The Inductive Charging Quick Scan

The Inductive Charging Quick Scan An exploratory study of inductive charging opportunities and potential in the Netherlands

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

1.1 Context and motivation 3

1.2 Goal and scope 4

1.3 How this report is organised 4

2. Inductive charging: An introduction

3. Inductive charging: The value chain, segments, and players

3.1 The inductive charging value chain 10

3.2 Segments 11

3.3 An overview of the major national and international players 12

4. Inductive charging’s potential

4.1 The current state of affairs in inductive charging 16

4.2 The growth prognosis for inductive charging 17

4.3 Expected market developments per segment 18

5. Opportunities and challenges

5.1 Opportunities 20

5.2 Challenges 21

5.3 The government’s role 23

6. Conclusions and recommendations

6.1 Conclusions 25

6.2 Recommendations for further action 27

Appendix: Interviewees

2.1 Technology 5

2.2 Costs 6

2.3 Pilot projects 8

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1. Introduction

1.1 Context and motivation

The Dutch government is constantly working to optimally align electric mobility policy with future

transportation needs. These efforts have helped make the Netherlands an attractive environment for

the introduction of electric vehicles (EVs). As part of its work on the Energy Agreement, the

government also developed a vision on sustainable fuels for transport, in which EVs play a prominent

role.

In its 2011–2015 Action Plan: Electromobility Gets Up to Speed, the Ministry of Economic Affairs lists

several key priorities, among them a commitment to EV sectors that show promise and the promotion

of the Netherlands’ economic potential. These priorities are supported by a generic policy package

that includes a focus on further developing EV charging infrastructure. Part of this focus is the

development of promising and innovative charging technologies.

Inductive charging is an innovative EV charging technique that is gaining worldwide attention. It is a

wireless charging technology, comparable to charging an electric toothbrush. At present, however,

inductive EV charging is limited to a handful of pilot projects. For example, the cities of Utrecht and

‘s-Hertogenbosch have conducted tests to inductively charge electric busses, and there have been a

number of international studies and pilot projects. Beyond these, however, developments in

inductive charging have been quite limited.

Yet inductive charging offers a variety of advantages, such as the ability to charge while driving and a

reduction in the amount of public or private space that must be dedicated to charging infrastructure.

Inductive charging also offers Dutch companies opportunities to remain frontrunners in the charging

infrastructure sector. The Ministry of Economic Affairs hopes to fill the inductive charging knowledge

gap by conducting a study on the opportunities (including economic potential) and challenges facing

inductive charging in the Netherlands in the decade between 2015 and 2025.

All-ele

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1. Introduction

1.2 Goal and scope

The goal of this exploratory study is to clarify the potential that inductive charging holds for e-mobility

in general and for the Netherlands in particular. The study is a broad exploration for the 2015–2025

period that includes the following:

• An overview of the inductive charging value chain

• The players involved in the Netherlands and their international contacts

• A description of the opportunities for inductive charging, broken down into

subsectors such as busses, taxis, passenger cars, and so on

• A list of opportunities and obstacles, such as legislative barriers

• Scenarios for inductive charging’s growth potential in the Netherlands

• Recommendations for the future

We acquired our information through a study of the literature and interviews with sixteen different

types of stakeholders, including vehicle manufacturers and OEMs, charging system suppliers, power

companies, service providers, distribution system operators, site owners and road authorities, and

scientists.

1.3 How this report is organised

The report groups the elements of the study using the following structure:

• Inductive charging: An introduction

• Inductive charging: The value chain, segments, and players

• Inductive charging’s potential

• Opportunities and challenges

• Conclusions and recommendations

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In this chapter, we discuss inductive charging technology, the cost of inductive charging, and current

and completed pilot projects.

2.1 Technology

In the field of EV charging, we distinguish between regular charging and fast charging. Fast charging

is often called ‘opportunity charging’. The difference in the charging methods lies in the time it takes

to charge a given battery to capacity and the associated current required. Regular charging typically

requires alternating current with a power of 3–7 kW and fast charging often uses direct current with a

power of 20 kW and higher. At present 25 kW AC chargers are also entering the market. Inductive

charging can take place statically (on a stationary vehicle) or dynamically (on a moving vehicle).

Figure 1. A basic block diagram for a typical inductive

charging system for electric vehicles (source: Prasanth and

Bauer, October 2014).

The core of inductive charging technology lies in the magnetic coils located in the charging source

and the vehicle (see figure 1, component A). The creation of a magnetic field between two coils

enables the transfer of energy without physical contact between them. That reduces corrosion in the

connection. High-frequency alternating current is required (B) to enable high-efficiency magnetic

transfer. The vehicle’s battery runs on DC power, however (C); thus the vehicle must contain power

conversion electronics (D and E) that can convert the high-frequency alternating current to the

desired DC voltage.

