials in the identified physics content or lesson.

17. CMET is also able to identify the appropriacy of the curriculum materials’ level to the intended users

18. Overall, CMET is complete enough to assess culturally-sensitive curriculum materials in physics

Source: Aikenhead (2001). Instructional Congruence Framework and Project Rekindling Tradition


TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION (TEI)

STAKEHOLDERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE ON SMOKING AND EXTENT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF ITS

RELATED POLICIES: BASES FOR NEW SCHOOL POLICIES AND INTERVENTION PROGRAM

XwÇt _âé etçÅâÇwÉ „ TuâÄÉÇ==Philippine Normal University

ABSTRACT

This descriptive study focused on determining the knowledge, andattitude on smoking and the perceived extent of implementation of antismoking policies among students, faculty, and staff. The study further aimed torecommend new school policies on smoking and to develop learning modulesfor inclusion in the National Service Training Program (NSTP) for the collegestudents. The sample included high school and college students, faculty, andstaff. A survey questionnaire with three parts was developed for this purpose.Results showed that respondents were highly knowledgeable of the ill effects ofsmoking on the smoker’s and non smoker’s health. Likewise, the findingsindicated that respondents knew about the harmful effects of smoking onsociety and the existing laws and policies banning smoking in the University andcommunity. Moreover, the respondents expressed a negative attitude towardthe smell of smoking fumes. The majority of the respondents found thegovernment lax in implementing smoking ban policies to minors and in publicplaces. Respondents opined that the posting of signage prohibiting smokingand the banning of tobacco product advertisements, promotions andsponsorships should be strongly implemented. They suggested that educationalprograms on anti smoking be implemented, incentives to those who quitsmoking provided, and cigarette production in the country banned altogether.The research strongly recommended further that the learning modules beincluded in the NSTP program of the university.

Keywords: knowledge, attitude, extent of implementation, anti smokingpolicies

*The development of the research instrument, actual data gathering, statistical processing of dataand learning modules development and try out were a collaborative effort of the PNU researchteam under the University’s Project Based Research Grant: Marilyn U. Balagtas, Brian M. Limson,Rowena B. Escoto, Glenda O de Lara, Arthur S. Abulencia, Ma. Lourdes S. Agustin, Jerrick C. Ferrer,Danilo P. Patalot, Jr. and Maribel G. Gerundio

Teacher Education Institution (TEI) Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Attitude on Smoking…


INTRODUCTION

Smoking continues to profoundly impact on public health. It is now arisk factor for 6 of the 8 leading causes of death and kills almost six millionpeople globally each year. According to the Southeast Asia Initiative onTobacco Tax (2011), the Philippines has the highest smoking prevalence ratesin the world ranking ninth for adult males (47.7%) and sixteenth for adultfemales (9%). In addition, the 2009 Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS)showed that about 17.3 million Filipinos aged 15 years old and over aresmokers. Among the 17.3 million Filipino smokers, 14.6 are males and 2.7million females (WHO, 2009). Likewise, the 2007 Global Youth Tobacco Survey(GYTS) reported that more than 1 in 4 Filipino students aged 13 to 15 aresmokers, which only means that four million Filipino youths are currentlysmoking.

The deepening concern on the prevalence of second hand smoke inthe environment has been globally noticed. In the Philippines, the Departmentof Health was able to undertake a study in 2012 on the air nicotine level aswell as on the smoking behavior in public places in Manila. This study revealedthat there was a detectable level of passive smoking in schools, hospitals,government offices, restaurants, and entertainment venues. It furtheremphasized that there is no risk free level of secondhand smoke exposure andthat a brief exposure can be dangerous. Indeed secondhand smoke is apollutant that could precipitate serious illness in adults and children. Hence,the study recommended what the World Health Organization urged countriesworldwide to adopt a 100% smoke free law, requiring all public places andwork places to ban smoking.

The Philippines’ Global Youth Tobacco Survey, a school based surveyconducted in 2007 revealed that around 69.3% of the students admitted tohave been taught in class, during the past year about the effects of tobaccouse, an indicator that the Philippine educational system has been activelyinvolved in the preventive education on tobacco use through the schoolcurriculum. About the high school student respondents’ awareness onsmoking ban, the survey showed that almost 9 in 10 students have seen antismoking media messages in the past 30 days. Yet no specific data that couldprovide on how aware the students were about the existing national and localpolicies geared towards control of tobacco use and towards a 100% smokefree environment (Department of Health, 2007).

Association between school smoking policies and smoking prevalenceamong adolescents was established by Moore and Nedor (2001). Theirfindings suggest that a wider introduction of comprehensive school smoking

Abulon E.L. R.


policies may help reduce smoking among teenagers. Also, a study conductedin New Zealand (Darling et al., 2005) showed that there is an associationbetween school policies enforcement and the prevalence of students’cigarette smoking.

An undergraduate thesis from the University of the PhilippinesDiliman by Augillon and Romano (2012) is one of the few academic papers tostudy smoking behavior and attitude among Filipino youth. One veryimportant result of this study reveals that almost half of the male high schoolstudents from the National Capital Region (NCR) who participated in theresearch would likely smoke in the next 1 to 5 years. Hence, the researchersfelt the need to put a stop to the increasing prevalence of smoking in youththat could be addressed by preventive education efforts. Another crucialoutcome of the study yields that 61% of the NCR male high school studentsexpressed their awareness of stores which sell cigarettes near schools to givean empirical data how poorly implemented the laws on smoking ban in thecountry. It will be recalled the Republic Act 9211 (2003) prohibits selling ofcigarettes to minors as well as selling cigarettes within the 100 meterperimeter of a school.

Aside from R.A. 9311, local government units in the country passedcity or municipality ordinances which support this law. Awareness on theseordinances could provide one protective layer to prevent the youth fromcigarette smoking.

The Philippine Normal University (PNU) as the National Center forTeacher Education (NCTE) caters to the would be teachers youth populationso that this research finds it imperative to navigate into the importance ofschool policies on smoking as well as to establish a research basedintervention program toward preparing the would be teachers in curving thepandemic of tobacco smoking. Also, as a state university, the school isenjoined by the Civil Service Commission to enforce the CSC MemorandumCircular No. 17 s. of 1999. The aforesaid law provides for the absoluteprohibition on smoking in agencies with health, education, and social welfareand development services and violation of the policy therein shall beadministratively sanctioned.

The study seeks to determine the knowledge on and attitude towardsmoking and policies that ban it, by the stakeholders of the PNU as basis fornew policy making and intervention programs such as curriculum integration,anti smoking campaign drives, and making the University a smoke freeenvironment. Since smoking is the number one cause of lung cancer andrelated diseases in the country, usually initiated when students are in highschool, there is a need for teachers and all stakeholders of learning institutions



like PNU to help disseminate the information and serve as advocates of ahealthy learning environment for the children and the citizens of the country.


Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework that guided theundertaking of this research. Four groups of respondents that constitute thecommunity of the Philippine Normal University were surveyed to elicit theirknowledge of and attitude toward smoking and its related policies. Extent ofimplementation of laws, ordinances and school policies that ban smoking werefurther assessed by the four groups of respondents. With the findings of thestudy, new policies that would strengthen the campaign against smoking wereoffered. Further, an intervention program through the development andvalidation of learning modules for pre service teachers was recommended tobe part of the National Service Training Program (NSTP).

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Research Objectives

This research seeks to determine the knowledge of and attitudetoward smoking and related policies by high school students at PNU Center forTeaching and Learning, would be teachers for the secondary level, faculty, andstaff of the Philippine Normal University. In particular, the research studyhopes to:

Abulon E.L. R.


1. Determine the knowledge and attitude of the respondents interms of the effects of smoking and on related policies that bansmoking in the schools and the community;

2. Assess the respondents’ perceived extent of implementation oflaws, city ordinances, school rules and regulations, and otherpolicies that ban smoking in the University;

3. Elicit suggestions and recommendations from the respondents onhow to improve implementation of laws so as to reduceprevalence of smoking among Filipinos; and

4. Based on the findings of the study, recommend new schoolpolicies and possible intervention program/s toward a smoke freeuniversity.

METHODOLOGY

The descriptive survey method of research was utilized to capture theknowledge and attitude of the study participants toward smoking and theextent of implementation of policies that ban smoking. Four groups ofrespondents comprised the study. Figure 2 depicts the percentage distributionof the 410 participants of the study, the majority (44%) of whom were BSEgraduating students. Cluster sampling was done to select the eight classes outof the 24 graduating Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSE) classes involved inthe study. In choosing the eight classes, simple random sampling, specificallythe fishbowl technique was undertaken to ensure representativeness of thesample.

Around 21% composed the fourth year high school students from theCTL. Everyone in the two graduating classes was invited to join the survey, butonly 84 students did so. About 20% of the total respondents came from theadministrative workforce (84 out of 129 staff) and only 15% of the participantscame from the faculty (61 out of 193 members of the faculty). Nevertheless, allfaculty members and the non teaching staff of the University were invited toanswer the research instrument.

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dealt with the participants demographics, while the second part elicited theknowledge of and attitude toward smoking in general with items in alternativeresponse format. The last part focused on the knowledge and attitude of theparticipants toward the anti smoking policies being implemented in the schooland community with items in the five point scale format. Quantitative datagathered from the survey questionnaire were analyzed using descriptivestatistics.


Prevalence of Smoking among the Study Participants

Table 2 reveals that only 5.9% or 16 out of the 410 respondentsadmitted that they were smoking cigarette at the time of the study. Nobodycame from the group of high school students and about six from the group ofcollege BSE students. Another six came from the administrative staff and fourfrom the faculty or the teaching staff of the University.

Table 2. Distribution of Respondents Who Are Smoking at Present

Classification Yes No No answer Total f % f % f % f %

CTL students 0 0 84 100 0 0 84 20.5 College BSE students

6 3.3 141 77.5 35 19.2 182 44.4

Faculty 4 6.6 56 91.8 1 1.6 61 14.9 Staff 6 7.2 62 74.7 15 18.1 83 20.2 Total 16 3.9 343 83.7 51 12.4 410 100.0

When asked if the respondents tried smoking before, Figure 4 showsabout five high school students, 20 college BSE students, 15 faculty members,and 20 administrative staff admitted that they tried smoking in the past.

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Abulon E.L. R.


Nursing mothers who smoke can transfer the harmful chemicalsfrom the cigarette to the baby, through their breast milk;

Non smokers whose partners smoke are likely to suffer fromrespiratory illnesses;

Third hand smoke is tobacco smoke that remains in theimmediate environment after the cigarette has been consumedfor several days;

Third hand smoke contains harmful chemicals; Third hand smoke can be inhaled from clothes of the smokers; Even at low levels, the chemicals in third hand smoke can affect

the nerve and brain tissues; Second hand and third hand smoke impairs the growth of

children; and Smoking can lead to environmental pollution.

Table 3. Level of Respondents’ Knowledge of Effects of Smoking on Other People and Society Level CTL BSE Faculty Staff Total

f % f % f % f % f % High 41 48.8 114 62.6 42 68.9 57 68.7 254 62.0 Moderate 41 48.8 65 35.7 19 31.1 19 22.9 144 35.1 Low 2 2.4 3 1.6 0 0 7 8.4 12 2.9 Total 84 100 182 99.9 61 100.0 83 100.0 410 100.0

An item analysis performed on the test items that measure theknowledge of the effects of smoking on other people and the society revealedthat an item on the definition of third hand smoke was considered difficult.Only 47% of the total respondents got the item correctly. Most of therespondents who got incorrect answers came from the two groups of studentrespondents, the BSE college students and the fourth year students from CTL.

Knowledge of the Policies on Smoking

Knowledge level of the respondents about the existing policies oncigarette smoking is presented in Figure 8. As shown, the faculty group got thehighest rating, while the staff respondents got the lowest rating. Nevertheless,dichotomizing the set of scores into high and low level, all groups ofrespondents have a high level of knowledge of the following:

That there is an existing law in our country that informs the publicof the health risks associated with cigarette smoking;

That the government implements a law that protects the youthfrom being initiated to cigarette smoking by prohibiting the sale oftobacco products to minors;

Table 3. Level of Respondents’ Knowledge of Effects of Smoking on Other People and Society Level CTL BSE Faculty Staff Total

f % f % f % f % f % High 41 48.8 114 62.6 42 68.9 57 68.7 254 62.0 Moderate 41 48.8 65 35.7 19 31.1 19 22.9 144 35.1 Low 2 2.4 3 1.6 0 0 7 8.4 12 2.9 Total 84 100 182 99.9 61 100.0 83 100.0 410 100.0

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Abulon E.L. R.


