The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods:

Part II

John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa

April 17, 2014

Topics for this session

• Five approaches to qualitative research• Data collection, field issues, ethics• A software program (MAXQDA)

Five Approaches to Qualitative Research

SAGE book, 2013, 3rd edition, “Qualitative inquiry: Choosing among five approaches”

• Why I wrote the book• How I chose the five approaches• Defining characteristics of each of the five

approaches

Why I wrote the book• Saw Harry Wolcott’s tree diagram (1992)• Saw Reneta Tesch’s flowchart (1990)• Saw Jacob’s types in Review of Educational Research (1987)• Interested in providing rigorous methods for students• Saw that the procedures differed – wanted to make

comparisons (hence final chapter)• Recognized that most professors taught out of their own

background and training

Wolcott’s Tree

Choices of Approaches (types)

• Narrative (literature)• Phenomenology (psychology)• Ethnography (anthropology)• Grounded theory (sociology)• Case studies (evaluation, political science, law)

Illustrative journal articles• Narrative – Chan’s study of a Chinese

immigrant student in Canada• Phenomenology – Anderson & Spencer’s

study of how persons living with AIDS image their disease

• Grounded theory – Harley et al.’s study of physical activity for African-American women

• Ethnography – Haenfler’s study of the straight edge punk subculture of the 1980’s

• Case study – Asmussen and Creswells gunman incident on a college campus

Primary Texts• Narrative

– (Clandinin & Connelly; Riessman)

• Phenomenology – (Moustakas; van Manen)

• Ethnography – (Wolcott; Fetterman)

• Grounded theory – (Strauss & Corbin, Charmaz)

• Case studies – (Stake, Yin)

What is the research intent of your qualitative study?

Describing/analyzing a bounded system

Individual, program,

event, process

Case Study

Culture-sharing group

Ethnography

Generating a Theory

Process, action, or interaction

Grounded Theory

Reporting individual experiences

Collective experience

s

Phenomenology

Individual experience

s

Narrative

Research

Autobiography

Biography

Life story

Features of Narrative Studies• Researchers collect stories from individuals• These stories tell individual experiences• Stories are gathered through different forms of

data• The stories are often shaped into a chronology• The stories are analyzed often for themes• The narrative told often contains turning points• The narratives are placed within specific places

or situations

Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study

• Identify one or more persons• Draft a problem that documents the need to study this

individual• Write broad research questions to explore events in this

individual’s life• Collect data from individual and around (context)

individual• Target significant events, epiphany, turning point• Include your relationship to this person (reflexivity)• Tell an interesting literary story

Features of Phenomenology

• Focus is on a single phenomenon • Data are collected from individuals who have

experienced this phenomenon (often interviews)• Philosophy may be advanced as a rationale for

using phenomenology• Researchers may bracket themselves out• Data analysis leads to a description of the

essence of the experience

Steps in Conducting Phenomenology

• Identify and label a phenomenon that some people are experiencing (e.g., grief)

• Pose a central question such as: What is (the experience) for X individuals?

• Collect data from a small number of people who have experienced the phenomenon

• Use phenomenological steps in analyzing the data• Generate the “essence” of the experience—what all of the

people have in common• Generate the situations in which they have experienced the

phenomenon.

Features of Grounded Theory• Researcher seeks to explain a process (or action,

interaction)• This process is presented as a theory• Throughout the process the researcher memos• Typically researchers collect interview data• Data analysis helps to present the theory, often

as a visual model that explains the process

Steps in Conducting a Grounded Theory Study

• Identify a theory (explanation) that needs to be developed• Have this theory relate to a process or a specific action• Write a research question beginning, “What theory explains…this

process…?”• Collect data (e.g., interviews) from a number of individuals that

can help you develop the theory (who have experienced the process)

• Systematically analyze the data for elements of the theory• Present the theory (diagram, hypotheses, discussion)• Discuss how it explains the “process” better than existing theories

because it is “grounded” in the views of the participants

Features of Ethnography

• Focus is on describing the culture of a culture-sharing group

• This group has been together for some time and has shared patterns of behavior, ideas, beliefs, rituals

• What is learned about the group is often focused on cultural concepts (e.g., communication patterns)