On the charging source side, the power supplied must also be altered in order to efficiently supply the

induction coil. To achieve the required voltage, 3x32A current (three-phase, F) is often converted by

power electronics (B and G) to pure high-frequency alternating current. Electrical pollution often

arises on the network side, which can cause efficiency losses.

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Figure 2: The static inductive charging system offered

by Plugless Power.

Inductive charging can be used for both light vehicles and heavy transport. In technical terms there are no differences; the primary difference is the amount of power transferred. In general, passenger vehicles can charge up to a maximum of 30 kW. For heavier transport, capacity begins at 50 kW and runs up to 200 kW.

According to the Delft University of Technology (TU Delft), it is possible to achieve an efficiency greater than 90 percent at a coil distance of 20 centimetres. Germany’s Fraunhofer Society has even managed to achieve 93 percent efficiency. In a dynamic inductive charging test set, the TU Delft achieved roughly 85 percent efficiency. It is technically possible to charge in either direction using induction; that is, you can also supply power from the vehicle to the electrical grid.

Like every charging system, an inductive system is connected to the electrical grid. For regular charging, this grid connection is integrated into the charging point; however, an inductive system uses a coil in or on the ground, making such a connection impossible. The grid connection must therefore be external to the charging system and separately installed. Distribution system operators currently install connections only above ground because there are no clear requirements for underground connections. Their objections to underground connections include subsidence, moisture, access for repairs, physical meter readings, and more. As a result, the grid connection must currently be installed at street level in a separate meter box. On a side note, several parties are presently working to realise underground grid connections. For example, ElaadNL is conducting a pilot to investigate underground connections.

Research at the TU Delft shows that static inductive charging is a safe procedure for the following reasons: • The frequencies are low (80–500 kHz) and non-damaging. • The charging pad’s energy content is low until it detects a car (there is a patent for this process), so a

coin on the pad will not heat up dramatically.

2.2 Costs

The costs for a static inductive system vary. For example, the American company Plugless Power sells a

simple inductive system for €1,950 ($2,470). This system is intended for private use rather than use in

public spaces. For heavier transport such as busses, the business case differs per application and should

be compared with the alternatives.

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Research at the TU Delft shows that the cost of a dynamic inductive system is roughly €300,000–€500,000 per linear kilometre, not including the system’s installation in the vehicle and any associated conversion required.

It is not yet known how the cost of the inductive charging between vehicle and inductive system will

be allocated for passenger vehicles. This requires the development of a market model, which may be

able to make use of the market model currently being developed for regular plug-in charging-point

charging. Among other things, this model distinguishes between ‘charging point operators’ (CPOs)

and ‘mobility service providers’ (MSPs). CPOs could be billed based on a start fee and a price per

kWh, just as for charging points. In public bus transport, inductive charging is part of the proposition

offered by the transport company. The rise of new technologies may change the way bus transport

rights are awarded in the future, so that the process recognises the distinguishing features of the

charging and other infrastructure, the busses, and the transport service.

The cost of the grid connection comprises the distribution system operator’s regulated costs (one-

time connection fee and periodic transport and delivery fees). In addition, there are costs for installing

cables of different types depending on the distance from the charging system to the main power line

and the power the cables must be able to transmit. These costs are independent of the charging

technology and also apply to conductive and other systems.

Inductive charging may, however, be affected by existing cables and pipes at the desired charging

pad location. If the charging base plate cannot be installed elsewhere, these cables and pipes will

have to be rerouted, because objects may not be placed over them. Distribution system operators

may transfer these costs to the customer. That makes it desirable to accurately determine where the

charging pad will be installed beforehand, so that these additional costs can be avoided to the extent

possible.

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2.3 Pilot projects

In this section (on this and the following page), we present an overview of inductive charging pilot projects that have been conducted or that began in 2014.

Initiator Vehicle type Location Pilot

start

Description Results Partners

Conductix Wampfler Bus Turin and

Genoa,

Italy

2002 Thirty busses in total. The busses are charged at night in a depot and at selected bus stops. They drive roughly 200 km per day without having to charge at a depot.

The business case for the vehicles is positive. The busses also have a positive effect on air quality and noise reduction.

Siemens Car/taxi Berlin, Germany

2011 Siemens and BMW have created a prototype car that can charge inductively. They

plan to test it in Berlin. To that end, a 3.6 kW inductive charging point was installed.

An induction coil was placed beneath the pavement in a parking lot and connected to

the regular grid. Siemens notes that this would work well at a taxi stand.