Personal Attitude toward Smoking

Item 1 states that “I think people smoke as a form of relaxation.”Based on the frequency and percentage distribution, the majority (45.9%) ofthe respondents from all of the four groups agreed with the statement. “Ithink that smoking is a stress reliever” is the second item in the questionnaire.Most (37.4%) of the college students, faculty (37.7%), and staff (36.1%) saidthat they agree with the statement while the majority of the fourth year highschool student respondents (35.7%) said they strongly disagree with it. Whenasked about their attitude toward the statement: “I think smoking helps one tothink better,” the data revealed that the majority of the college (44.5%) andhigh school (63.1%) students strongly agree with it, most (33.7%) of the staffdisagree, while most (31.1%) of the faculty respondents said that they agreewith the item. With “Smoking is a personal choice” as the stimulus item, thedata showed that more than half of the college student respondents said thatthey strongly agree. About 46.4% of the fourth year high school studentrespondents and about 47.5% of the faculty respondents also expressed thesame level of agreement. By contrast, the majority of the staff respondents,expressed that they agree that smoking is indeed a personal choice. Item 5states that “I feel that I belong when I accept an offer to smoke a cigarette froma friend.” The frequency and percentage distribution revealed that themajority from the four groups of respondents (64% across the groups)expressed that they strongly disagree with this statement.

Item 9 states that “I feel others have no right to interfere if one choseto smoke cigarette.” The frequency count and percentages showed that themajority (34.9% to 41%) from the four groups of respondents were unanimousin expressing that they disagree with the statement. When asked about theiropinion on item 10 “I prefer being with friends who do not smoke,” more thanhalf (57.6%) of the respondents from the four groups expressed that theystrongly agree with the statement. “I hate the smell of the fumes that comefrom the cigarette” corresponds to item 15. The most number of responsesfalls under the scale of strongly agree across the four groups of respondents.Around 72.9% of the 410 total respondents strongly agree that they hate thesmell of fumes from the lighted cigarettes. Item 17 states that “I like to be inthe company of friends who smoke.” One hundred percent of the collegestudent respondents, 67% of the high school student respondents, 35% of thefaculty respondents, and 40% of the staff respondents expressed that theystrongly disagree with the statement. The last item relevant to personalattitude toward smoking, item 18, states that “I tend to move away from aperson who is smoking beside me.” The computed percentages showed thatmore than half or 57.6% of the total respondents from the four groupsexpressed that they strongly agree with the statement.



Based on the foregoing findings, it appears that the majority of therespondents respect the people who choose to smoke and accept the notionthat smoking could provide relaxation, if not relieve stress. However, theyexpressed negative attitude toward the idea that the smell of the fumes ofcigarette so that they have a strong tendency to move away from smokers.Likewise, they prefer non smokers as friends and feel that they have the rightto interfere when someone chooses to smoke.

Attitude toward Related Policies on Smoking

Item 6 states that “I find the government is doing its job inimplementing the smoking ban in public places.” Based on the frequencycount, most (31%) of the respondents across the four groups (faculty, staff,college students, and high school students) expressed that they disagree withthe statement. This is indicative of the shortcoming in the properimplementation of the law that prohibits smoking in public places. When askedhow they find the smoke free policy on campus, the frequency and percentagedistribution showed that 41.7% of the 410 respondents agree that theUniversity administration is strict in implementing the “no smoking” policy oncampus.

Item 8 states that “I think that the sellers of cigarettes around thecampus are not aware that boys and girls aged 18 and below are prohibitedfrom buying cigarettes.” Given this statement, the survey results showed thatmost or 31% of the 410 respondents across the four groups indicated theirdisagreement. Most of them believed that the sellers of cigarettes around thecampus are aware of the prohibition, but still they sell the cigarettes to minors.Item 11 deals with the opinion of the respondents about the cigarette vendors.The results of the survey revealed that the majority or 53.4% of therespondents across the four groups expressed that they strongly agree that thecigarette vendors around the campus are unaware that boys and girls aged 18and blow are prohibited from buying cigarettes.

Item 12 states that “I feel I am not liable if I tolerate violators of the‘no smoking’ policy in the University.” The frequency distribution showed thatthe highest modal value fell under the disagree option (147 of the 410respondents) which indicates that most of the respondents involved in thesurvey felt that somehow they are responsible for reporting violators of the nosmoking policy in the University. This particular result is mirrored in one of thesuggestions expressed by a respondent, to wit: “Give incentive program forsmokers who are willing to quit and also for those who will report violators ofsmoking ban.” When asked if the respondents “ignore smokers in theuniversity” (item 16), the study revealed that most (37.3%) of the staff whoresponded to the survey disagree while most of the faculty members (39.3%),

Abulon E.L. R.

college students (36.8%) and high school students (34.5%) expressed the otherway around—that most of them agree that they ignore smokers in theUniversity. At this instance, the group of the administrative staff appears to bemore concerned about the need to report violators of the smoking ban.

Items 13 and 14 of the survey questionnaire deal with the attitudetoward the producers of tobacco. Item 13 states that “I find the cigaretteproducers lying about the real danger of smoking cigarette,” while item 14states that “I find the tobacco companies are doing good things for thecommunity.” The survey results show consistency in what most of therespondents felt. Most (43.2%) of them agree that cigarette producers arelying about the real danger of smoking and that most (36.1%) of them disagreethat tobacco companies are doing good things in the community.

Two items (19 and 20) are focused on the attitude toward theimplementation of related policies on smoking. The results showed that themajority or 50.1% of the 410 respondents agree that they appreciate theinformation dissemination done by the University administrators about thegovernment policies on smoking ban on campus. On the other hand, most ofthe respondents or 36.8% disagree with the statement “I find the governmentis strict in enforcing the ban on selling cigarettes to minors or to those who arebelow 18 years old.”

Extent of Implementation of Rules and Policies That Ban Smoking in theUniversity

Table 4 shows how the survey respondents perceived the extent ofthe implementation of the rules and policies that ban smoking in theUniversity. For the ten policies presented to the respondents, it is evident thatthe rules that ban the advertising and promotion/sponsorship of tobaccoproducts in schools were generally perceived to be highly implemented.Policies relative to actual smoking prohibition among employees and studentsand posting of no smoking signage around the campus were seen by therespondents as highly implemented.

Some five policies were perceived by the respondents to bemoderately implemented. These relate to the provision of orientation tostudents, faculty, and staff about the government policies that ban smoking;prohibition among vendors to sell cigarettes near the University; prohibitionamong the stores near the campus to sell cigarettes to students who are below18 years old; establishment of procedures for reporting the violators of thesmoking ban by the school administrators; and administration of appropriatesanctions by the school administrators to those who were caught smoking oncampus. These findings could pave the way toward protecting the youth or the



PNU students from engaging in cigarette smoking. Just like what Wakefield etal. (2000) found out in their study that enforced school bans were associatedwith 11% reduction in uptake of smoking among teenagers. School ban had aprotective effect on teenage smoking only when they are strongly enforced.

Table 4. Extent of Implementation of Policies on Smoking as Perceived by Respondents (n=410) Policies Mean Interpretation* a) Tobacco advertising (e.g. hanging of posters about tobacco

products) is completely banned on campus. 3.20 Highly implemented

b) The school administration provides orientation to students, faculty and staff about the government policies that ban smoking in school premises

2.20 Moderately implemented

c) “No smoking” signs are visible in school premises. 2.80 Highly implemented d) Sponsorship (e.g. providing food during spors festival/school

programs) from tobacco company is completely banned in the university.

2.84 Highly implemented

e) Promotion of tobacco products (e.g. giving sample packs of cigarette to students) is completely banned in the university

3.28 Highly implemented

f) The cigarette vendors are prohibited from selling cigarette near the university.


g) The stores near the school are not allowed to sell cigarettes to students below 18 years old.


h) The school administration has established procedures for reporting the violators of the prohibition of cigarette smoking in campus.


i) Faculty, staff and students caught inside the school campus are being sanctioned by the school administrators once reported.


*0–0.49 – not implemented at all; 0.50–1.49 – implemented to some degree; 1.50 2.49 –moderately implemented; 2.50–3.49 – highly implemented; 3.50–4 – very highly implemented.


Suggestions on how to improve the implementation of the laws on smokingban in public places and on how to reduce the prevalence of smoking amongFilipinos

The respondents of the study were also asked about their suggestionsto improve the implementation of laws on smoking ban in public places whichinclude the University. Figure 9 represents the affirmation (saying yes) of themajority of the respondents across the four groups of the five suggestionspresented in the questionnaire. Faculty members who participated in thestudy strongly affirmed all the suggestions as the computed percentagesranged from 95.1% to 98.4%. Equally, the staff, the college students, and thefourth year high school students affirmed these suggestions as the computedpercentages from the three groups ranged from 82.4% to 95.2%.

Abulon E.L. R.

Figure 9. Suggestions on How to Improve Implementation of Laws on Smoking Ban in Public Places

Besides these five suggestions, other remarks made by the

respondents to follow, to wit: “There should be a policy statement on campus. Even the security

guards can smoke during official duty.” “Inspection of bags of students to confiscate cigarettes.” “Warn or even give sanction even to members of the faculty who

smoke on campus.” “No vendors of cigarettes around the school.” “If they still want to smoke, please let them know that they must

be in the smoking area, not in public areas.” “Integrate the facts on smoking in subjects like Personality

Education and Relevant Laws.” “Involve the parents/guardians also in educating their children

about the harm of smoking.” “Billboard ads showing real pictures of the negative effects of

smoking in our body.” “The government and the university in particular should be

consistent in implementing the prohibition of smoking in publicplaces.”

“Penalty imposed to the violators should be higher than the 500pesos, like for example 5,000 pesos.”

95.2

90.4

91.6

92.8

92.8

98.4

96.7

95.1

98.4

98.4

91.8

86.8

82.4

95.1

92.9

91.7

91.7

89.7

91.7

94

70 75 80 85 90 95 100

5. Impose heavierpenalties to violators of…

4. No smoking campaignthrough parades and…

3. Distribution of flyers onsmoking ban

2. Public forum aboutharm of smoking

1. Display of Posters onsmoking ban

CTL

BSE

Faculty

Staff




As regards respondents’ opinion on how to reduce the prevalence ofsmoking among the Filipino people, Figure 10 shows that the majority of therespondents affirmed the six measures presented to them in the questionnaire.Again, the faculty member participants in the study showed the strongestaffirmation (98.4 – 100%). Noteworthy, all of the faculty respondents affirmedthe need to integrate the effects of smoking in educational programs from theelementary to the college level.

De Leon (2006) found that “no smoking school program” is effective insignificantly increasing the respondents’s knowledge on smoking. This studyfurther concluded that, generally, “no smoking school program” is neithersuccessful in improving the attitude of the respondents on smoking. There wasalso a decrease in the average number of high school students seen smoking.Such results could also become a reality in a university setting such as thePhilippine Normal University.

Figure 10. Respondents’ Opinion on How to Reduce Prevalence of

Smoking among Filipinos

Other recommendations given by the respondents on how to reducethe prevalence of smoking in the country:

“Ban the production of tobacco cigarettes.”

89.2

88

90.4

86.7

89.2

88

98.4

98.4

98.4

100

96.7

98.4

95.6

89.6

92.3

92.9

87.9

89.6

94

91.7

91.7

92.9

89.3

91.7

80 85 90 95 100

6. Create a support system forthose who want to quit smoking

5. Do information campaign oneffective ways to give up smoking

4. Disseminate information on theeffects of smoking through media

3. Integrate the effects of smokingin educational programs (elem. to

college)

2. Design graphical warning signs incigarette packs

1. Impose higher taxes oncigarettes

CTL

BSE

Faculty

Staff

Abulon E.L. R.


“Give incentive program for smokers who are willing to quit, alsofor those who will report violators of the smoking ban.”

“Implement total ban of selling cigarettes by casual vendors. Theymust be bought from drug stores so as to screen the buyers.”

“Incorporate health literacy modules in the college courses like inProfessional Education courses or in the NSTP.”

“Do not sell cigarettes, as simple as that”.

“The best way to lessen the number of smokers is to stop itsproduction. Also, this is the best implementation ever.”

“If there is no real health benefit of smoking to any person, banthe production around the country.”

Recommended New School Policies and Intervention Program

Based on the results discussed above, new school policies on smokingcould be grouped into three areas of concern. The first area should focus onpolicies geared towards preventive education as well as institutionalization ofinformation campaign to enhance awareness on the ill effects of smokingcigarettes. The second area must center on policies to support the law on100% smoke free environment and the third area on policies that would createa support system for the smokers who signify intention to quit their smokinghabit.

Two learning modules were developed based on the findings of thestudy. Three experts were tapped for the content validation, after which themodules were tried out to 50 National Service Training Program (NSTP)students on March 6, 2013. Results of the module tryout showed that thelearning modules were highly acceptable to the target users. While Module 1focused on the prevalence and effects of cigarette smoking, module 2thoroughly discussed the governing laws for the prevention and control ofcigarette smoking.



