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The late stone age in Eastern IndonesiaIan C. Glover aa Institute of Archaeology , University of LondonPublished online: 15 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Ian C. Glover (1977) The late stone age in Eastern Indonesia, World Archaeology, 9:1,42-61, DOI: 10.1080/00438243.1977.9979684

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia

Ian C. Glover

By eastern Indonesia I refer to the islands east of Java, Bali and Kalimantan, south of thePhilippines and west of New Guinea (fig. i). This is the biogeographical region ofWallacea, of transition between Asia and Australia. In environment and relief the area iscomplex and varied for it includes some fifty large and many hundreds of small islandsspread across an area of sea roughly 1,700 km. sq., has a land area of about 384,000 sq.km., and a present population of about 12 million. Since within this area we have reason-

120"

0°S-

10° S

130« E

0°S

10° S

Figure I Map of eastern Indonesia locating areas of recent excavations. For detailed maps; asee fig. 2, b see fig. 8, and c see fig. 16

World Archaeology Volume 9 No. 1 Island archaeology

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 43

able archaeological evidence from small scale excavations in only four localities - easternTimor, south-west Sulawesi, north Sulawesi (Minhasa) and the Talaud Islands - it mustbe evident that any generalizations made about its prehistory are provisional and pre-mature.

We can say that the main islands were settled by man some time in the Upper Pleis-tocene; this argument is based on the finds of large, archaic stone tools in gravel terracedeposits where they seem to occur together with an extinct fauna (stegodonts, giantvaranids, land tortoises and suids) in Sulawesi, Flores and Timor (Glover 1973) and thefact that there are dated sites in New Guinea at 26,000 b.p. (White et al. 1970) and inAustralia earlier than 30,000 b.p. (Mulvaney 1975: chap. 5). However, little is knownfrom eastern Indonesia until the end of the Pleistocene when the archaeological recordproper begins with dated pre-ceramic Late Stone Age sequences from caves in Timorand Sulawesi. At the moment, these extend from about 14,000 b.p. to the early or middlethird millennium b.c. when it seems that agriculture had become established in the moresuitable locations in this region. The use of caves for habitation became less frequent inthe first millennium b.c. and it should be remembered that almost all the evidence atpresent comes from caves and rockshelters. This terminal Pleistocene to mid-Recentsequence parallels the one emerging in the Philippines and shows many points ofresemblance to it.

The sequence in Timor

In Timor, excavations by Alfred Bühler in 1935 (Sarasin 1936) and Th. Verhoeven (1959)in the late 1950s revealed the characteristics of the Timorese Late Stone Age, and it wasspecified more exactly and dated in a series of excavations by myself in East, thenPortuguese, Timor between 1966 and 1967 (Glover 1969, 71 and 72). In particular Irefer (fig. 2) to the sites Lie Siri (fig. 3) and Bui Ceri Uato (fig. 4) on the edges of thedry northern coastal plateau near Baucau, and to Uai Bobo 1 and 2 (fig. 5) in the centralmountains. Differences between the components in mountain and coastal sites are small.The sequence starts about 14,000 b.p. with Horizon 1 at Uai Bobo 2 and for the next9,000 years there is relatively little change in artefact types and fauna. The most dis-tinctive tools are varieties of steep-edge, hollow scrapers and unretouched flakes withtraces of edge gloss (fig. 6 c-d). The fauna is dominated by several species of extinctgiant rats, with fruit bats, snakes, reptiles and, at the coast, fish and shell fish. Plantremains include seeds or fragments of Celtis, Job's Tears, betel vine, Polynesian chestnut(Inocarpus), Aleurities or candle nut, and bamboo.