Unknown BMW

Flanders’ DRIVE Bus Belgium 2011 Flanders’ DRIVE has conducted a feasibility study into wireless charging of electric

vehicles. The research centre worked intensively with nine companies and two

universities over the past 2.5 years, focusing on static and dynamic charging for

busses and static charging for cars.

Both static and dynamic wireless charging

appear highly feasible. The efficiency of the

charging systems used in the study averaged

more than 90 percent, for both static charging

and dynamic charging up to 70 km/h.

Bombardier, Energy

ICT, Infrax, Inverto,

University of Leuven,

Mobistar, NXP, OCW,

Van Hool, Volvo Car

Corporation, and Free

University Brussels

City of Den Bosch Bus Den Bosch, Netherlands

2012 This wirelessly rechargeable bus runs between the Pettelaarpark park-and-ride

lot and the city centre. As soon as the bus stops at the P+R bus stop, it is

wirelessly charged by the charging pad installed in the pavement.

Unknown Arriva, Bluekens Truck

and Bus, Conductix-

Wampfler, Enexis, and

Heijmans

Qualcomm Car 2012 Qualcomm’s Halo is car-charging technology. The Halo consists of a charging

station built into the floor of a garage or the asphalt of a parking lot. A corresonpding

pad containing an induction coil is attached to the underside of the car. Qualcomm is

in discussions with the ‘big ten’ auto manufacturers to implement the technology in

future electric cars. A pilot project in London is also being developed.

Unknown

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Initiator Vehicle type Location Pilot

start

Description Results Partners

City of Utrecht Bus Utrecht, Netherlands

2013 For 1.5 years, bus line 2 in Utrecht tested electric bus transport using inductive charging. The busses charged using an induction pad installed at the Utrecht Central Station bus stop.

The bus line ran flawlessly through the entire testing period.

PROOV, Qbuzz

Bombardier

Transportation

Bus Mannheim, Germany

2013 Unknown Unknown Rhein-Neckar-Verkehr,

Karlsruhe Institute of

Technology

Dongwon Olev Bus Gumi, South

Korea

2013 An experiment in which two electric busses drive over specially designed pavement

and are inductively charged as they drive. The cost of the entire project in South

Korea is €3 million, for a 24-kilometre route driven by two busses.

Unknown

Nissan Car 2013 The Japanese car manufacturer is working behind the scenes on the second

generation of the electric Nissan LEAF, which is slated to roll off the assembly line

in two years.

Nissan promises that the batteries in the new LEAF will also be able to charge

wirelessly. The company is splitting the expense of developing the wireless charging

system with Toyota. An induction coil will be mounted to the bottom of the LEAF’s

chassis. When the car parks on an induction pad, the battery charging process

will begin.

Possible option to charge inductively in the

new-generation Nissan LEAF (though Nissan

Netherlands says it is not aware of these

developments).

Toyota

BMW Car/taxi 2014 BMW and Daimler are working together to develop inductive charging for electric

and plug-in hybrid models. The goal is to create a standard technology. The

technology will have two components: a coil included in the bottom of the car and a

coil in the floor of the garage or carport.

"The technology will be ready for mass

production within two to three years.”

Daimler

Toyota Car Japan 2014 Toyota is starting a pilot project on wireless charging. Those testing the new

charging technique are Prius Plug-In Hybrid owners. Toyota will spend a year testing

a new magnetic resonance technology. In regular inductive charging, the distance

between the charger and car must be very small, a limitation this new technology

removes. The charging time is the major innovation. Just as for plug-in charging, it

takes 1.5 hours to fully charge the battery in the Prius Plug-In (4.4 kWh).

Unknown

Wrightbus Bus Milton

Keynes,

United

Kingdom

2014 A pilot project using induction busses along a 25-km route. The busses charge

nightly at the depot and during the day via inductive base plates in the ground at

the start and end of the route. PROOV is involved in this pilot project.

Unknown PROOV

Fraunhofer Society Car Germany 2014 Researchers at the Fraunhofer Society in Germany have thought up an intelligent

way to reduce the size of the induction coils used in inductive EV charging. The

induction coils installed beneath electric vehicles are usually very large because the

distance between them and the charging station installed in the ground, which the

electromagnetic field must cross, is relatively large (circa 15 cm). By placing

induction coils on the front of the car and parking it almost touching a vertical

charging point, the distance between the coils and the charger is greatly reduced

and the cost of inductive charging drops substantially.

Unknown

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In this chapter we describe the inductive charging value chain. After the chain is described in section

3.2, we turn in section 3.3 to the players in the various segments, both national and international.

In addition to the interviews we held with stakeholders, the publication “Electric Vehicle Wireless

Charging Technology: A State-of-the-art Review” by Fisher et al., published by the Cambridge

University Press (March 2014), was an important source of information.