CONCLUSIONS

1. All four groups of respondents are considered highly knowledgeable ofthe ill effects of smoking and the existing laws and policies that bansmoking in the University and in the community.

2. Regarding the personal attitude toward smoking, the majority of therespondents across the four groupings express their respect for peoplewho choose to smoke and accept the notion that smoking couldprovide relaxation and could relieve stress. However, they expressnegative attitude toward the smell of the fumes of cigarette so thatthey strongly tend to move away from smokers. Equally, they prefernon smoker friends and feel they have the right to interfere whensomeone chooses to smoke.

3. As regards attitude of the respondents toward related policies onsmoking, the majority find the government lax in implementingsmoking ban policies in public places as well as in banning the sellingof cigarettes to minors. Moreover, they believe that most of theUniversity constituents just ignore smokers in campus let alone lackthe initiative to report violators. The respondents show a negativeattitude toward tobacco producers whom they feel have nocontribution to the betterment of the Philippine society.

4. On the extent of implementing rules and policies that ban smoking inthe University, most of the respondents hold that there is a highdegree of implementation in terms of posting no smoking signage inconspicuous places and in banning of tobacco products’advertisement, promotion, and sponsorship. However, the majority ofthe study participants feel a moderate degree of implementation as toproviding orientation to students, faculty, and staff on the policies onsmoking; prohibiting the vendors to sell cigarettes near the campus;and disallowing the stores near the campus to sell cigarettes tostudents below 18 years old.

5. Seemingly, a shortcoming exists as to establishing procedures forreporting violators on the prohibition of smoking on campus as themajority of the respondents held that implementing apt disciplinaryaction is not that visible among the violators of no smoking policy inthe University premises.

6. Measures suggested by the majority of the respondents to reduce theprevalence of smoking among the Filipino people center on theintegration of facts on smoking in educational programs; imposition ofhigher taxes on cigarettes; giving of incentives to people who intend to

Abulon E.L. R.


quit smoking and to those who report violators; and, if possible,complete banning of the production of tobacco cigarettes in thecountry.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. On University policies, with respect to the three area of concern, thefollowing recommendations are given:

a. Towards preventive education on smoking

i. Include in the student handbook the information on the lawsand policies on smoking ban and on the selling of cigarettesto minors. This information must also be part of theorientation program for the freshmen;

ii. Include in the administrative manual the laws and policies onsmoking ban with emphasis on the procedures on how toreport violators and the corresponding penalties inaccordance with the existing laws on smoking;

iii. Conduct a seminar or forum once a year for the faculty, staff,and students and even for the parents/guardians of CTL andcollege students about the ill effects of smoking and thepolicies that ban smoking in the University and in publicplaces; and

iv. Produce information materials to be placed in the Universityclinic for distribution to faculty and staff during their visit andto students during their annual physical examination.

b. Towards 100% smoke free PNU environment

i. Coordinate with the barangay officials to facilitate thebanning of selling of cigarettes to minors by the stores nearthe University;

ii. Develop a short video presentation on anti smokingcampaign to be uploaded in the PNU website and shown tothe freshmen during the orientation program; and

iii. Strictly implement the no smoking policy on campus withappropriate disciplinary action for the violators.



c. Support system for the smokers

i. Disseminate information to offices and colleges about theexistence of cessation clinics run by the medical services staffof the University; and for the University clinic staff to

ii. Develop a regular wellness program for the faculty, staff, andstudents, which could highlight a quit smoking campaign.

2. Integrate the two learning modules developed in the National ServiceTraining Program (NSTP) of the Philippine Normal University. Also,have the facts on the ill effects of smoking and the related policies thatban smoking integrated in other courses in the teacher educationcurriculum such as physical education, biological science, personalityeducation, and clinical psychology; and in MAPEH at the Center forTeaching and Learning.

REFERENCES

Aguillon, Joyce and Romano, P. (2012) " A Study on the Effects of NCR MaleHigh School Students' Exposure to and Recall of Anti SmokingAdvertisements to Their Perceptions of and Attitudes towardSmoking". Unpublished Undergraduate Thesis. University of thePhilippines Diliman. Retrieved on August 8, 2013 fromwww.upd.edu.ph.

Carbone, Paul P. (2008) Factors Associated in Youth Smoking in University ofWinconsin. Retrieved on August 9, 2013 fromhttp://sep.uwcarbone.wisc.edu

Civil Service Commission Memorandum Circular No. 17 s. of 1999

Darling H, Reeder AI, Williams S, Mcbee, F. (2005) “Is there a relation betweenschool smoking policies to adolescent and youth cigarette smokingknowledge and behavior?” Health education research July Issue, pages25 27

De Leon, Warlito S. (2006) “The Effects of No Smoking School Program on theknowledge, attitude and practices regarding smoking among highschool students of Barangay Poblacion, Aurora, Zamboanga del Sur”Unpublished Master's Thesis, Ateneo de Zamboanga

Department of Health (2010) “Clearing the Air: Measuring Secondhand Smokein Manila, Philippines” Retrieved on August 6, 2013 fromwww.smokefree.doh.gov.ph

Abulon E.L. R.


Global Adult Tobacco Survey of 2009 Retrieved on March 4,2013 fromwww.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats

Global Youth Tobacco Survey of 2007 Retrieved on March 4, 2013 fromwww.doh.gov.ph

Moore C. Roberts C, Nedor S (2001) “School smoking policies and smokingprevalence among adolescents; multilevel analysis of cross sectionaldata fromWales” Tobacco control Volume10 (2) pages 117 123

Mercado, Cesar M. (1992), Conducting and Managing Communication SurveyResearch: The Asian Experience. Quezon City: Local ResourceManagement Services pages 111 113

Republic Act 9211 "An Act Regulating the Packaging, Use, Sale, Distribution andAdvertisements of Tobacco Products and for other Purposes" (2003)Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved onAugust 9, 2013 from http://www.gov.ph/2003/06/23/republic act no9211/

Southeast Asia Initiative on Tobacco Tax (2011) Cigarette tax and price:Affordability and impacts on consumption and revenues, pages 8 9

Wakefield M., Chaloupka F., Kaufman N., Orleans C., Barker D., Ruel E.(2000)“Effect of restriction on smoking at home, at school, and public placeson teenage smoking: A cross sectional study.” British Medical JournalAugust Issue; pages 333 337


PREDICTORS OF LET PERFORMANCE OF PNU

GRADUATES IN LITERATURE MAJORSHIP

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eÉátÜ|àÉ gA fâtàxÇzvÉ tÇw Vxv|Ä|t `A `xÇw|ÉÄt Philippine Normal University

ABSTRACT

This study reports the findings on determining the predictors of the LET(Licensure Examination for Teachers) performance of PNU graduates inLiterature majorship. Data were based on the ratings of forty two AB/BSEgraduates from SY 2008 2010. Results indicate that the Ss performance in theLET is much lower that their scholastic ratings, which is a little more than 85%.Although positive correlations exist between scholastic ratings in Gen. Ed., Prof.Ed., and Specialization courses and their LET counterparts, the correlations arelow, minimal, and statistically insignificant. By and large, only the overallscholastic rating is the best predictor of the literature majors’ performance inthe LET. Furthermore, results suggest improvement of the LET by providing aseparate test for Literature majors. The findings can provide insightfulimplications for curriculum and instruction, faculty assignment, qualifyingrequirements for majorship, as well as administrative support.

Keywords: predictor, correlations, scholastic rating, LET performance

INTRODUCTION

To a large extent, passing the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)has been one of the most essential yardsticks with which the performance ofteacher training institutions (TEIs) is measured. In fact, no less than Bro.Andrew A. Gonzalez (2005) has averred that “the LET is a necessary legalrequirement” that teacher graduates must meet readily after completing theirprogram. Thus, with bated breath the graduates, as well as the TEIs thatproduced them, enthusiastically await the LET results, truly a piece of concreteevidence that qualifies education graduates to become full fledged members ofthe ‘teaching community.’ Strictly observed in public schools, the practiceremains no teacher gets hired without being licensed by the Professional

Marquez F.F., Jocson J.V., Fumar V.R., Lomboy R.R., Suatengco R.T., and Mendiola C.M.


Regulation Commission. On the other hand, such requirement is mostly waivedfor at least three years in private schools. Henceforth, everyone in the teachingforce must be a LET passer.

Through the years, PNU’s performance in the LET has been exemplary.Certainly, the University report analyzing the performance of the PhilippineNormal University in the Licensure Examination for Teachers for 1996 1998 hasset the outstanding status of PNU among teacher education institutions (TEIs).Of 45 TEIs with 1,000 or more examinees, PNU Manila ranked first, posting anoverall passing rate (OPR) of 80% in the LET – Elementary and 77% in the LET –Secondary. In the same bracket in terms of number of examinees, PNUemerged as the sole high performing institution among state colleges anduniversities in the LET – Secondary category.

As mentioned in the previous study (Mendiola, 2002), despite theapparent formidable standing of PNU Manila in the licensure examination,there remains a long term goal of reaching the ideal 100% OPR, if theUniversity were to maintain her being a Center of Excellence in TeacherEducation (COETE) that has been bestowed on her by the Commission onHigher Education since 1996. Toward this end, no less than deliberate andconcerted efforts are needed to raise the performance of PNU graduates in theLET. It has been recognized that preparation for this requirement starts fromthe freshmen’s rigid admission policy to their exposure to excellent instructionand challenging academic learning environment to selecting their majorship,much less than review for the LET. Put another way, passing the LETsuccessfully begins right even before the students’ first day in the Universityand even after they have received their diplomas. In view of this, a thoroughinvestigation that will ferret out the factors that account for the discrepancybetween the target performance and the actual standing of PNU graduates inthe LET is most welcome so that the PNU community can seriously andproperly address them.

Until 2008, the PNU standing as the top performing school with atleast 50% passing percentage has been considerably sustained. At the time thesubjects of this study took the LET, PNU Manila’s passing rate was 88% againstthe national passing rate of 26.28%. A year later (2009), in the category with500 or more graduates, PNU Manila retained its rank with a passing rate of87%, a slight dip from the previous year’s , but still way up against the nationalpassing rate of 23%. However, with changes in the grouping of top performingschools in April 2010, PNU Manila with 599 passers was categorized with otherschools with only 50 or more examinees and with at least 85 passingpercentage. Consequently, PNU with 85.82% passing rate (national passing rate= 25.86%) ranked third only to UP Los Baños and UP Diliman.

Predictors of LET Performance of PNU Graduates in Literature Majorship


Today, the University faces more challenges having been mandated asthe National Center for Teacher Education in 2009. Such recognition carrieswith it not only the privilege but also the responsibility of leading all TEIstowards producing quality teachers for the country, as largely reflected in thegraduates’ standing in the LET. In fact, such goal has been projected inPresident Ogena’s Master Plan for the next decade – a steady increase in theoverall passing rate of PNU in LET to reach 100%, as well as a high percentageof PNU graduates as LET topnotchers.

Interest in how PNU graduates have fared in the LET by curricularprograms started as early as 2002 through the initiative of the Dean College ofArts and Social Sciences, Dr. Twila Punsalan. At that time, she inspired the CASSResearch Unit consisting of research anchors from the College departments toundertake a College wide study on predictive correlations between graduatesscholastic ratings and LET scores. So called “internal academic auditing”(Mendiola, 2002) of its curricular offerings, those studies were conducted withan end view of filling the information gap on the scholastic variables that mightpredict the PNU graduates’ performance in the LET

That first attempt included the AB/BSE English program, together withother programs such as Filipino, P.E. Social Science, History, Psychology, ValuesEducation majorships. Findings about the AB/BSE English majors showed thatall predictors – scholastic ratings in General Education, Professional Educationand Specialization correlated with their LET scores at mostly moderate andmoderately high levels. Further, the SPECsch and GEsch ratings emerged asbest predictors of LET scores (Mendiola, 2002).

A sequel study by Hermosisima (2005) probed into possible factorsthat might have contributed to the variance in the LET scores of BEED and BSEDgraduates from 1999 2002. Findings identified geographical location of highschools attended by the Ss as a variable in the BSED graduates’ LETperformance, that is, those who studied in urban high schools performedbetter than those who went to partially urban and rural high schools. In termsof LET predictors, General Education GPA, showing the highest correlation withLET scores, was the best predictor of BEED and BSED samples’ LETperformance.