• Data are collected through observations and interviews

• The ethnography presented indicates an understanding as to how the group works

Steps in an Ethnography• Locate a group of people who share the same culture and who

have experienced it together for some time• Determine a cultural theme to explore with this group• Pose a question such as, “How does this group work (in terms

of language, rituals, behavior, etc)?• Collect observational and interview data and spend time in

the field collecting data• Write a description of how the group works• Write themes about how the group works• Conclude by advancing how you have gained unique insight

into the group through your ethnography

Characteristics of Case Studies

• Researcher begins by defining a case• Within this case, the researcher explores an issue• The researchers collects many sources of data• The analysis focuses on a description of the case

and some themes• Sometimes multiple cases are investigated, the

discussion shaped into a chronology, or assessments across multiple cases

• The report presents an in depth picture of the case(s) and the issues explored

Steps in a Case Study• Identify an issue that needs to be studied• Identify cases that will help to understand the issue (case bounded

by time/place)• Pose a central question about “How an in depth analysis of X cases

will provide insight into an (issue)”• Gather extensive, multiple forms of data to build a detailed picture

of the case• Describe the case• Present themes about the case• End with an assertion about how the cases have informed your

issue• Use detailed vignettes throughout

Criteria for Selecting a Qualitative Approach

• What are you attempting to learn? – The endpoint of the approaches differ

• Personal preference– More formal vs more literary

• Audiences in your field• Past experiences

Data Collection, Field Issues, Ethics

Types of Data Collection in African Studies

• Interviews, observations, audio-visual material, participatory approaches

• Appreciative Inquiry• Photovoice

Appreciative Inquiry

• Look for what works and appreciate it• Seeks the positive core of a living system• Findings are grounded in real experience and

history• Interviews to gather stories• Participants then conduct more interviews

Photovoice data collection

• Photo elicitation techniques—photo elicits critical thinking and discussion

• Participatory approach– Participants take photos– Examine photos and then discuss contents with

the researcher• Participatory needs assessment or evaluation(Wang & Burris, 1994)

Field Issues

Interviews Observations Documents Audio-visual material

• Can be draining to conduct

• Recording equipment and reliability of audio

• Dealing with sensitive issues

• The process of questioning and listening

• Transcribing

• Role of the researcher-participant or non

• Taking field notes, recording quotes

• Maintaining role at the site

• Locating materials

• Obtaining permission to use material

• Working with archives

• How to set up camera shots

• Quality of audio• Placement of

audio and video equipment

Ethical Issues in Data Collection

Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue• Respect the site and disrupt

as little as possible• Avoid deceiving participants• Respect potential power

imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g., interviewing, observing)

• Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site without giving feedback.

• Build trust, convey extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access

• Discuss purpose of the study and how data will be used

• Avoid leading questions; withhold sharing personal impressions; avoid disclosing sensitive information

• Provide rewards for participating

A Software Program (MAXQDA)

Software Tools for Analysis

• MAXQDA• NVivo• Atlas.ti• HyperRESEARCH

Software Tools for Data Collection

• Photo• Video• Fieldnotes• Field surveys• Apps

– KoBoForm, KoBoCollect– MAXApp– Atlas.ti Mobile

Why use qualitative software?• Storing and organizing data• Locating text• Assisting with coding and organizing codes

efficiently• Writing and storing memos• Working in qualitative research teams, such as

multiple coders• Retrieving data easily and comparing codes• Developing visual displays for interpretation

and reporting

MAXApp

MAXApp Project

Storing Qualitative Data

Coding; Organizing Codes and Themes

Retrieval of Coded Text

Limit to specific codes or

documents

Matrix of Codes by Variable

Reporting and Visual Tools

Code Relations Browser

Co-occurrence of codes within interviews

Exploring relationships

Recommendations for Software

• Determine whether you should use qualitative software

• Select the program you are comfortable using that meets the features you need

• Store and manage your data in a software program

• Organize your analysis (codes and themes) • Create visual displays of your findings

Summary of Topics

• Five approaches to qualitative research• Data collection, field issues, ethics• A software program (MAXQDA)

The Importance of Qualitative Research in Mixed Methods:

Part II

John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Presentation to the University of the Western Cape, South Africa

April 17, 2014