From about 5000 b.p. there are marked economic changes with the introduction of pig,goat, dog, monkey, phalanger, civet cat and finally cattle and deer in the Christian era.Pottery also appears in the third millennium b.c. and is accompanied by a distinctive typeof tanged point (fig. 6 e-g), which is added to, but does not replace the existing flakestone tool kit. Shell adzes, fishhooks and shell beads also appear in the coastal sites at thistime (fig. 7). New plants found in small numbers in the period after 3000 b.c. include onepossible specimen of Setaria (foxtail millet), Lagenaria (bottle gourd), coconut, variousfruits and trees such as Anona and Garcina and finally Zea and Arachis (peanut) in the

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44 Ian C. Glover

WETAR STRAITBONDURA

-POINT

-e'30's

I26»2O'E

Key

O Towns

Roads

Bridle S Footpaths

Heights in metres

Excavated Caves ft Rockshelters

1 Lie Siri2 Uai Ma le3 Bui Ceri Uato4 Uai Bobo I5 Uai Bobo 2

Mag.

/2°5l'E196?

Based on Carta de Portugal 1-50,000 Provincia de Timor, A C - I - | | - Sheet 4 , 1968

Figure 2 East Timor; the Baucau Plateau and the Venilale region locating the author's mainexcavations of 1966-7

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Plate 5 Scanning electron microscope photograph of silica skeleton of rice hull, UluLeang I, Sulawesi, from a hearth at J (9) 7-8, estimated age about 4000 b.c. Photograph byR. Keeley. Enlargement x 940

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5mm

Plate 6 Carbonised cereal grains from Ulu Leang i, Sulawesi, from the same hearth atJ (9) 7-8

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W.M.C •-• i ttotagmit« towtr lo ro

f~~* italogmit« flowBton«

• f f i « bontboodryinanicM

* hand «ancits

A1

N5WI2

N5Wll

N4Wll

N5WIO

N4WIO

N3WIO

N2wto

NIWK)

SOWK>

NSW9

N4W9

N3WS

N2W9

NIW9

SOW9

N5WS

N4WS

N3WS

N2WS

NIWS

SOwa

N2W7

NIW7

SOW7

N2WS

NIWS

w<

NIWS

soWS

NIW4

SOW4

S*soWJ

Figure 3 Lie Siri Cave, Baucau Plateau, Timor. A section through cave, B plan of cave locatingexcavation trench, C excavation units

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46 Ian C. Glover

latest levels. I interpret these changes as reflecting the arrival in the island about 3000 b.c.of agricultural immigrants from the west or north, bringing Timor into a closer relation-ship with neighbouring islands. The first pottery, in particular a thin, hard-fired ware,often burnished and sometimes with a red slip, is rather close to the earliest pottery foundby Bellwood in the Talaud Islands, and seems to have little in common with the early

Plan of cave

Cross section of cave

A1—

old maize garden

tzero for horizontalmeasures

— - • WUIQ won \

Bul CERI UATO PLAN AND SECTIONS THROUGH THE CAVE

South section - stratigraphy

;:;!•; «oí« bnwn 10YR6/3

HIHI brown IOYRS/3

burnt shell 5YR 5/3I I I yellowiih rtd SYR4/6

SOIL STRATIFICATION IN THE SOUTH SECTION OF SQUARES N7E2. N6E2, N5E2W.M.

Figure 4 Plan and section through the occupational deposits at Bui Ceri Uato Cave, BaucauPlateau, Timor

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 47

NORTH SECTIONsquares A,B S C

3740*90ANU-239

5520*60ÁNU-.I87

Or«yi»h brownLight brownish grtyGrtyDor* sr»y

White (ash conctntration) 7 5 Y R 8 / 0

Weathered surface horizon

Charcool concentration

Undisturbed hearth

W.M.

Figure 5 Section through the occupational deposits at Uai Bobo 2 Cave, Venilale region, Timor

cord-impressed wares of the mainland. After about iooo b.p. there is little occupationinmost caves.