Currently managing a relatively new curricular program, AB/BSELiterature, that has produced a relative good number of graduates since 2008,the LBEL Department of the CLLL has embarked on a similar study to gatherempirical data on the relationship between the Literature majors’ scholasticratings and LET scores. Hence, this investigation aims at providing baseline dataon the relationship between school ratings and LET scores among the firstthree batches of the program (English stream). Interest in this study has been



heightened by the fact that the Literature graduates, like those of the Dramaand Theater Arts, have to take the secondary English licensure examination,since there is no licensure examination solely for literature majors. Given thatcontext, a compelling reason presents itself to find out if the Literaturecurriculum that deliberately includes crucial language related subjects such asIntroduction to Linguistics, Introduction to Structure of English, TeachingLanguage Macro Skills, Translation, and Introduction to Mass Communicationcould make the majors competitive for the LET, most specifically in theSpecialization area.

As the Department running the Literature program, LBEL welcomesany form of information that will help strengthen the standing of the majors inthe licensure examination through program revision, more intense LET review,not to mention more adequate means of covering for the subjects tested in theLET but are not part of the Literature curriculum. After all, the Literaturegraduates have only one option, that is, to take the BSE English licensureexamination. Hopefully, the findings can provide insightful implications forcurriculum and instruction, faculty recruitment and assignment, qualifyingrequirements for majorship, and more importantly, administrative support.Results may also help push for a separate LET examination for Literature majorsto address the issue of content validity.


This study aims to determine whether or not the scholastic ratingsobtained by the AB/BSE Literature majors in General Education, ProfessionalEducation and Specialization courses can predict success in the LicensureExamination for Teachers.

As shown in the schematic diagram of the study in Figure 1, the BSEScholastic Ratings come from the graduates’ marks in the BSE programconsisting of three areas, namely: General Education, Professional Educationand Specialization. As stipulated in the approved AB/BSE major in Literaturecurriculum, a Literature major takes 107 units in GE courses such as English,Filipino, Social Science, History, Science, Math, Philosophy, Humanities, ForeignLanguage, P.E., Psychology, Values Education, Humanities, etc.; 42 units inEducation covering foundations of education, human growth, learning anddevelopment, educational technology, guidance and counseling, measurementand evaluation, curriculum development, field study, and student teaching; and57 units in Majorship/Specialization courses in language, literature, methods,research and thesis writing, as well as electives. Also included in theinvestigation is the participants’ global scholastic rating, otherwise known asgrade point average (GPA).



Figure 1. A Schematic Diagram Showing the Correlations between BSEScholastic Ratings and LET Scores/Performance

By contrast, the LET scores are sourced from the Ss ratings in the three

areas tested in the licensure examination, namely: General Education,Professional Education, and Specialization, including the global LET rating. Thepossible overlap between scholastic ratings and LET scores indicates the degreeof correlations between them.

Statement of the Problem

The study investigated the correlations between the Bachelor ofSecondary Education scholastic ratings of AB/BSE Literature graduates of thePhilippine Normal University and their performance scores in the Licensureexamination for Teachers (LET) from 2008 to 2010.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the Literature graduates in terms ofscholastic ratings and LET scores?

BSE Scholastic

Ratings Gen. Ed. Prof. Ed. Specialization Global Scholastic

Rating

LET Scores/ Performance

Gen. Ed. Prof. Ed Specialization Global LET Score



2. What is the correlation (degree/proportion/percentage) betweenthe AB/ BSE Literature graduates’ Grade Point Average (GPA/GLOsch) in the AB/BSE Program and their Global Scores in theLicensure Examination for Teachers (LET)?

3. Which of the variables such as a) BSE General Education ScholasticRating (GEsch), b) BSE Professional Education Scholastic Rating(PEsch), c) BSE Majorship/Specialization Scholastic Rating(SPECsch), and d) BSE Majorship/Specialization Global ScholasticRating (GLOsch) can best predict GLOlet, GElet, PElet, andSPEClet?

METHODOLOGY

The descriptive correlational research design was used to determinethe relationship between the variables, i.e. GLOlet, GElet, PElet, SPEClet scoresand the predictors – GLOsch, GEsch, PEsch, SPECsch. This correlation studyaimed to determine the extent to which different variables were related toeach other in the performance of AB/BSE Literature majors in the licensureexamination.

This study consisted of AB/BSE Literature graduates of the first threebatches who took the licensure examination after completing their program. Atotal of forty two (42) Literature majors comprised the subjects of this study,broken down according to year, as follows: seven (7) in 2008; eighteen (18) in2009; and seventeen (17) in 2010.

By year, the subjects’ scholastic ratings grouped according to GeneralEducation subjects, Professional Education, and Specialization were gatheredfrom the Registrar’s Office. Similarly, the LET scores, classified according to thesame components were obtained from the Admissions and Student ServicesOffice.

The mean, the standard deviation, correlation, and multiple regressionof the LET scores and scholastic ratings were computed using the SPSScomputer program. Stepwise method was employed to eliminate theindependent/predictor variables in ascertaining the amount of variance thatcan be explained by scholastic ratings in the LET scores.



Profile of Subject in their Scholastic Ratings and LET Scores

As shown in Table 1, all the three batches of Literature graduates from2008 2010 earned an almost uniform global scholastic rating (GLOsch) or GPA,with an average mean score of 85.65%. Of the three areas in the scholasticratings, the majors’ rating in Professional Education (PEsch) ranked the highest(86.63%), followed by GEsch (84.90%), and lastly, SPECsch rating (83.99%). Alltheir scholastic ratings were close to above average. These findings were nodifferent from those obtained by AB/BSE English graduates from 1997 1999 ina similar study.

Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scholastic Ratings and LET Scores of Literature Majors, 2008-2010


BATCH

N

G

Esch PEsch

SPECsch G

LOsch

GElet

PElet SPEClet

GLO

let

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

2008 7

86.92 5.12

88.21 1.49

84.25 2.65

86.12 2.35

80.71 2.21

82.14 2.41

81.71 2.21

81.69 2.21

2009 18

84.42 3.71

85.84 1.93

83.86 2.23

85.54 1.83

80.78 3.44

81.83 2.68

80.11 3.046

80.86 2.59

2010 17

84.57 2.87

86.88 1.92

84.02 1.24

85.57 1.67

78.76 2.28

78.71 3.08

76.35 2.57

77.78 1.70

TOTAL 42

84.90 3.69

86.63 1.99

83.99 1.92

85.65 1.82

79.95 2.94

80.62 3.18

78.86 3.44

79.75 2.71


Batch 2008 graduates scored the highest ratings in all areas GEsch (86.92%),PEsch (88.21%), and SPECsch (84.25%), while Batch 2009 received the lowestscholastic ratings (GE = 84.42%; PE = 85.84%; SPEC = 83.86%). Generally, theedge of one batch over the other batches in the scholastic ratings was onlyslight.

As regards the Literature graduates’ overall performance in theLicensure Examination for Teachers or GLOlet, their average mean score was79.75%. Although the average rating of the three batches registered highest inProf. Ed. (80.62%), it did not appear too distant from their average ratings inGElet (79.95%) and SPEClet (78.86). As compared to the majors’ scholasticratings, their LET scores were lower by as much as 6 points.

As far as the three batches’ performance in the LET is concerned,Batch 2008 was highest in PElet (82.14%), SPEClet (81.71%) as well as in GLOlet(81.69%), slightly second only to Batch 2009 in GElet (80.72%). The lowestratings in all three areas were obtained by Batch 2010 whose average meanscores did not go any higher than 78.76% and with the lowest GLOlet averagemean of 77.78%.

As noted in Table 1, close to a 6 point difference exists between thescholastic ratings and the LET performance of the subjects. This difference maybe a function of the various possible sources of scholastic ratings of theLiterature majors while they were going through their curricular program. Suchsources of grades are indicated in each course syllabus which may consist ofclass standing, paper and pencil test quizzes and long tests, including midtermand final exams, performance tests, oral presentations, projects, papers,attendance and attitude, including more personal encounters between theteachers and the students. While there have been efforts to use a more or lessuniform means of rating students, nevertheless, the nature of each subjectwould call for a more distinct and appropriate way of assessing studentperformance by several teachers. Compared with only one very objective wayof measuring LET performance, scholastic ratings could probably be morevariable and higher than the LET.

The majors’ above average rating in Student Teaching must havecontributed much to their high PEsch rating, since most of them received highmarks of over 90% in that subject. The majors’ off campus stint must havegiven them ample opportunities to display their pedagogical knowledge andskills in their practice teaching, creating very positive impressions on theirstudents, cooperating teacher and college supervisors. Their generally verygood teaching performance must have been helped by the content, methods,and assessment courses in literature and language.




Perhaps, the literature majors’ not having met very satisfactorily theexpectations of the Specialization teachers, if not the challenging nature ofSpecialization subjects, may explain the relatively lower SPECsch rating of theSs.

As similarly observed in Table 1, Batch 2010 got the lowest ratings, allbelow 80%, in all LET areas. This performance may be attributed to the revisedLET examinations in 2010, which tested all the newly mandated CHED subjectsin BSE English. This finding underscores the lack of fit between the subjectstested in the 2010 LET and the subjects in the Literature majors’ curriculum.Their overall LET performance may have been disadvantaged by the absence ofthe following subjects in the Literature curricular program: ESP, Introduction toStylistics, Language Assessment, Language Curriculum for Secondary School,and Remedial Instruction in English. Moreover, they had only one course inteaching language skills, as compared to three methods subjects in the Englishmajorship – Teaching of Speaking, Teaching Listening and Reading. Also, theirsubjects like Research, Assessment, and Evaluation of Materials were slantedtowards Literature, not Language, even if the theories and principles may beshared by the two fields/disciplines. Two tested subjects in LET – CampusJournalism and Speech and Theater Arts were partly taken in Introduction toMass Media and Drama Production.

Certainly, with the long delayed approval of the Revised AB/BSELiterature curriculum by the PNU Board of Regents, the specialization teacherscould only do so much to address this concern. Besides, the present unrevisedLiterature curriculum is only trying to valiantly approximate the requirementsfor the BSE English LET, as must also have been done by Speech and TheaterArts majors who also take the same English LET.

When the LET performance of the graduates in double programsAB/BSE Literature majors (2008 2010) and AB/BSE English majors (1997 1999)is compared, generally the Literature majors enjoy a small margin of 1.30 to2.81 points higher than that of the English in all areas, including overall LETperformance (GElet – 79.95 vs. 78.65; PElet – 80.62 vs. 77.81; SPEClet – 78.86vs. 77.23; GLOlet – 79.75 vs. 77.80). Both majorships had SPEClet as theirlowest rating the Literature graduates scored best in PElet and the Englishmajors did best in GElet. These results have also to be viewed from the factthat the Literature majors took English LET, while the English majors did so onEnglish LET.

Thus, it can be said that so far the Literature graduates have been‘heroically’ performing well in the LET, despite the fact that their program doesnot have a one to one correspondence nor a tight fit with the BSE English LETrequirements.



Table 2 summarizes the average scholastic ratings and LET scores byareas Gen. Ed., Prof. Ed., Specialization and Global or Overall rating/score. Table 2. Summary of Average Scholastic Ratings and LET Scores by Areas (GE, PE, SPEC,

GLO)

AREA Scholastic Rating LET Score

SD SD GE 84.8967 3.6893 79.9524 2.9380 PE 86.6289 1.99130 80.6190 3.17730

SPEC 83.9881 1.92357 78.8571 3.43988 GLO 85.6512 1.82368 79.7476 2.70971

Generally, the Literature majors’ scholastic ratings are higher thantheir LET scores by almost six points. The students’ scholastic and LETperformance in Professional Education is higher than in the two areas, with theSPEC rating being the lowest. The major’s LET ratings show more dispersedscores (SD=ranging from 2.7 3.4), as compared to their scholastic counterparts,with GLO rating or GPA as least dispersed or most homogenous (SD=1.82),while GE rating as most dispersed (SD=3.69).

Correlation between Criterion Variables and Predictors

Table 3 presents the correlation coefficients between the Literaturemajors’ scholastic ratings and LET scores.

Table 3. Matrix of Correlation Coefficients between Literature Majors’ Scholastic Ratings and LET Scores

GLOlet GElet PElet SPEClet GLOsch .432** .570** .259 .367* GEsch .358* .297 .287 .313* PEsch .285 .167 .192 .304 SPECsch .358* .436** .230 .277 ** significant at .01 level * significant at .05 level

The summary matrix indicates that of the sixteen (16) correlationcoefficients only seven paired variables show significant relationships. At .01level, GLOsch is significantly correlated with GLOlet (r=.432); GLOsch and GElet,r=.570 (strongest relationship), and SPECsch and GElet, r=.436. Further,significant relationships at .05 level exist between GLOsch and SPEClet, r=.367;GEsch and GLOlet, r=.358; GEsch and SPEClet, r=.313; and SPECsch and GLOlet,r=.358.