3.1 The inductive charging value chain

The inductive charging value chain is highly similar to the plug-in charging value chain. We

distinguish the following roles in the inductive charging value chain:

• Charging system developers and suppliers

• Charging services developers and suppliers

• Vehicle manufacturers and OEMs, for both passenger vehicles and heavier transport

• Vehicle owners and users: consumers, bus companies, freight transport companies, and

industry

• Distribution system operators and power companies

• Site owners and road authorities

• Investors

Figure 3 at left shows the various parties involved in the inductive charging chain.


3.2 Segments

The market for inductive charging comprises a variety of segments. We can make an initial distinction

between light vehicles and heavy vehicles.

In the light vehicles category, we can further distinguish among the following:

• Private passenger cars

• Taxis

• Light commercial vehicles (< 3,500 kg)

• Motorcycles

In the heavy vehicles category, the most important segments are these:

• Busses

• Rubbish collection vehicles

• Lorries

• Specific commercial transport on company premises: e.g., forklifts and automatic guided vehicles


3.3 An overview of the major national and international players

In this overview we present the roles in the inductive charging value chain as listed in section 3.1,

addressing those roles specifically involved with inductive charging.

Charging system developers and suppliers

The market of inductive charging system suppliers is small; only seven companies are known to be

involved with this technology: Conductix-Wampfler, Qualcomm Halo, Bombardier, EV Wireless,

WiTricity, HEVO, and Momentum Dynamics. In addition, Plugless Power offers a simple consumer

solution for inductive charging.

IPT Technology GmbH is a subsidiary of Conductix-Wampfler. Since 2014, the Dutch company

PROOV has owned a majority share in IPT Technology GmbH.

The differences among the companies lie primarily in the charging capacity they target, as shown in

table 1. Roughly speaking, we see that Conductix-Wampfler and Bombardier focus primarily on

higher capacities such as bus, freight, and industrial applications and that Qualcomm focuses on light

vehicles. Another striking fact is the absence of such a major player as ABB, which views inductive

charging as a niche market and places more stock in conductive charging for heavier vehicles.

Table 1. Companies that supply inductive charging systems (source: Fisher et al., Cambridge

University Press, March 2014).


Charging services developers and suppliers

In general, charging technology developers and suppliers also provide charging services. The link is

logical, given that the charging service, particularly for heavier vehicles such as busses, is highly

tailored to the charging technology. Allego in the Netherlands is currently testing the use of

different inductive systems in-house.

Vehicle manufacturers and OEMs

Looking at the market of vehicle manufacturers engaged with inductive charging, we must distinguish

between light vehicles (such as passenger vehicles) and heavy vehicles (such as busses). Many car

manufacturers currently active in inductive charging are not yet placing all their bets on the

technology. In most cases it is an optional choice. For example, it has been announced that the new

Chevrolet Volt will have an inductive charging option. BMW, Nissan,1 and Mercedes are also working

on vehicles with the option to charge inductively, and Toyota, Mitsubishi, and Audi have signalled an

interest in inductive charging.

For heavier vehicles, we must distinguish between vehicles that participate in traffic in the public

space and those in an industrial setting such as port areas and factories. Regarding lorries, Volvo

and Scania are using pilot projects to explore the use of inductive charging.

Regarding bus traffic, there is a visible trend in which bus manufacturers are developing and

building modular vehicles in which the choice of charging system (inductive, conductive, or plug-in)

can be adapted to the customer’s specific wishes. This trend reflects the evolution of the various

charging technologies and addresses their customers’ needs. The bus manufacturing market is, by

definition, an international market.

1 Enquiries at Nissan/Renault Nederland reveal that the Dutch branches are not aware of these developments.

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VDL in the Netherlands, BYD in China, Van Hool in Belgium, Solaris in Poland, and Wrightbus and Alexander Dennis in the United Kingdom are developing busses suited to inductive charging for the market. Because these busses are largely of modular construction, the inductive system is simple to install, easing these companies’ entry into the market.

Distribution system operators and power companies In the Netherlands, neither distribution system operators (DSOs) nor power companies are actively engaged with inductive charging. DSOs Stedin and Enexis are involved in pilot projects in the cities of Utrecht and Den Bosch, respectively. Their interest lies primarily in opportunities to manage the charging process for load-balancing purposes. Power companies are currently making only limited investments into electric mobility. The reason for this is that these organisations’ margins are under pressure. Investments in e-mobility, and in inductive charging in particular, are not being made.