On

•15 m

The sequence in South SulawesiSouth Sulawesi (fig. 8) saw the first excavations in Indonesia by the brothers Sarasin in1903 and more sites were investigated, particularly by van Stein Callenfels and vanHeekeren up to 1950 (van Heekeren 1972:106-25). But reliable details are available onlyfrom three caves in the low coastal plains east of Maros: Ulu Leang 1 and Leang Burung1 and 2 (Mulvaney and Soejono 1970a and b, Glover 1976a and b). The cave assem-blages of South Sulawesi are often grouped under the title Toalean, named after asupposed band of hunter-gatherers encountered by the Sarasins.

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48 Ian C. Glover

Figure 6 Principal stone tool types of East Timor.a-b, Double side scrapers, Uai Bobo 2, Horizon IX; c-d, Flakes with silica gloss, Uai Bobo 2,Horizon VII; e-f, Tanged points, Uai Bobo 1, Horizon IVa; g, Tanged point, Uai Bobo 1,Horizon IIIc

The three sites Ulu Leang 1 and Leang Burung 1 and 2, though probably overlappingin time, can be ordered chronologically to provide a temporal sequence paralleling thatof Timor.

Earliest Leang Burung 2Middle Ulu Leang 1Latest Leang Burung 1

At the base of Leang Burung 2 (figs 9 and 10) there is a yellow-brown clay (layer I)with sparse cultural material but abundant fauna. Layers II-III are a dark brown earthwith a distinctive, and for Indonesia, a new assemblage with some Levallois points (fig.11 d-e). Overlying this (Layer IV) is a shell midden with flakes and steep edged scrapers(fig. 11 h-i). There seems little change in content from there to the top of the undis-turbed deposits. Notably lacking at Leang Burung 2 are backed blades, microliths,hollow-based denticulate points, and bone points - the typical Toalean forms of SouthSulawesi, and the deposit is all preceramic. No C14 dates are yet available from LeangBurung 2 but I estimate that the upper levels are not later than about 8,000 years old.

The lower part of the Ulu Leang sequence (fig. 12) overlaps the upper part ofLeang Burung 2 and there is a date of about 7100 b.p. from a little above the base insquares C 6-7; the earliest occupation at Ulu Leang 1, in squares K and L 15-17, would

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o

W.M.

3 cm

M. M.

Figure 7 Shell tools and ornaments from Timor.a, Tridacna shell adze, Bui Ceri Uato, Horizon VIII; b, Trochus shell fishhooks, Bui Ceri Uato,Horizon VI; c, pierced Anadara shell, Uai Bobo 2, Horizon VII; d Trochus shell armlet, Uai,Bobo 2, Horizon VIII ; e, Nautilus shell spacer beads, Bui Ceri Uato, Horizons IV-VI ; f, piercedolive shells, various sites; g, Nautilus shell discs, various sites

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ïv VJtv V flvvvvvy^ <? vvvvvvvv v ^ ^̂ fV vvvv vvvvvvv

Canal/

RiverLimestone TowerKarst Mountains

+ Spot heights in metres

Based on AMS T7I4, h50,000 CelebesSheets 75 xxxni C-D 3 xxiv A-B. 1943

Sites

1 Leang Kerassak

2 Leang Saripa

3 Leang Djarie

4 Leang Burung 1 (»to

5 Ulu Leang

6 Leang Paja

7 Leang Ellepusae

8 ÚluWae

9 Leang Pattoe

10 Leang Petta Kere

11 Lambatorang

12 Leang Timpusang

13 Leang Garopa

14 Buk* Sunkut

15 Balik Mukan

16 Leang Cabuk

17 Leang Tandri

18 Leang Balang

19 Leang Pacce*

20 Leang Bulak Batua

21 Leang Boddong

23 Leong Tinggi Adat

24 Leang Alebbireng

23 Leang Wanua

26 Leang Bembe

27 Leang Burung 2 o«rs)

28 BaTu Leattjabuk

22 Leang Puang Changoreng 29 Leang Lampoa

Figure 8 South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Map of known prehistoric sites in the Maros area at the end of the 1975 season

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 51

be between 10-8000 b.p. Typical forms at this level are high-domed core scrapers andthick, steep edge scrapers (fig. 13); and about 6000 b.p. in the middle levels, long backedblades and bone points, followed by geometric microliths, pottery and hollow basedMaros points (fig. 14) between 5-4500 b.p. There is some continuation, perhaps into thefirst millennium b.c. of this occupational phase at Leang Burung 1, but few details areavailable and this site seems rather disturbed with anomalies and date reversals.