These correlation coefficients yielded moderate correlation, implyingthat a substantial relationship exists between the aforecited paired variables.Hence, only some crude prediction may be made on the students’ performancein these paired areas, that is, when the literature majors’ overall scholasticratings, GEsch, and SPEC ratings go up, their GLOlet / GElet and SPEClet scoresalso tend to increase, respectively, and vice versa.

By contrast, all scholastic ratings do not show significant relationshipwith the PElet scores, suggesting that there is definite, but small to almostnegligible relationship between the scholastic areas and the PElet scores. Sincethe r values are low, minimal, and statistically insignificant, they are not likelyable to predict students’ performance in the LET.

Generally, while positive correlation exists between the criterionvariables and their predictors, only GLOsch and GLOlet, GElet, SPEClet; GEschand GLOlet, SPEClet; and SPECsch and GLOlet, GElet can predict the tendencyof paired values to increase at the same time. The correlation coefficients ofthe paired areas in scholastic rating and LET score appear to indicate that whatthe majors learned in their courses at PNU were not likely the ones tested inthe LET. Furthermore, the majors might not have been able to positively handlethe test items on subjects that were not explicitly provided for in theircurriculum, indicating a mismatch between the LET items and the literatureCurriculum. It also suggests that the ‘problem’ may lie in the test, not in thecurriculum.

Multiple Regressions between Criterion Variables and Predictors

Table 4 shows the predictor correlation coefficients between theLiterature majors’ scholastic ratings (General Education, ProfessionalEducation, Specialization, Global scholastic rating/GPA) and their GeneralEducation scores (GElet).

Table 4. Regression Analysis for Predicting General Education LET Scores Model 1 2

R2 .325 .398 Adj. R2 .308 .367 F-Ratio 19.285 12.870

p - value .000a .000b

PREDICTORS: a. (Constant) GLOsch b. (Constant) GLOsch, PEsch

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: GElet


When the scholastic ratings were regressed with the GElet scores, onlytwo predictors emerged: overall scholastic rating or GLOsch and PEsch. Model1 included only GLOsch variable that could account for the 32.5% variance inthe Literature majors’ ratings in GElet, with an F ratio of 19.285, significant at.01% level. By contrast, Model 2 values indicate that a little higher percentage(39.8%), combined GLOsch and PEsch ratings, can explain the variance in themajors’ GElet scores with 12.87 F ratio, also significant at .01% level. It appearsthen that based on R2 only a third of the majors’ performance in GElet could bepredicted by GLOsch rating, the best predictor of GElet scores. A more accurateprediction is offered by the adjusted correlation square values 30.8% and36.7% for the two models respectively. Except for PEsch, it seems that what theLiterature majors learned in Gen. Ed. and Specialization subjects did not helpthem at all in responding correctly to the GElet items, suggesting that whatthey had acquired in their Literature program might have very negligiblerelevance to answering the Gen. Ed. LET component.

As regards the influence of the scholastic ratings on the Literaturemajors’ overall Prof. Ed. scores in the LET, the multiple regression analysisyielded no predictor that could account for the variance in the PElet ratings, asreflected in Table 5.

Using Stepwise method in analyzing multiple regression, the analysisfailed to identify predictor variables which could provide a useful estimate of aLiterature major’s likely score on global Prof. Ed LET. The coefficients were notsignificant at all levels, thus having no predictive value on PElet scores.

Table 5. Regression Analysis for Predicting Professional Education LET Scores Model Unstandardized

Coefficients StandardizedCoefficients

t p - value

B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant)

GEsch PEsch SPECsch GLOsch

47.589 .177 .053 .025 .133

26.838 .199 .331 .459 .571

.206

.033 .015 .076

1.773 .892 .160 .054 .232

.084 .378 .874 .958 .818

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: PElet


As for the correlation coefficient between the Literature majors’scholastic ratings and Specialization LET scores SPEClet), shown in Table 6,Model 1 indicates that a percentage (.135 or 13.5%) of the GLOsch rating couldexplain the variance in the SPEClet scores. An adjusted coefficient ofdetermination (.113or 11.3%) shows a much lower contribution of GLOschrating to SPEC LET scores. Even with F ratio of 6.218 significant at .017 level,



the majors’ GLOsch rating could only appear to account for a little more than10% of the variance in the SPEClet scores.

Table 6. Regression Analysis for Predicting SPEC LET Scores Model 1

R2 .135 Adj. R2 .113 F-Ratio 6.218

p - value .017

PREDICTORS: a. (Constant) GLOsch DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SPEClet

Admittedly, the specific areas that make up GLOsch, most especiallythe SPEC scholastic ratings seem to fail to contribute to SPEClet scores. It is sobecause it is the last predictor. This effect harks back to a low correlation or asmall relationship (.277 or 27.7%) between SPECsch and SPEClet ratings,suggesting a low predictive power of the predictor variable. Such result couldfurther suggest that what was taught in the Literature majors’ Specializationcourses, despite the presence of both literature and language subjects in theirprogram, were probably not adequate enough to cover for the LET testedcourses not included in their curriculum. Put another way, Specializationsubjects in the Literature majors’ curriculum did not ‘bleed’ into theSpecialization items in the licensure exam. At this point, it seems interesting tofind out whether or not the Speech and Theater Arts majors have had a parallelexperience with that of the Literature graduates in coping with the SPEClet testitems, since the AB/BSE Literature and STA programs do not necessarily followa straight BSE English track in the Specialization subjects.

Table 7 shows the effect of the predictor variable GLOsch on thecriterion variable GLOlet. The R2 = .186 with an F ratio of 9.168 at .01 significantlevel indicates that about a fairly small 19% of the variance in GLOlet can beaccounted for by GLOsch rating. Put differently, only almost 20% of thepredictor variable (GLOsch rating) contributed to the overall LET score (GLOlet).The specific areas in the scholastic ratings namely GE, PE, and SPEC failed toexplain the variance in the GLOlet scores.

Table 7. Regression Analysis for Predicting Global LET Scores Model 1

R2 .186 Adj. R2 .166 F-Ratio 9.168

p - value .004 PREDICTORS: a. (Constant) GLOsch DEPENDENT VARIABLE: GLOlet



The low predictive value of the global scholastic rating on the overallLET score may be attributed to the moderate correlation between the twovariables, offering only a weak prediction of the global LET scores on the basisof the Ss’ global scholastic ratings, enough to fuel interest in seeking for othersources of variance in the global LET scores. The absence of effect of thescholastic ratings in GE, PE and SPEC on GLOlet scores may indicate that thelearning acquired from those subjects did not contribute at all to the overallLET scores.

By and large, only the GLOsch rating appears to be the best predictorof the Literature majors’ performance in the Licensure Examination forTeachers. Seemingly, the majors did not entirely profit from their curriculumconsisting of General Education, Professional Education and Specializationcourses to provide them with a fallback position, while they were taking thelicensure exam. Moreover, the general findings may mean that the knowledgeand skills that the Literature majors acquired from their program must havediffered much from those items tested in the LET. It may also be surmised thatthe majors might have been disadvantaged by a non tight match between theirscholastic subjects and those tested in the BSE English LET.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions weredrawn:

1. Generally, the Literature majors’ scholastic performance is a littlemore than 85%, with highest marks in Professional Education andlowest in Specialization. However, the majors’ performance in thelicensure examination is much lower than their academic output.

2. Overall though, the majors’ stance in the LET may still be considered asatisfactory performance, despite the lack of a perfect match betweenthe Literature curriculum and the subjects tested in the English LETexamination, specifically the Specialization courses. The Literatureprogram appears to have provided its graduates a good fightingchance to cope with the rigors of taking a licensure examination in theBSE English category.

3. Moderate correlations exist between overall scholastic ratings andGElet, SPEClet, and Global LET scores, as well as GEsch and GLOlet,SPEClet, including SPECsch and GElet, GLOlet. Although there arepositive relationships between GLOsch and PElet, GEsch and GElet,PElet; PEsch and all LET scores, SPECsch and PElet, SPEClet, thesecorrelations are low, minimal, and statistically insignificant.



4. Among the predictors, only the overall scholastic rating (GLOsch) canaccount for the variance in the GLOlet score as well as those scores inLET Professional Education and Specialization courses. The joint effectof global scholastic and PE school ratings appear to contribute to theGElet scores.

5. On the whole, the low predictive power of GEsch, PEsch, and SPECschmay be attributed to the minimal degree of correlation between LETscores in GE, PE, SPEC and their counterparts in scholastic ratings –GEsch, PEsch, SPECsch.

6. A re analysis of the data using a different ordering of predictors mayoffer a better explanation of the variance of LET scores.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In light of the above conclusions, the following recommendations areoffered:

1. To further enhance the Literature graduates’ level of performance inthe Licensure Examination for Teachers, more aggressive and focusedefforts be exerted to compensate for the Specialization subjects in theLET that are not included in the majors’ curriculum. To illustrate,Stylistics for Teacher may be offered as ‘required’ elective,Introduction to Mass communication be more pointedly slantedtowards Campus Journalism, and Evaluation of Literary Texts toinclude Preparation of Instructional Materials explicitly in the course.

2. For the Literature majors to attend seriously the mandatory LETreview classes for them to obtain more inputs into the aforecitedcourses as well as in ESP, Language Curriculum for Secondary School,Language Assessment, Remedial Instruction in English, Speech andTheater Arts, Teaching of Speaking, Listening and Reading.

3. For the LBEL Department to maintain its stringent admissionrequirements into the program and to uphold its retention policy sothat the Literature majors can successfully cope not only with thedemands of the curriculum but also with the rigors of the licensureexamination.

4. That a related study be conducted to probe into variables other thanscholastic ratings that may help predict the Literature majors’performance in the LET as well as account for the larger proportion ofvariance in the LET scores.

5. That all possible conditions that strengthen the Literature majors’scholastic achievement be addressed – faculty performance,



conducive teaching learning environment, students’ attitudes andmotivation, etc.

6. To address the mismatch between the Literature curriculum and thelicensure exam, it is highly recommended that a LET for Literature beconsidered by the Professional Regulations Commission (PRC).

REFERENCES

An analysis of the performance of the Philippine Normal University in thelicensure examination for teachers (1996 1998). PNU Report.

Fraenkel, J. & N. Warren, (1994). How to design and evaluate research ineducation. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.

Gonzalez, A. (2005). Teacher education in the Philippines: Toward a paradigmshift. Normal Lights, 1(2), 48 57.

Hermosisima, M.V. (2005). The Philippine Normal University (PNU) graduates’performance in the Licensure examination for teachers (2000 2002):Approximating sources of variance. Normal Lights, 1(2), 85 111.

Ibe, M. (1999). Current capability in English: Projections and directions. Journalof Asian English Studies, 2, (1 & 2), 42 49.

http:www.gov ph/cat_education/letoct2002.asp

Lee, E. (1999). Evaluating language program in tertiary level. Journal of AsianEnglish Studies, 2, (1 & 2), 326 337.

LLagas, A. (1999). Clientele needs for English. Journal of Asian English Studies,2, (1 & 2), 338 345.

Mendiola, C. (2002). Predictive correlations between the scholastic ratings andLET performance of PNU graduates in English majorship. CASS ResearchJournal, 1 (2), 25 42.

Mendiola, V. (1999). A second look: The language program in pre serviceeducation. Journal of Asian English Studies, 2, (1 & 2), 109 124.

Performance of state teacher education institutions in the licensureexaminations for teachers (1996 1998). PRC and CHED Report.

Program of the licensure examination for teachers (LET). ProfessionalRegulation Commission.

Rola, D. (1999). Some thoughts on the tertiary English curriculum and globalcompetitiveness.” Journal of Asian English Studies, 2, (1 & 2), 259 268.

The performance of colleges and universities in board examination (2000). InFusion, 2, (1 & 2), 28 46.

The Normal Lights Vol. 7 No. 1

70

COLLEGE L2 LEARNERS’ ORAL LANGUAGE PERFORMANCE AND MOTIVATION AS PREDICTORS

OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

XÄxÇt TA atätá

]Éá|x ]ÉÜwtÇ WA Z|Çxàt Philippine Normal University Isabela

ABSTRACT

This research examined oral language performance and motivation aspredictors to communicative competence of college L2 learners. In particular,the study identified the respondents’ level of motivation and level of orallanguage performance as well as the relationship of these variables. The studyalso attempted to recognize the better predictor of communicative competencebetween oral language performance and motivation. Instruments used aquestionnaire and a structured interview. Through multiple regression analysis,the variables were related to the respondents’ communicative competence – viatheir communication arts grade. The findings revealed that the majority of therespondents belonging to the lower levels of oral language performance weremoderately motivated. Surprisingly, level of motivation had no significantbearing to the respondents’ oral language performance. The latter wasidentified to significantly determine the communicative competence of therespondents; hence, the recommendation that it be given particular attention inthe pedagogy of language learning.