Site owners and road authorities Road authorities are not engaged with inductive charging in large numbers. The cities of Utrecht and Den Bosch have been involved in pilot projects. For other road authorities, this topic is new. For example, national infrastructure authority Rijkswaterstaat has drafted an innovation agenda for electric and hydrogen vehicles (APPM, 28 February 2014). The agenda states that Rijkswaterstaat will be exploring whether inductive charging is a possible component of the national road infrastructure.1

Investors Investors play an important supporting role in inductive charging. Especially in the field of heavy transport, the costs outweigh the advantages. Investments into inductive systems must take place first, after which returns on the use of those systems will occur. It is difficult to determine which companies and public authorities are investing in companies active in inductive charging. We do know that Dutch venture capitalist Tacstone is working with PROOV. They are investing in sustainable energy initiatives. In PROOV’s case, they provide prefinancing of the induction pads when PROOV receives an order. Thanks to the multi-year use of the induction pads as part of a public transportation concession, this is an attractive, relatively low-risk investment for Tacstone.

The Dutch company ELEQ has joined PROOV in investing in Conductix-Wampfler.

1 Rijkswaterstaat currently intends to wait on the results of this study.

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Figure 4. The partners in the European UNPLUGGED project.

3. Inductive charging: The value chain, sectors, and players

International public and private projects

The goal of the European UNPLUGGED project is to investigate how the use of inductive EV

charging in an urban environment can improve automotive comfort and sustainability. In particular, the

project is studying how inductive charging infrastructure can facilitate the full integration of EVs into

the urban road network on one hand, and how driver acceptance and usability can be enhanced on

the other. To that end, the project is conducting an in-depth examination into the technical feasibility,

practical issues, interoperability, user perception, and socio-economic effects of inductive charging.

The project will also study dynamic inductive charging. The UNPLUGGED consortium comprises

universities, major companies, SMEs, and traffic infrastructure operators (source:

http://unplugged-project.eu/wordpress/).

The International Energy Agency’s Implementing Agreement on Hybrid and Electric Vehicles is

beginning a new project (Task 26) named “Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicles”. Its central

goal is interoperability and the comparison of standards in different countries. The topics that will be

covered include power transfer levels, centre frequency operation, alignment and component

location, safety, communication, and data security. The project is being led by the Oak Ridge

National Laboratory on behalf of the US Department of Energy and its current participants are

Denmark, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Switzerland. Ireland and Sweden are also

expected to participate. Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain are still looking for suitable

organisations within their countries, which will enable them to participate as well.

http://unplugged-project.eu/wordpress/)

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Table 3. The number of electric cars in the Netherlands and the

national government’s goals (source: Netherlands Enterprise

Agency, October 2014).

Table 2. Market-share prognoses for new car sales of different

electric powertrain types (source: UKPIA & RAC Foundation,

April 2013).

This chapter examines the potential of inductive charging. Section 4.1 describes the current state of

inductive charging affairs relative to electric mobility growth in general. In section 4.2, we look at

inductive charging’s expected growth. Finally, in section 4.3, we zoom in on expected market

developments for each market segment.

4.1 The current state of affairs in inductive charging

Inductive charging is at the beginning of the adoption cycle, where electric mobility was roughly five

years ago. The rise of electric transport now seems unstoppable, but it is not yet certain whether

inductive charging will experience similar growth.

At the end of September 2014, the Netherlands had more than 40,000 electric vehicles, compared with just 1,500 vehicles at the end of 2011 (see table 2). That already amply exceeds the national government’s ambition for 2015; now the task is to achieve the goals of 200,000 electric vehicles in 2020 and 1 million in 2025.

A comprehensive study by the UK Petroleum Industry Association and the Royal Automobile Club

Foundation for Motoring shows that the number of electric vehicles is expected to grow substantially

in the coming years (see table 3). In 2020, electric vehicles (PHEV, E-REV, and BEV) are predicted

to have a market share between 2 and 10 percent, and in 2030 between 20 and 50 percent.

The expected continuing growth of electric mobility in the coming years provides opportunities for

inductive charging as a charging option to extend the range of electric vehicles. The technology

exists and is already being used (see section 2.3), though only on a limited scale. The question is

whether inductive charging will break through and if so, to what degree in which market segments

and in what time frame.

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Figure 5. Expected sales of charging infrastructure units per

global market region 2012–2020 (source: Pike Research,

2012).

Figure 6. Expected sales of inductive charging infrastructure

units per global market region 2013–2020 (source: Pike

Research, 2012).


4.2 The growth prognosis for inductive charging

The expected increase in the number of electric vehicles means the market for charging

infrastructure will increase accordingly (see figure 5). The Netherlands joins the United Kingdom,

Germany, France, and Italy as one of the five European countries in the global top ten for the

adoption of charging infrastructure.

The growth of inductive charging depends on the degree to which inductive charging becomes a full-

fledged charging alternative for electric vehicles (see also chapter 5, “Opportunities and

challenges”). Based on a review of the literature and interviews, we expect that inductive charging

will become part of the e-mobility proposition (in addition to charging alternatives such as plug-in

charging and conductive charging). We base this conclusion on the following trends and

developments:

• Nearly all passenger vehicle OEMs are actively developing inductive charging systems.