Faunal remains have so far been analysed only from Layer II, in squares K-L from the1973 season, the second oldest at Ulu Leang and coming about the middle of the entiresequence (Clason 1976). The most important food animals are pigs and babirusa (fig. 15),followed by a dwarf bovid (anoa), with monkey, snakes, bats, rodents, phalangers andlizards and squirrels appearing in small numbers. Birds and fish are surprisingly rare. Allthe bones appear to be from wild species, although there is a possibility of some of the

limestone flowstone

\ d?scontours at intervals of lOcms.

'•¡••¡•" cementedsjgW? deposits

- j e o fdisturbance

3m.

LEANG BURUNG 21975

Figure 9 Plan of Leang Burung 2 Cave, Maros, Sulawesi

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52 Ian C. Glover

LEANG BURUNG 2 1975south section trench 10

A-4

-200-

Occupathn deposits, Layers /-VV Variable, brown/grey-brown/red-brown, with many

lenses and discontinuous interfingering layersIV Loose concentrated shells, grey and ashyI I I Reddish brownIlia Reddish brown, more yellow towards base, little shellII Chocolate brown, little shellI Yellow-brown clay, few shells, cultural material

decreases below top

Disturbed and sterile deposits, Layers Vl-XX Loose shells and stones sieved from robbers' trenchIX Hard-packed grey-brown earth with sticks, leaves and

recent potteryVIII Grey-brown, loose and very stonyVII Soft fill of collapse into sinkVI Red earth, archaeologically sterile+ C>« date, I665±8O b.p. (T-9096)AM samples in situ hearth deposits sampled for

archeomagnetic and C14 dating

Figure io Section through occupational deposits, Leang Burung z

pigs being Sus ser of a (Clason 1976: 60) which only exists as a domesticated animal inIndonesia.

Preliminary identifications on plant materials are available only from Ulu Leang andthese include sedges and wild grasses of the Panicum sp., fig seeds, canarium nut, andmany seeds of Bidens sp., a weedy herb which has medicinal and culinary uses. The verynumerous fresh water molluscs - mainly Brotia perfecta - and tortoise fragments suggestthat the immediate environment of the site during the period of prehistoric occupationwas rather similar to the present one. From a level which should be dated to about 6000b.p. or a little earlier there is a hearth full of plant silica skeletons including hull fragmentsof Oryza sativa or rice (plate 5) (T. T. Chang, pers. comm.) and many carbonized seeds(plate 6). Whether the latter include cultivated species of Oryza I cannot yet be certain,but rice, including both long and round grain varieties, was also found in a late level atUlu Leang in 1973 (see Glover 1976: 22-3).

The chronology and dynamics of this South Sulawesi Late Stone Age sequenceparallels the one in Timor quite closely, although details of artefact styles differ mark-edly, and there seems little indication of contact between the two areas.

North Sulawesi

Off northern Sulawesi (fig. 16) Bellwood (1974 and 1976) has excavated a coastal shelter,Leang Tuwo Mane'e in the Talaud Islands, and a shell midden at Paso on Lake Tonando

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 53

5 cm

H.M.

Figure 11 Flaked stone tools from Leang Burung 2.a, retouched point, Layer V; b, unretouched point, Layer II; c, blade with silica gloss, LayerIllb ; d-e, levallois points, Layer II ; f, unretouched point, Layer Il lb ; g, bipolar core, Layer II ;h-i, steep-edge scrapers, Layers II and V

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54 Ian C. Glover

A B C D E F G H 1 J K L M N

limestone flowstone

ground

tree stump j f recent pHs

contours at intervals of lOcms.