Keywords: oral language performance, motivation, communicative competence

INTRODUCTION

The study of language as a whole has been described through Hyme’s(1967, 1972) conception of the term communicative competence where alanguage user conveys and interprets messages and negotiates meaningsinterpersonally within specific contexts. However, to achieve communicativecompetence is to master a range of variables of “skills” in second languagelearning. The present study looks at more specific variables that determine thecommunicative competence of L2 learners, instead of exhausting diversedeterminants of communication proficiency.

Navas, E.A. and Gineta, J.J. D.


Among the variables considered to influence the communicativecompetence of L2 learners is their ability to use, if not master oralcommunication. In order to achieve communication, communicators mustexpress themselves orally in a manner that they can be understood. AsRichards (1990) observed, the mastery of speaking skills is a priority for manyL2 learners. It follows that language proficiency must be achieved as itrepresents individual’s competence or ability to use language (Bachman, 1990).This notion is practically based on the context that oral communication isusually the means of interacting with the society. Thus, English languagelearners need daily opportunities to learn and practice oral language for theirliteracy skills to flourish, thereby giving way to proficiency in their oral languageperformance. Proficiency in speaking, however, follows developmental stagesthat form a continuum (Gottlieb, 2006) arbitrarily divided into levels from littleproficiency to that of being proficient in English. Since communicativecompetence entails proficiency in oral language performance, the developmentof the aforesaid aspect of L2 learning is a key concept.

Another variable assumed by the present study to determinecompetence of L2 learners in communication is motivation. In the context oflanguage learning, various researches have shown interest in determiningsuccessful from unsuccessful language learners. Among the variables that werefound to make language learning successful for L2 learners, L2 motivation wasseen to be one of the prominent variables (Wharton, 2000). This finding wassupported by the notion that motivation to learn L2 is at least as important aslanguage aptitude for successful language acquisition and learning (Noels,2001).Furthermore, Caroll (1962) suggests that L2 achievement varies as afunction of learner characteristics. This idea suggests that motivation, partlydetermined by learner traits, has been identified as a determinant tocompetence in communication.

In terms of L2 motivation, the most influential definition is that ofGardner (as cited by Noels et al., 2001) who defined motivation as basically theextent of an individual’s effort and willingness to exert to achieve the goal oflearning a language because of a desire to do so and favorable attitudes towardsuch language. His view about L2 motivation includes several goals andorientations on motivation as a whole (Noels, et. al., 2000). Nevertheless, twoamong these constructs identified by Gardner received significant attention.The first is instrumental orientation, which tackles reasons for languagelearning with emphasis on the pragmatic consequences of L2 learning, such asjob hunting or improving one's education. The second is integrativeorientation, referring to reasons relating to interaction and communicationwith members of the L2 community for social emotional purposes.

College L2 Learners’ Oral Language Performance and Motivation as Predictors…


Furthermore, Gardner’s work on L2 motivation brought about an arrayof researches conducted in different contexts. General results of this studyreveal that motivation enhances second/foreign language acquisition and thatlearners who rank high on integrative orientation work harder and learn fasterthan those who are low on integrative motivation (Liu, 2006). Also, the findingshows that motivation has a direct effect on situational anxiety and L2achievement.

The above mentioned variables are assumed to have relationshipstowards each other and that they are determinants to communicativecompetence. As Anyadubalu (2010) assumed, for an L2 learner to becompetent in communicating, the language and extra language factors are tobe involved. Among these extra language factors is motivation which hebelieves determines the success or failure in communicating. He furthercontested that motivation has an effect to the oral proficiency in Englishlanguage of language learners.

Moreover, theories have been identified by the researchers to framethis study. The theory which took into account the interest in performance ofactual language use of the individual is the Communicative Language TeachingTheory (Quinn, 1984; Nunan, 1996; Canale& Swain, 1984). This view supportsthe belief that language is a system of expressing meaning for humancommunication.

Impliedly, CLT gives importance to spoken interactions. Whatprimarily concern the linguists are the oral aspects of language and that oralcommunication is a crucial element in the process of language learning andpractice (Rubin, 2000). With the pervasive influence of communicativeapproach in language teaching, a question of how learners would acquirecommunicative competence comes into question. Stern (1981) maintainedthat language teaching should approach language learning objectively andanalytically through the study and practice of structural, functional and sociocultural aspects. It should offer opportunities to live the language as a personalexperience through direct contact with the target language community. Thus,with direct contact to the target language in mind, the obvious means would beoral interaction through the use of oral language. This idea further means theexistence of communicative competence in oral language use. As Butler et. al(2000) cited, communicative competence in oral language requires the controlof wide range of phonological and syntactic features, vocabulary and oralgenres and knowledge and how to use them appropriately.

The study also used Hymes’ (1967, 1972) theory of communicativecompetence which was expanded for teaching and testing purposes by Canaleand Swain’s into three (3) subsets of systems. In a later article, Canale (1983)



expanded the system into four (4): 1.) grammatical competence or the masteryof the language code; 2.) sociolinguistic competence or the appropriateness ofutterances with respect to both meaning and form; 3.) discourse competenceor the mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieveunity of a spoken or written text and 4.) strategic competence or the masteryof verbal communication strategies used to compensate for breakdown and tomake communication more effective.

Equally, the study anchored on Gardner’s (1985) socio educationalmodel concerned with the role of various individual difference characteristicsof the student in the learning of L2. Its main importance lies in its clearseparation of four distinct aspects of the second language acquisition process:1.) antecedent factors (which can be biological or experiential such as gender,age or learning history); 2.) individual difference variables (particularly thelearner); 3.) language acquisition contexts; and 4.) learning outcomes.

More important, the main learner variables covered by the model areintelligence, language aptitude, language learning strategies, languageattitudes, motivation and language anxiety. The concept of motivation in themodel focuses on the role of various individual differences in the learning of L2.The model highlighted motivation as a means of acquiring the second languageboth in formal and informal learning contexts, leading to both linguistic andnon linguistic outcomes. The socio educational model of Gardner also assertsthat L2 learners who are integratively motivated will probably be moresuccessful in language learning than those who are not (Crookes & Schmidt,1991).

Gardner’s model, however, brought controversies on the study ofmotivation so that many studies were conducted to call for areconceptualization of the seemingly biased adherence to integrativemotivation orientation over some other factors like that of the instrumentalorientation. However, Gardner and Lambert (1972) pointed out thatintegrative and instrumental distinction reflects a continuum rather thanalternative. Furthermore, because of recent empirical studies on L2motivation, it was found out that they are not opposite sides of the issue butare related and contain affectively loaded goals that can sustain learning (Liu,2006).

Another theoretical model of motivation to which the present studyadheres is Trembley’s and Gardner’s (1995) extended social psychologicalconstruct. The said model was devised and designed in response to calls forthe “adoption of a wider vision of motivation” in the 1990s by incorporatingnew elements to Gardner’s original model. With the revised model,expectancy value and goal theories were added. Also, the model is “fairly



straightforward in suggesting language attitudes motivationalbehavior achievement sequence” (Dornyei, 2001). Moreover, threemediating variables between attitudes and behavior were included: 1.) goalsalience, referring to the specificity of the learner’s goals and the frequency ofgoal setting strategies used; 2.) valence, which subsumes the traditional scalesof the ‘desire to learn the L2’ and ‘attitudes towards learning the L2’, hence,denoting an L2 learning related value component; and 3.) self efficacy,comprising anxiety and ‘performance expectancy’ (the latter refers to theexpectancy to be able to perform various language activities by the end of thecourse).

The model then offers a synthesis of Gardner’s earlier sociallygrounded construct and recent cognitive motivational theories as well as showsthat the added variables considered can be incorporated to Gardner’s originalsocio educational model of L2 learning without damaging its integrity. Besides,the revised model has demonstrated “statistically adequate goodness of fitindex” (Dornyei, 2000), as it was empirically tested in a sample of 75 Canadianstudents learning French.

As mentioned earlier, the revised model suggests languageachievement as a direct result of language attitude preceding motivationalbehavior. In the present study, the assumption that communicativecompetence is predicted by the language learner’s motivation equallyillustrates the “language attitudes – motivational behavior – achievement”sequence of the mentioned model.

This research then considers both orientations to consist motivationassumed to be a variable for communicative competence and probes theconnection of goal setting to the level of motivation. Furthermore, the orallanguage variable is deemed in the study to work with motivation as predictorsto competence in communication.

With these theories, the researchers wanted to investigate theauthenticity of the situations mentioned with regard to second languagemotivation and oral language performance; hence, they decided to conduct astudy of these variables assumed to have influence on communicativecompetence in the local setting.

The study included respondents taking Bachelor of Education inIsabela State University Jones Campus during the second semester ofacademic year 2010 2011. Since English as a language for instruction is anecessity for future educators, an exploration of their communicativecompetence matters most. To achieve this purpose, this study then examinedthe relationship of oral language performance and motivation to the



communicative competence of L2 learners. Furthermore, it sought to identifythe level of respondents’ motivation and their level of oral languageperformance. Finally, it identified the better predictor of communicativecompetence between level of motivation and level of oral languageperformance.

METHODOLOGY

Combining the quantitative and qualitative type of research, the studymade use of a descriptive correlational design in a qualitative type of research.Fifty (50) students were selected through stratified random sampling and tableof random numbers. Among those enrolled in the Bachelor of Educationcourse at Isabela State University Jones Campus during the school year 20102011.

The questionnaire based on the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery(AMTB) in its English version (Gardner, 2004) designed by R.C. Gardner (1985)was used in determining the level of motivation of the participants. The AMTBis a multi component motivation test made up of 130 items concerned withvariables such as attitudes towards French Canadians, European French peopleand learning French, interest in foreign languages, orientation to learn French,French class anxiety, parental encouragement, motivation intensity, desire tolearn French and motivation index. However, only the items which fit thepresent problem being probed were considered. Moreover, the items weremodified to match the problem under exploration. Items about students’integrativeness which include integrative orientation, interest in foreignlanguage and attitudes toward the target language group and instrumentalorientation (Constructs and Scales of the AMTB, Gardner, 2001) wereconsidered. Furthermore, the questionnaire contains the 20 item motivationconstruct subdivided into integrative and instrumental motivation. This wasdesigned on a 4 point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree”,“moderately disagree”, “moderately agree” to “strongly agree” with values 1,2, 3 and 4 assigned to each alternative respectively.

To validate the instrument in its content, a comparative analysis wasdone by reviewing the AMTB instrument (Gardner, 2004) and data taken fromrelated studies and literatures, a pool of experts coming in to help.Furthermore, the researchers made use of suggestions regarding face validityof the questionnaire as to font sizes, font styles, work space,language/vocabulary used, quality of the printed material and clarity ofdirections to ensure appropriateness and accuracy of information provided byrespondents of the study.



A pilot try out was conducted to 30 students from the Bachelor ofScience in Information and Communication Technology department at IsabelaState University Jones Campus. The aforesaid department was chosen assamples for the piloting of the questionnaire since they are presently takingcommunication arts subjects where oral language is a focus linguistic skill inEnglish.

The responses gathered in the piloting of the questionnaire weresubjected to statistical treatment. The Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient revealedthat the reliability coefficient obtained from the items in the questionnaire is.900 which means that the instrument is considerably adequate.

Initially, the researchers did a pilot try out of the questionnaire andinterviewed the respondents of the ICT Department for reliability testing. Afterthe pilot try out of instrument and reliability check, the target respondents ofthe study were tested. First, the respondents were clustered to compose only6 10 students per group. Second, in small groups, the questionnaire wasdistributed to students. The answering of the questionnaire was monitored bythe researcher herself to assist students in providing the appropriateresponses. Third, the respondents were each asked to answer questions for arecorded interview. Then, the data gathered from the oral interview weresubjected to analysis and rating by L2 teachers including the researcher toensure objectivity in the analysis. They rated the level of oral languageperformance of the respondents using a rubric designed by the researcher. Therubric was validated by a pool of experts.

After summing up the responses collected from each respondent, theyunderwent statistical treatment using the Statistical Packages for SocialSciences (SPSS) for data analysis. In particular, frequency distribution,percentage and ranking were used in determining the respondent’s immediategoals in life. To determine the level of motivation, the weighted mean wasused.

To find out the level of the respondents’ oral language performance,the ratings in the oral language performance rubric were considered andaccomplished by the second researcher herself, and two other L2 teachers inthe interview. The ratings of the teachers were computed for the average andweighted mean. To describe the relationship of the level of oral languageperformance and level of motivation orientation of the students, the two tailedPearson Product Moment Coefficient Correlation at 0.01 level of significancewas used.