Starting in 2015, these systems are expected to be increasingly offered as an option at the

time of sale.

• In bus and taxi transport, there is a clear trend towards zero-emissions travel visible among

authorities that grant concessions and permits. Inductive charging could come to play a role

here.

Following the path of growth in electric mobility and charging infrastructure in general, the market for

inductive charging is also expected to take off in the coming years (see figure 6). This adoption is

expected to take place gradually starting in 2015. In the short term this will include only static

inductive charging, because dynamic inductive charging is considered a potential alternative only in

the long term. Static charging is less expensive than dynamic charging and easier to incorporate, on

one hand because it requires less space and on the other hand because dynamic charging will be

primarily suitable for use in public infrastructure.

The Netherlands is one of the most promising countries for early inductive charging adoption. Those

we interviewed had differing visions on the growth of inductive charging, but there were several

elements on which there was a general consensus:

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• In the market for light passenger and other vehicles, inductive charging is expected to be offered

as an option within 2–5 years. Its first adoption is predicted to occur in private environments

(home driveways and company premises), but after that drivers will, just as for plug-in charging

points, knock on the doors of those who manage public spaces.

• Taxi and bus services are viewed as an interesting market given the predictable routes,

relatively fixed taxi stand and bus stop locations, and relatively large number of kilometres

travelled, which make the business case attractive. Fleet size (number of vehicles) makes it

appealing in terms of scale and thus cost. Moreover, concession- and permit-granting

authorities in these markets can play a guiding role. That also makes the market segments for

rubbish collection and urban freight transport promising.

4.3 Expected market developments per segment

The adoption of inductive charging is expected to vary by market segment; we can distinguish

between light and heavy vehicles (see section 3.2).

Growth is expected to manifest first in the market for light vehicles (see sidebar). Private passenger

cars, light commercial vehicles, and taxis are attractive market subsegments. The market for taxis

is government-driven, which is not true of the passenger and commercial vehicle

markets. Motorcycles do not currently seem to be an attractive market for inductive

charging.

The market for heavy vehicles is highly government-driven regarding busses and rubbish collection

vehicles, less so regarding lorries. The coming years are expected to be marked by inductive

charging tests and pilot projects, after which — assuming success — the first inductive vehicles will

be able to be incorporated into business operations starting in 2017. From 2020 onwards, inductive

charging will be a charging alternative for some heavy transport applications. The question here is

what share of the heavy transport market inductive charging will capture compared with alternative

charging techniques such as plug-in and pantograph charging.

charging and

First inclusion in

commercial operations

Expected inductive charging market

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Table 4. An overview of expected inductive charging market developments and the decisive factors for each subsegment.

Market segment Expected market development Notes per market subsegment

Light vehicles 2015: inductive charging testing and development by OEMs

2016: first passenger vehicle models with inductive charging systems

2017: start of growth

2018: inductive charging as a standard option in electric vehicles

• Growth in the market for private passenger cars and light commercial vehicles will be driven by OEM offerings and e-driver desires

• Growth in the market for taxis will be driven by OEM offerings and permit-granter desires

• Growth in the market for motorcycles is not expected in the short term

Heavy vehicles 2015–2017: tests and pilot projects

2017–2020: first inclusion in business operations

2020: inductive charging as a charging solution (possibly niche) for heavy vehicles

• Growth in the market for heavy vehicles is strongly linked to performance in terms of operational reliability and costs compared with alternative powertrain types and charging technologies

• The market for busses and rubbish collectors is government-driven

• The market for lorries is driven in part by the government (emissions requirements) and in part by the business community (CSR to ensure continuity and competitive advantage)

• The market for specialised business vehicles is driven by the business community (costs and deployability/reliability)

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Inductive charging is about to face the ‘proof of the pudding’. This chapter provides an overview of

the major opportunities (section 5.1) and challenges (5.2) affecting inductive charging’s ability to

become a true success. We assess inductive charging’s opportunities and challenges for

increasing the range of EVs relative to other technologies, including plug-in charging, pantograph

charging, battery swapping, and hydrogen fuelling. In section 5.3 we examine the role of the

government in removing the challenges impeding inductive charging’s growth.

5.1 Opportunities

Inductive charging’s major advantages that present opportunities compared with other techniques are

these:

• Ease of use

• Wide applicability

• Minimal impact on the streetscape

Ease of use

Inductive charging’s advantage relative to hydrogen fuel and plug-in charging is that fewer steps are

required to connect the vehicle to the refuelling or charging infrastructure. Users need not exit the

vehicle to begin charging, which is an advantage in terms of both ease and safety. These

advantages are shared by pantograph charging and battery swapping.