5m

ULU LEANG I1969-1975

M.LA

Figure 12 Plan of Ulu Leang i Cave, Maros, Sulawesi

cementeddeposits

10

12

13

14

15

16

17

-LË.19

20

21

22

23

24

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 55

Figure 13 Early flaked stone tool types from Ulu Leang 1, trench K-L.a, double side scraper, alternate faces; b, end scraper; c, double side scraper; d, domed core-scraper; e, nosed side scraper

(Minhasa). The Paso shell midden dates to a rather short period about 7,500 years agoand contains a preceramic obsidian scraper assemblage (fig. 17) with bone pointssimilar to those of Maros. And Leang Tuwo Mane'e has a preceramic chert blade indus-try (fig. 18) in the earliest of four occupational phases, which the excavator, Bellwood,dates to between 6000 and 4500 b.p. Fifty percent of this assemblage consists of smallblades, but few are retouched and none of the distinctive point types-found in SouthSulawesi or Timor are found here. Many flakes though, were used for cutting and scrap-ing and some have silica gloss on the margins (fig. 18 b), as is also common in Timor,South Sulawesi and the Philippines. Phase 2 at Leang Tuwo Mane'e is marked by the

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cm

9 (20

(2*)

F «fi

m 12«)

5 cm.

i

mRM.

Figure 14 Later flaked stone tool types from Ulu Leang 1.a, blunted-edge Maros Point; b, denticulate Maros Point; c-d, f, blunted back bladelets;e, obliquely blunted point; g, geometric microlith; h, tranchet point; i, bipolar micro-core;

j , blade with silica gloss; k, double side scraper; 1-m, bone bipoints

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 57

Figure 15 Babyrotissa babyrussa (Lin.) The babirusa (literally 'pig-deer') is the largestendemic mammal in Sulawesi. Drawing from Lydekker's Royal Natural History, vol. 2, 1894.London

SANGIHEIs.V

ß S I A Ü

PB>

y*MAMAD0J3 Kit

C^ ^nLAKE TONDANO

Leang Tuwo Mane'e

TALAUD

1.

0

j Paso shell mound

KMS 100

MM.

Figure 16 Map of northern Sulawesi, Sangihe and Talaud Islands locating two sites excavatedby Bellwood in 1974

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58 Ian C. Glover

Figure iy Flaked obsidian tools from Paso shell mound, Lake Tondano, Minhasa.a, unretouched point; b-c, steep-edge scrapers

appearance of pottery similar to the early wares of Timor and northern Luzon (Dimolit site)and blades diminish in frequency. This change is dated to about 4500 b.p. by Bellwood.

Surface collections or amateur excavations in Flores, Roti, Sumba and Seram havealso yielded small flake collections which I believe will be shown to be contemporary and

5cm.

1.6.

Figure 18 Blades from Leang Tuwo Mane'e, Talaud Islands.a, unretouched blade, patinated cream chert; b, flake with silica gloss; c, scraper; d-e, un-retouched blades

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The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia 59

parallel to the assemblages described, and share a similar technological base, but differingin typological details. In Seram, for instance, the most common retouched pieces areblades (fig. 19), steeply modified at the butt for hafting, less pronounced than the tangedpoints of Timor, and a type not yet recorded elsewhere.

Between the first dated occurrence of these diverse flake and blade assemblages, justbefore the end of the Pleistocene, up to the early or middle third millennium b.c. there isyet little to suggest that eastern Indonesia was occupied by anything but small, isolatedcommunities of hunter-gatherers; not particularly mobile, at least on the sea, and drawingmost of their food from rivers, lakes and coastal waters and from the nearby forests.

789790

5 cm.

791

H.M.