In using the multiple regression analysis the study tried to establishwhich variable – the oral language performance and level of motivation



orientation of the respondents – is a better predictor of communicativecompetence. To be able to conduct the Multiple Regression Analysis, the datafor communicative competence was gathered by securing the grades of therespondents in their Communication Arts and Skills 1 since the subjectencompasses the teaching of the macroskills particularly oral communication.Such subject is usually offered during their freshmen year in the institution.


Level of Motivation

While most participants (41 or 82%) were identified to be moderatelymotivated, only (3) appeared somewhat motivated, with no respondentsidentified to be unmotivated. The findings strengthen the assumption ofCrooks and Stein (1991) that motivation is a force that prods individuals to dosomething. This means that there is always a reason which energizes anddirects actions for any behavior – motivation. Table 1.Frequency and Percentage of Level of Motivation of Respondents Level of Motivation % Qualitative Description f

4 12% Highly motivated 6 3 82% Moderately motivated 41 2 6% Somewhat motivated 3 1 0 Not motivated 0

Total 100% 50

Level of Oral Language Performance

Respondents were identified in seven (7) bands as to their orallanguage performance. Most respondents fell within the novice mid level,novice high level and intermediate mid level. Few for each band ranged in theintermediate low level, intermediate high level, advanced low level andadvanced mid level of speaking.

The result of the level of oral language reinforces Stern’s (1992)observation on the second language learners rarely reaching the nativespeaker’s maximum competence level. The maximum level of competence is anative like competence which implies mastery of phonology, morphology andsyntax, as well as an extensive knowledge of vocabulary. Rarely do L2 learnersachieve this competence level.

To further describe the respondents’ oral language level a samplediscussion of the characteristics of the respondents in a particular level ispresented. These respondents in the novice mid level are described asspeakers that communicate minimally and with difficulty by using a number of



isolated words and memorized phrases. They may utter only two or threewords at a time or an occasional stock answer much less offer furtherexpansion of their utterances, as exemplified by an utterance from arespondent identified in this level:

The oral language sample above shows the respondent’s reluctance toprovide further details of the information. Grice (1975) explained that alanguage learner’s effort to explain in detail would empty room; hence, makingcommunication more incomprehensible. Also, they pause frequently as theysearch for simple vocabulary or attempt to recycle their own and theirinterlocutor’s words. Repetition of utterances, silence and resorting to L1 arecharacteristics of these speakers. The example of utterance below illustrateshow the respondent in this level resorts to L1. The word “mataba” is an L1 ofthe speaker which means “fat” in the L2.

Table 2. Frequency Distribution and Percentage of Respondents’ Level of Oral Language Performance

Band Verbal Description f %8 Advanced Mid 2 4% 7 Advanced Low 2 4% 6 Intermediate High 5 10% 5 Intermediate Mid 13 26% 4 Intermediate Low 3 6% 3 Novice High 11 22% 2 Novice Mid 14 28%

Total 50 100%

Relationship Between Oral Language Performance and Level of Motivation

Respondents’ oral language performance is not significantly related totheir level of motivation both in the integrative motivation and instrumentalmotivation; hence, in motivation as a whole.

Gardner’s study, with other researchers (1983), supported the claimthat proficiency in L2 was affected by variables such as motivation. Noels(2001) also attested that motivation to learn L2 is at least as important as

Interviewer: How about your father? (interviewer was asking the respondent to describe her father) Respondent: He’s okay ma’am.

Interviewer: Will you please describe your mother, physically and her characteristics as well. Interviewee: Ahhm…she is beautiful ma’am and mataba.



language aptitude or competence for successful language learning andacquisition. The results of the present study, though, points out no significantrelationship between these variables.

Nonetheless, Wharton (2000) contested that motivation is anintriguing concept for L2 learners. Liu (2006) also averred that results of studyon motivation may vary from context to context. In this present study, theresult has otherwise recognized a contrast to the established concept of earlierstudies.

Also, most of the respondents were identified to be moderatelymotivated and not highly motivated; hence, the level of oral languageperformance is not that high leading to an insignificant relationship betweenthe variables. Table 3. Correlation Matrix of the Level of Oral Language Performance and Level of Motivation

Variables Pearson r DecisionOral language 1.000 Not significant

Integrative motivation .184 Not significant Instrumental motivation - .247 Not significant

Significant Predictor of Communicative Competence

Result of the Multiple Regression Analysis reveals that the variable,levels of motivation is not a significant predictor of communicativecompetence, F (3, 46)=8.820, p=.962. Only the oral language performance is asignificant predictor to the communicative competence of the respondents, F(6,43)=6.375, p=.001. The table shows that oral language is the better predictorof communicative competence.

Gottlieb (2006) viewed oral language as purposeful, communicativeaction with emphasis on specific use or performance. Also, Lyle (1993)discussed that oral language is not simply basic communication, but a processthat involves competence both in knowledge and skills. These ideas are allanchored on Hyme’s (1972) idea about communicative competence where useof language for communication is the emphasis. These ideas confirm that orallanguage is, indeed, directly pointing towards performance and competence oflanguage learning and use.

Motivation is hypothesized to have a direct effect on L2 achievement(Gardner, 1985; Macyntyre, 1993). They say that motivation drives thelearners to strive to achieve confidence. However, the result of the presentstudy contradicts the idea. But then again, motivation is such an intriguingconcept, because it can presumably be enhanced in appropriate social context



(Wharton, 2000). This means that results may have the tendency to vary fromcontext to context.

Table 4. Predictors of Communicative competence of the respondents Variables Unstandardized Coefficient Standardized

Coefficient t-ratio Sig.

B Std. error Beta Communicative Competence (constant)

2.484 .417 5.950 .000

Levels of Motivation

-.006 .130 -.006 -.048 .962

Oral Language

-.092 .027 -.447 -3.418 .001


From these findings, the following conclusions have been drawn:

1. The majority of the respondents are moderately motivatedinstrumentally and integratively.

2. They are always motivated in some degree since no respondentswere identified to be unmotivated.

3. The majority of the respondents of the study belong to the lowerlevels of oral language performance, since they were identified tobe either in the novice mid, novice high and intermediate midlevels of speakers.

4. Level of motivation has no significant bearing to the oral languageperformance of the respondents.

5. Oral language performance significantly determines thecommunicative competence of the respondents.

The research provides the following recommendations:

1. The same study may be conducted in a bigger group ofrespondents since generalizability may not be thoroughlyestablished because of the limited number of respondents.

2. Have the result of oral language performance as a point ofinterest of further research explorations with emphasis on theactual use of L2 in the language community.



REFERENCES

Anyadubalu, C. (2010) Self efficacy, anxiety and performance in the Englishlanguage among middle school students in English language programin Satri Si Suriyothai School, Bangkok

Bachman, L. (1990).Fundamental considerations in language testing. OxfordUniversity Press: Oxford

Breiner Sanders, Karen E. et. Al. (1999) ACTFL Revised Proficiency Guidelines –Speaking Foreign Language Annals Vol. 33,No.1. 6 Executive Plaza,Yonkers

Butler, Y. et al. (2000) How long does it take English learners to attainproficiency? University of California: Linguistic Minority ResearchInstitute

Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980a). Theoretical bases of communicativeapproaches to second language teaching and testing. AppliedLinguistics. 1, pp.1 47

Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980b). A domain description for core FSL:communication skills. In the Ontario assessment instrument pool:French as a second language, junior and intermediate divisions,Ontario Ministry of Education, pp. 27 39. Toronto: Ontario Ministry ofEducation. In S.J. Savignon, and M.S. Berns. “eds.” Initiatives inCommunicative Language Teaching. Massachusetts: Addison WesleyPublishing Company.”

Carole and Swain, M. (1984).The interlangauge of immersion students and itsimplications for second language teaching in A. Davies, C. Cripes andA.D.R. Nowatt (eds.). Interlanguage (pp. 291 311)Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press

Caroll, D.W. (2008).Psychology of language 5th edition. USA: Thomson LearningInc.

Csiz’er, K. and Dornyei, Z. (2005a). The international structure of languagelearning motivation and its relationship with language choice andlearning effort. The modern language journal, 89 (1). RetrievedNovember 29, 2005, from Blackwell Synergy Database

Dornyei, Z. (2004). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in languagelearning: Advances in Theory, research and Applications. LanguageLearning, 54 (1), 1 34. Retrieved November 29, 2005, from BlackwellSynergy database

Dornyei, Z. (1995) “On the teachability of communication strategies.”TESOLQuarterly Vol. 29, pp. 55 85”



Dornyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individualdifferences in second language acquisition. Mawhaw, N.J.: LawrenceErlbaum

Gardner, R.C. and Lambert W.E. (1972).Attitudes and Motivation in SecondLanguage Learning

Gardner, Robert C. (1985).The role of motivation in second language learning.University of Pennsylvania Press.

Gottlieb, M. (2006).Assessing language learners. Corwin Press

Hymes, D. (1972).Models of the interaction between language and social life. InJ.J. Gumperz and D. Hymes “eds”, Directions and Sociolinguistics.London: Blackwell, pp.35 71

Liu, Meihua (2006) Chinese students’ motivation to learn English at the tertiarylevel. Tsinghua University, China

Macintyre, P.D. (1993) Variables underlying willingness to communicate: Acausal analysis. Communication Research Report, 11, 135 142

Murcia, Marianne (2007). Teaching English as a second or foreign language.Third ed. Heinlei and Heinlei Thompson Learning

Noels, K. (2000) New orientations in language learning motivation towards amodel of intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations andmotivation: University of Alberta

Nunan and Bailey, K. (1996). Voices from the language classroom: qualitativeresearch in L2 education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

Quinn, T.J. (1984).Functional approaches in language pedagogy. CambridgeUSA: Cambridge University Press

Richards, B.J. (1990) Language development and individual differences: a studyof auxiliary verb learning. Cambridge: C.U.P.

Rubin, Dorothy (2000).Teaching elementary language arts: a balancedapproach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon

Stern, H.H. (1992) Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press

Wharton, G. (2000) Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreignlanguage learners in Singapore, Language Learning, A journal ofresearch in language studies. Vol. 50, Issue 2

BOOK REVIEWS

On Universalizing HumanismPedro Aullón de Haro (ed.), Teoría del Humanismo, Madrid, Verbum, 2010, 7vols., 4370pp. + DVDReviewed by Isaac Donoso

It is possible to find in the history of scholarship cutting edge works,those that establish a landmark, a point of no return, a brilliant achievement ofthought creating new paradigms. We are in front of such a work, a superb opusmagnum of encyclopedic dimension. Teoría del Humanismo is a seven volumecomprehensive compilation of a universal Theory of the Humanism, as a globalhuman perspective in the era of globalization. Written originally in Spanish, thesecond most spoken language of the world as a mother tongue after Chineseand the second most international after English, these books universalizeHumanism from Greece to Asia, from Rome to America, from Pythagoras toVargas Llosa.

Humanism has three main points in history: 1) the Classic, Greek andLatin thought; 2) the Renaissance, from Italy to Europe; and 3) theEnlightenment, from Germany to the world. However, our era witnesses adramatic momentum where materialism overwhelms thought—the triumph oftechnology without taking in consideration reflection. However, Ethics,Rhetoric, Aesthetics, Logic and even Metaphysics are determining our presentand future through Bioethics, Speech, Design, Statistics, and even Atheism.Humanism is neither a methodology nor an object but the whole human action:homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto (I am human, nothing human isalien to me.)

The present books affirm the fourth, the moment where Humanismhas to be the whole, because everything is affected by human action andeverything affects us as humans. We are living in a moment where nature is indanger, space and time are not anymore edges, and the Earth has becomesmall for us. This is a time to think holistically, from past to future, in the line ofthought that created the modern world: Socrates, Plato, Cicero, Saint Jerome,Saint Augustine, Averroes, Ibn Khaldun, Dante, Petrarca, Pico della Mirandola,Erasmus, Vives, Montaigne, Schiller, etc.

About 4,500 pages the seven volumes were written by 150 authorsfrom all over the world the representing a mosaic toward the general theory ofHumanism in a global arena. It is the reader who has to survey the entire


BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviews


library that represents the work to build, or rebuild for him or herself thetheoretical paradigm. In other words, the volumes are an open gate to timelessknowledge, where the reader is part of the path. In fact, there is no division inchapters of categories nor inner construction of labels that restricts the oceanictask of the reader as seeker of knowledge. Thus, every volume is organizedwithin similar topics, not according to similar categories. The first threevolumes conceptualize the epistemological and historiographical frameworksof Humanism as global theory and the remaining four, the particularapproaches of Humanism from a global perspective.