Wide applicability

Inductive charging’s advantage relative to pantograph charging is that it can be implemented for all

vehicles in a standardised way, namely via an induction coil placed in the ground. With pantograph

charging, it is important that the pantograph can approach the vehicle (usually via the top). As a

result, the vehicle must be neither too tall nor too short. This makes pantograph charging less

suitable for passenger vehicles, whose relative dimensions can vary significantly.


Minimal impact on the streetscape

Induction pads have the advantage that they are barely or not at all visible in the streetscape,1 in

contrast with a pantograph. Battery swapping stations and hydrogen refuelling stations are also

visible in the streetscape. From a quality-of-living point of view, the installation of induction pads in

urban areas is therefore simpler to realise on the large scale.

5.2 Challenges The following are some of the obstacles to the successful adoption of inductive charging relative to alternative charging technologies: • Cost • Standardisation and normalisation • Safety and information on safety • Spatial integration • Electrical grid integration • Awareness among site owners and road authorities

Cost The costs of inductive charging infrastructure are relatively high compared with alternatives such as plug-in charging and conductive charging with a pantograph. In particular, the cost of the required AC-DC converter in the vehicle, which is not required for DC charging via a plug or pantograph, forms an obstacle. This results in a higher per-vehicle cost, which negatively affects the business case. It forms a particular obstacle for busses, where the extra weight and space reduce passenger capacity.

Standardisation and normalisation In contrast with conductive charging and plug-in charging, for which diverse European standards have been created, the standardisation and normalisation of inductive charging are still in their infancy. This means that systems from different manufacturers cannot yet communicate with one another. This presents a particular challenge for the adoption of inductive charging in public spaces.

1 Because the grid connection cannot yet be buried underground for induction plates, the current situation requires a streetside meter

box to house the grid connection.


Safety and information on safety Though the safety of inductive charging does not seem to be an issue from a technical point of view, there are still a variety of safety concerns that require clarification. For example, there is confusion on the radiation and warmth released by inductive charging and the measures required to prevent any associated safety risks. Questions such as the following are in play: • Is inductive charging safe for people with a pacemaker? • What happens if, say, a cat or a piece of metal gets between the vehicle and the induction pad?

Spatial integration Though the location of the inductive base plate under the ground is a significant advantage for inductive charging relative to other charging alternatives in terms of its impact on the streetscape, it is also a disadvantage: an inductive coil is much less straightforward to relocate compared with an above-ground system. This may present an obstacle for not only public authorities, but also companies and private individuals, because it hampers their flexibility in moving the charging infrastructure should that be required.

Electrical grid integration Inductive charging systems also give rise to new challenges regarding integration into the electrical grid, given the fact that the charging system is installed underground. The question is, what requirements will distribution system operators place on these new charging systems (such as requirements related to an underground grid connection)?

Awareness and action perspective among site owners and road authorities A final obstacle to the adoption of inductive charging is awareness among site owners and road authorities regarding the potential rise of inductive charging. If the Netherlands hopes to remain a frontrunner in the area of charging infrastructure, it is important that site owners and road authorities remain open to new charging technologies. This means that site owners and road authorities must prepare for the arrival of vehicles that can charge inductively. Important here is that when vehicles with this charging option appear in the streetscape, site owners and road authorities know what to do to implement the solution on the infrastructure side. In addition to awareness, therefore, an action perspective (knowing what to do) is also important.

From our interview with Micah Fuller at UC Davis and Stanford and his 2014 thesis, ‘Wireless charging in California, Range Recharge, and Vehicle Electrification’, it appears that California has identified the same opportunities and challenges.


5.3 The government’s role

Governments can play a role in removing the obstacles to the adoption of inductive charging.

In its role as ‘stage director’, the national government can do the following:

• Create awareness and an action perspective among the players in the value chain. The

government can present the need to learn and work together, making use of existing forums and

networks

• Support research and the dissemination of information regarding the safety risks of inductive

charging

• Support Dutch companies in helping to create international standards for inductive

charging

• Support Dutch companies such as PROOV in marketing their expertise in other countries

In their role as permit- and concession-granting authorities, local governments can also play a part in

the adoption of inductive charging by doing the following:

• Stimulate electric mobility in general, e.g., for bus services, rubbish collection, and urban

freight transport

• Serve as a testing ground for inductive charging pilot projects

24


Figure 7. Expected market developments for inductive charging and the role of the government in various phases.

Prepare legislation,

concession and

permit protocols

First inclusion in commercial operations

25


6.1 Conclusions

The inductive charging value chain highly resembles the chain for plug-in charging. The players are also largely

the same, with the exception of the charging systems’ developers and suppliers. The Netherlands has one

standout player in the development and supply of inductive charging systems: PROOV.