Figure ig Chert points and blades, surface finds from Ruhuwa village, Seram

I would argue, then, that subsequent to the colonization the major islands of easternIndonesia in the Upper Pleistocene we can see the development of many stylisticallydiverse stone working traditions by isolated communities who seem to have occupiedmost of the available habitats, low swampy as well as steep rocky coasts, high mountainsand inland lake basins. Within the two areas most thoroughly investigated, Timor andSouth Sulawesi, there seems to have been surprisingly little spatial variation in economicadaptation or cultural style at any one time, at least up to the third millennium b.c., butthis seeming uniformity may reflect only the lack of discriminating analyses. With theappearance of pottery and imported wild and domesticated animals, we get the movementinto eastern Indonesia of expanding agricultural populations from the west or north. Ithas been argued (cf. Shuttler and Marks 1975: 93-5) that these are the first Austronesianspeakers who moved on to settle coastal Melanesia and the Pacific. Whatever their lin-guistic affiliations, this settlement impinged on, deflected, and in the long run destroyedthe old hunting and collecting life except in some very isolated islands and mountain areas.

From the third millennium b.c. onwards inter-island communications improve, theresult clearly of better boat building and sailing techniques, and we see in the largerislands the start of a process of differentiation between coastal and inland societies whichis so typical of Indonesia in historical times.

Acknowledgements

The author's fieldwork in Sulawesi was undertaken with the permission of the IndonesianInstitute of Science and in co-operation with the National Archaeological Institute of

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Indonesia. In particular I would like to thank Drs Soejono in Jakarta, Drs Hadimuljono,Bahuru and Rifai of Ujung Pandang, Pak Issudjud of Maros and the people of Tompok-balang, and Dr P. Bellwood for information on his unpublished excavations in NorthSulawesi.

Figures 1-2, 7-9, 12 and 16 are by Moira Mackenzie, 3-5 by Win Mumford, and 11,14 and 19 by Hazel Martingell, and 10 is by Liza Greenwood.

13 .ix. 1976 Institute of ArchaeologyUniversity of London

References

Bellwood, P. 1974. Report on archaeological research in Sulawesi (Minahasa, Sangihe andTalaud Islands). Roneo report for L.I.P.I. and A.R.G.C.

Bellwood, P. 1976. Indonesia, the Philippines and Oceanic prehistory. La Préhistoire Océanienne,pp. 7-26 (ed. J. Garanger). Colloque XXII, IXe Congrès Union Internationale des SciencesPréhistoriques et Protohistoriques, Nice.

Clason, A. T. 1976. A preliminary note about the animal remains from Ulu Leang 1 Cave,South Sulawesi, Indonesia. In Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia. 2:53-67 (edsG.-J. Bartstra and W. A. Casparie). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.

Glover, I. C. 1969. Radiocarbon dates from Portuguese Timor. Archaeology and PhysicalAnthropology in Oceania. 4:107-12.

Glover, I. C. 1971. Prehistoric Research in Timor. In Aboriginal Man and Environment inAustralia, pp. 158-61 (eds D. J. Mulvaney and J. Golson). Canberra: A.N.U. Press.

Glover, I. C. 1972. Excavations in Timor. 2 vols. Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University,Canberra (unpublished).

Glover, I. C. 1973. Island Southeast Asia and the settlement of Australia. In ArchaeologicalTheory and Practice, pp. 105-29 (eds D. Strong and J. D. Evans). London: Academic Press.

Glover, I. C. 1976a. Ulu Leang Cave, Maros : a preliminary sequence of post-Pleistocene culturaldevelopment in South Sulawesi. Archipel. 11:113-54.

Glover, I. C. 1976b. Prehistoric research in the Maros District, South Sulawesi, Indonesia:first preliminary report on the 1975 field season. (Roneo report privately circulated.)

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Abstract

Ian C. Glover

The Late Stone Age in eastern Indonesia

Excavations in caves and shell middens in Timor, south and north Sulawesi have revealed anumber of regionally diverse flake stone tool traditions dating from the end of the Pleistoceneto mid-Recent times. Food remains suggest that the region was occupied by isolated commu-nities of hunters and gatherers until agricultural settlement in the third millennium B.C.However, some early evidence of rice has been found in South Sulawesi.

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