Since particular topics represent practically the whole, the fivecontinents and the history of humankind from ancient civilizations to present,we cannot specify them for the reader who must find in the seven volumes awealth of intellectual thought from Europe to Asia, lasting as bottom point ageneral theory of Humanism. From this important issue, Humanism iscontextualized, if not reduced to Humanities. In fact, human sciences havebeen labelled in a particular category i.e., categorizing sciences: social sciences,natural sciences, etc. However, the present work affirms and confirms thatHumanism is far more beyond the current categories of human sciences orhumanities, mainly a methodology the former and a conglomerate of arts anddisciplines the latter. Humanism is a spirit, a global perspective of everythingthat is affected and affects human being.

In the volumes and chapters written by modern scholars, the readercan find scattered canonical and classical texts written by historical authorities.Thus, the mosaic is organized as an olden digest, as one of those scholasticmanuscripts of what Umberto Eco speaks about—modern ideas and timelessthought in an ivory tower. Yet, the seven volumes are far from being an elitistexperiment of the academia, the kind of experiment quite common in our days,where themes are mixed in an artificial conundrum. This work representsprecisely the opposite: clear object, legacy, and goal—Humanism as totalparadigm. One senses this while reading it, to hold one of those selected booksworth reading.

Since it features the chapter “El Humanismo en Filipinas” in volume VI,pages 283 to 328, Teoría del Humanismo is a fundamental reading as well forthe Filipino audience. This chapter describes the geographical knowledge onPhilippine archipelago during classical antiquity and the process of introductionand transformation of Renaissance and Baroque in Asia. Thus, from the ladinosto the ilustrados, Filipinos will join major intellectual debates toward thecreation of their own civilization, by crafting heterogeneous elements fromWest to East. As no other society in the world, Filipinos will enjoy globalizationcenturies ahead of other communities through both Islam and Christianity andAsia and Europe in the rst global route the Manila Galleon. A er all, “El


Humanismo en Filipinas” exposes the dilemmas of Americanization in nationalconstruction and how contemporarily the concept of “civilization” hascaptivated Philippine psyche from the poet fictionist dramatist Nick Joaquín tothe historian Zeus Salazar in search of the lost identity, the lost language, fromEnglish to Tagalog crossing Spanish.

The editor of the seven volumes is Pedro Aullón de Haro, a majorEuropean authority in various fields. Professor of Theory of the Literature andComparative Literature at the University of Alicante in Spain, he is the directorof the masteral and doctoral programs, Metodologías Humanísticas en la EraDigital. Leading authority in Aesthetics and Criticism, he has published a vastbibliography from Los géneros ensayísticos (1987) to La concepción de laModernidad en la poesía española (2010). He has also edited classical andmodern masterpieces of the aesthetical and literary thought (Friedrich Schiller,Juan Andrés, Jean Paul Richter, Krause, Milá y Fontanals, Croce and LezamaLima).

In sum, Teoría del Humanismo is probably one of the most importantworks in the current century, and undoubtedly, a key milestone for the years tocome.

Flip: Derogatory or Not?Jessica Zafra. Ed, 2008. The Flip Reader. Pasig city. Anvil Pub Inc. 272 pp.Reviewed by V.L. Mendiola

After reading this anthology of essays, the reader is likely todeconstruct the slang word Flip for Filipino in many hues and tones – sacredand profane, survivor and defeatist, cerebral and dense (read: naïve), rationaland emotional, hard working and sluggish, coy and abrasive, predator and preyad infinitum. In short, s/he suffers from some sort of a cultural schizophrenia,not “cultural damage”, as some critics hold.

The essays – philosophical, critical, satiric, socio political,psychological, reflective and biographical – come from the pens ofbusinessmen, artists, journalists, academicians, poets, economists enough togive a sense of gravitas to the issues, questions, observations raised in thebook. Moreover, their ideas would raise the hornet nest, so to speak. Forinstance, de Ayala holds that “we have not quite managed to integrate them(the OFWs) fully onto our economic development program and the industry tothis day”. Or take Sycip’s notion that “democracy in the Philippines will workonly if the citizens are properly fed and educated enough to choose the rightleaders.” Even Taguiwado’s contention to the effect that the church has someculpability in the state of the country, whether she admits it or not.

Book reviews


Other authors, taking the satirical stance, poke fun at the changingethos and mores of the times. To illustrate, Jaview Reyes posits that thePinoys, though, by enslaving themselves all over the world have not onlyimproved the Malay race genetically but have also changed the world’sdemographics. His essay on updating Fr. Modesto de Castro’s 19th Centurybook, Urbana at Felisa reveals the provincial lass has lost her reticence andinnocence, as a result of the corrupting influence of city life.

The section on profiles stands out, as it lays bare (with no holds bar)the nuances in the individual, shining moments in the lives of politicians likeImee Marcos, Ping Lacson or celebrities in the person of the late movie (action)king FPJ and (comedian) Dolphy, the villain par excellence Rod Navarro, or thegirl next door Juday and how the “good are oft interned with their bones”,their inspiring vita that awes and inspires us, their feet, often firmly planted onthe ground. By contrast, Alampay’s treatise on cockroaches traces thescientific, entomological, genetic linkages between roaches and homo sapiensthat make for fascinating reading. Seriously though, Rafael’s musing on thehistory of mega malls has redefined/reshaped Filipino public culture. Moreinteresting feature articles focus on gender issue, bilingual problems,motivating students to read on their own, movie making, and other topics that(re)define the Filipino mores and ethos.

By and large, this book subtitled “flip: the official guide to worlddomination” could be savored for its own sake. Disturbing, comic, tragic, butcertainly not blissful.

It’s More Than the Accent, my Dear!C.J. Moore. 2009. The Queen’s English. London. Elwin St. Ltd. 128 pp.Reviewed by V.L. Mendiola

To invite the reader to read the book under review, match column Awith that of B.

A B

_____ 1. Aga a. Raising laughs by going beyondthe bounds

_____ 2. Jumble sale b. Acronym for old age pensioners

_____ 3. Maiden Aunt c. Corresponds to the Filipino term“ukay ukay”

_____ 4. Nineteen to the dozen d. Social distinction by birth andclass

_____ 5. OAP e. Lengthy and complicatedprocedure

_____ 6. “How’s your father?” f. Ladies using their energy inmany spirited ways

_____ 7. People like us g. Something happening muchfaster than the average

_____ 8. Rigmarole h. Slang for very physicalintimacies (or sexual innuendoes)

_____ 9. Thatcher and Thatching i. On unusually, extremely costlytype of domestic cooker

_____ 10. Zany j. Practice of naming after specificoccupation that started in theMiddle Ages


Far from just being another run of the mill book on sayings, idioms,expressions or linguistic peculiarities, Moore’s slim, but substantial listingdistills (for those who love the lovely King’s/Queen’s language) the culturalover/undertones, the quintessence of the Briton’s psyche in their own words –highly nuanced, infectious, scintillating! Take for instance, the iron Lady –

Book reviews

Margaret Thatcher’s admonition to a minister, ‘Don’t be so wet’ (read: soppy)to mean wanting in resolution! After all, the British’s proverbial toughness,resistance, and adeptness in adapting to hardship (cf. the Filipino term kapit sapatalim or better yet, the mythological allusion to ‘resiliency of the bambooagainst the wind’).

On the word Jingoism, derived from ‘by Jingo’, a euphemism for ‘byGod’ or ‘by Jesus’, but now implies a rather aggressive, overconfident sense ofnationalism. Still consider the noun phrase, ‘black dog’, even WinstonChurchills admission of his own ‘black moods’, usually linked with bad luck,misfortune, or threatening presence. How about ‘Not my cup of tea’ (theBritons take their tea very fashionably and fussily!) to point out neither toosevere or too condemnatory English type of judgment!

Indeed, the book teems with ancient, contemporary post modernwords, phrases, as well as traces their origins, applies them in the English dailylives, rituals, activities such as meeting people, talking about the weather tostart a conversation, protecting one’s right and the like. That English, like anyother living language, grows with the times, and, therefore, never remainsstagnant. The caveat, though, is that the author compiler operationally definesthe Queen’s English as “the standard form of English spoken in the south ofEngland;” moreover, he claims that the English of today has undergone atremendous transformation, as it did, in Shakespeare’s time whenlexicographers recorded some 30,000 words added to the English vocabulary!

A case in point is the noun phrase, ‘sleeping policeman’ which doesnot necessarily mean ‘sleeping on one’s job’ (during office hours), but actuallydenotes ‘raised bumps of asphalt placed on road surfaces to deter speeding.’To exemplify further, if the Filipino is wont to using ano? (what?) as sort of fillerin statements for inability to specify matters, the English would say‘thingamabob’!

More word – treasure awaits the lay person, as s/he leafs though thebook! Happy reading!

Key to correction:1. i 2. c 3. f 4. g 5. b 6. h 7. d 8. e 9. j 10. a

Scores: 9 10 Excellent 5 6 fair enough 1 2 Try again!7 8 Very Good 3 4 Nice Try!


The Normal Lights Vol. 7 No. 1

89

THE CONTRIBUTORS LUCILLA R. FETALVERO has a master’s degree in Education with specialization inEducational Measurement and Evaluation and units in Doctor of Education from thePhilippine Normal University. She has been teaching Research, Statistics andAssessment courses in both the graduate and undergraduate programs at the PhilippineNormal University since 1993. She is currently a full time faculty researcher assigned atthe Educational Policy Research and Development Center (EPRDC).

MARIBEL G. GERUNDIO is a graduate of Master of Education with specialization inEducational Measurement and Evaluation from the Philippine Normal University. She iscurrently the administrative staff at the Educational Policy Research and DevelopmentCenter (EPRDC). She has been involved as data analyst/statistician in most of theresearches conducted by the Center.

MARIE PAZ E. MORALES is an associate professor working as a full time research facultyof the Educational Policy Research and Development Center(EPRDC), Philippine NormalUniversity. Her research interests are in Science Education particularly PhysicsEducation, Culture Based Learning and Teaching, and Mother Tongue MultilingualEducation.

EDNA LUZ C. RAYMUNDO ABULON is a full time faculty researcher at the EducationalPolicy Research and Development Center (EPRDC), Philippine Normal University. Beforeshe obtained a master’s and a Ph.D. degree in Psychology from the University of thePhilippines Diliman, she earned a master’s degree in Educational Measurement andEvaluation from PNU Manila. Much earlier, she had worked as a Human ResourceManagement Officer in UP Manila for 12 years and as a Clinical Psychologist at theDangerous Drugs board for four years.

FLORENCIA F. MARQUEZ is associate dean for College of Graduate Studies and TeacherEducation Research (CGSTER) at the Philippine Normal University. Her researchinterests include translation, lexicography, and Chavacano structure.

JENNIE V. JOCSON holds a Ph.D. in Literature. Her research interests includeassessment, preparation of assessment tools, teacher cognition and preparation, andevaluation of instructional materials.

VICTOR REY FUMAR currently serves as the Director of the Campus Development Officeof Philippine Normal University. He briefly served as technical assistant to the Office ofthe Vice President for Academics and as director of the University Press. He has aMaster of Fine Arts in Creative Writing degree obtained from De La Salle University.


RUSSEL R. LOMBOY is a graduate of Master of Arts in Linguistics. Her research interestsrevolve around language planning and stylistics. She teaches classes in Linguistics andLiterature in both graduate and undergraduate levels at Philippine Normal University.

ROSARITO T. SUATENGCO, a Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics graduate, is most competent inconducting and teaching research in education.

CECILIA M. MENDIOLA, who holds a Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics, considers secondlanguage acquisition, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and language teaching as areas of herresearch interest.

ELENA NAVAS and JOSIE JORDAN D. GINETA are undergraduate and graduate faculty ofPNU Isabela Campus under the Department of Languages, Linguistics and Literature.Their special research interests include English Language Teaching (ELT), local languagesand literatures, and Indigenous Peoples Education.

ISAAC DONOSO obtained a Ph.D. degree in Philology and a master’s degree inHumanities and Hispanic Philology from the University of Alicante. He has completedthe Master of Arts in Islamic Studies at the University of the Philippines. He haspublished a critical edition of Noli me tangere, a prose of Rizal and legendary novel Lospájaros de fuego by Jesús Balmori (2010). He edited the volume More Hispanic than WeAdmit. Insights into Philippine Cultural History, and Historia Cultural de la LenguaEspañola en Filipinas: Ayer Y Hoy and published the award winning LiteraturaHispanofilipina Actual. Former visiting faculty at the Philippine Normal University forthree years, he currently teaches at the University of Alicante in Spain

V. LÁZARO MENDIOLA, first dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, PNU has retired fromgovernment service after 43 years of teaching. With a doctorate in literature, meritissimus,from the University of Santo Tomas, he still actively engages in writing—a preoccupation thatgives him a sense of fulfillment.