The commercial parties are generally familiar with the technical content and applications of inductive charging. A

number of these parties are also expressly focussing on alternative technologies such as conductive charging.

Organisations that serve a statutory function (road authorities and distribution system operators) are the least

engaged with inductive charging. All the parties in the value chain have a strong need to seek one another out

and form concrete plans and agreements, in order to anticipate the potential rise of inductive charging. The

players feel they are working in an isolated section of the value chain.

The segments in the inductive charging market match those in the plug-in charging market. Just as for plug-in

charging, the distinction between charging at high and low power levels is important. As a result, a

distinction must be made between light vehicles and heavy transport. These are two different markets

with different players on the technology side and different revenue models.

Inductive charging is at the beginning of the adoption cycle, where electric mobility was roughly five years ago.

The rise of electric transport now seems unstoppable. The growth of inductive charging depends on the

degree to which it becomes a full-fledged charging alternative for electric vehicles. Inductive charging

is expected to become part of the electric mobility proposition, in addition to charging alternatives such as plug-in

charging and conductive charging via pantograph. In which market segments, to what degree, and in

what time frame inductive charging will begin to play a role is, however, uncertain. In any case, static

inductive charging will be the initial focus; dynamic inductive charging will only become a feasible alternative in

the long term.


Growth is first expected to manifest in the market for light vehicles, driven by those OEMs currently

working on inductive charging systems for their electric vehicles. Induction’s fitness for heavy

transport is not yet evident, given that the business case for conductive charging is viewed as

sounder by many market players. As a result, this market is expected to focus on pilot projects and

small-scale applications in the coming years. In the market for taxis and busses, public

authorities can play a guiding role as permit and concession grantors to influence the

market’s development.

Inductive charging’s advantages relative to alternative charging technologies are its ease of use,

wide applicability across differing vehicle types, and limited impact on public spaces.

However, there are challenges to its growth compared with competing charging alternatives:

• The cost (particularly for the required vehicle infrastructure) • Standardisation and normalisation of the charging process • Safety and information about safety • Limited flexibility in relocating the infrastructure (induction coils in the road) • Awareness among site owners and road authorities

The government can play a role in removing some of these obstacles. Fulfilling this role will require a

public-private partnership with market players, road authorities, distribution system operators, and

OEMs.


6.2 Recommendations for further action

Given the expectation that inductive charging will become part of the electric mobility proposition and begin

experiencing gradual growth starting in 2015, it is desirable that public authorities be prepared for it. At present

these authorities are hesitant, which may lead to a knowledge deficit when they are confronted with a demand for

inductive charging infrastructure. It is therefore worth recommending the development of an action perspective, in

which the role of various public authorities must be clarified.

The government must distinguish here between its statutory role (the impact charging has on public spaces)

and its task of maintaining the Netherlands’ economic position in the area of electric mobility. There are

opportunities here for Dutch companies. We recommend defining the role of the national and local governments

in this regard.

Within the next three years, the first OEMs are expected to bring inductive-charging vehicles to market. That

means there is still time to get a head start. If the Netherlands hopes to be a frontrunner in inductive charging, it

must ensure that OEMs are facilitated in rolling out the first inductive-charging vehicles in the Netherlands,

analogously to plug-in chargers. To that end, we recommend addressing two matters.

First, organisational strength is required. The various players in the value chain will need to work together in pilot

projects. The Netherlands is traditionally strong in this area. The players in the chain know one another and

largely work together. This strength can be used to develop the market for inductive charging.

Second, it is important to consider the tasks, responsibilities, roles, and powers of each party in the inductive

charging chain. Looking at plug-in charging points, the Netherlands is a frontrunner in this regard. Use this

existing strength to further elaborate such matters in a pilot project. In turn, these pilot projects will also illuminate

the requirements that distribution system operators will place on this new charging technology. This will give rise

to an ecosystem in which OEMs are eager to conduct tests or integrate products and the issues with which road

authorities are engaged are brought to light in a timely manner. We recommend embedding pilot projects in

government programmes such as Smart Energy Cities and the Electromobility Action Plan created as part of the

vision on sustainable fuels for transport. We also suggest creating a roundtable to discuss the results of the study

with market players and create a plan for moving forward together.

The Inductive Charging Quick Scan

An exploratory study of inductive charging opportunities and potential

Clients:

Netherlands Enterprise Agency, Suzan Reitsma

Ministry of Economic Affairs, Imar Doornbos

APPM Management Consultants and Policy Research Corporation

Contact:

Mark van Kerkhof (APPM)

Ruud van Sloten (Policy Research Corporation)

28 November 2014

Documents

The Inductive Charging Quick Scan