The importance of livestock grazing for wildlife conservation

working today for nature tomorrow

The importanceof livestock grazing for

wildlife conservation

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Cattle grazing species-rich grassland. Peter Wakely/English Nature

IntroductionLivestock grazing is essential for themanagement of many of England’smost important wildlife habitats.Grassland, heathland, wood pasture,floodplain and coastal marshes allrequire some grazing to maintainthe structure and composition uponwhich a variety of plants andanimals depend for their survival.Farming has played a significantrole in shaping these habitats andthe continuation of certain farmingpractices is often crucial for theirsurvival. However, farming practiceshave changed dramatically overrecent decades, in response to bothpolitical and market forces, and thishas often had negative consequencesfor these valuable habitats. Thisprocess of change is far from overand the future management of thesehabitats is still uncertain.

Over-grazing has historically been theissue which has caused most damageto these habitats and this willcontinue to be an issue of crucialimportance, particularly in theuplands. However, we are also facinga new challenge. Extensive livestockfarming, particularly beef cattle,

has been suffering from very lowprofitability for many years and thesetypes of enterprise were often onlyeconomically viable because of thehigh level of subsidies they attracted.

3The importance of livestock grazing for wildlife conservation

The importance of livestock grazingfor wildlife conservation

Cattle grazing. Paul Glendell/English Nature

Recent changes to the CommonAgricultural Policy, which break thelink between subsidy and production,mean that the future of livestockgrazing is at risk in large areas of thecountry because farmers no longerhave to keep unprofitable enterprisesrunning in order to receive subsidy.

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Under-grazing is already a real issuein many lowland areas and it is likelythat this problem will increase overcoming years. This will have direconsequences for those habitatswhich require livestock grazing tosustain the delicate balance of plant,insect, bird and other animal specieswhich make them unique.

Why grazing isimportant Livestock grazing plays a key rôle inmaintaining species-rich habitats bycontrolling more aggressive specieswhich would otherwise dominatethese areas and by preventing scrubencroachment. The selection ofcertain plant species in preference toothers by livestock is an importantfactor determining the structure andfloristic composition of the vegetationof various habitats. Livestock grazingremoves plant material more graduallythan cutting or burning and givesmobile species a better chance tomove to other areas within the habitat. Grazing also supports other farmingactivities such as hay-making whichprovides active management forvaluable meadow habitats, allowingslower-growing grasses to flower andseed. By grazing hay meadows afterthey have been cut competitivecoarse grasses are controlled and thetrampling that occurs creates gaps inDorset heath. Peter Wakely/English Nature

Green-winged orchid. Paul Glendell/English Nature

the vegetation which allow seedlingsto grow. This ensures a variety ofspecies continues to flourish.

To ensure that wildlife habitats aremanaged for greatest environmentalbenefit it is important that the type,number and timing of livestockgrazing is tailored to the needs of anindividual site. Different types oflivestock graze in different ways andthis influences their suitability forgrazing individual habitats. Evenwithin livestock types individualbreeds can graze differently.

Horses and ponies have teethwhich point slightly forward andcan graze as close to the ground asrabbits. Horses and ponies areselective grazers and will leavesome areas of pasture untouchedresulting in taller patches ofvegetation. These ‘latrine’ areascan benefit insects and smallmammals but can also result inundesirable areas of rank grass ifthey are not managed correctly.Hardy breeds can forage onspecies such as rush, bracken andreeds and can also help to controlscrub encroachment by browsingsaplings and other woody material.


Sheep have thin mobile lips andmove slowly over the swardnibbling the grass. They can grazevery close to the ground which canresult in tight ‘lawn-like’ vegetation.Sheep are very selective grazers andwill target flowering plants whichcan have a negative impact onspecies diversity. Sheep can pushtheir way through scrub and canbrowse saplings preventing newgrowth. However, they find itharder to graze longer vegetationwhich is often trampled instead.

Sheep grazing on Spurn Head. Paul Glendell/English Nature

Dartmoor pony grazing near Rippon Tor, Dartmoor.Paul Glendell/English Nature

Ruby red cattle in north Devon. Rob Walton/English Nature

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Cattle use their tongues to pulltufts of vegetation into the mouth.This means that they do not grazevegetation too close to the groundand often leave tussocks of grasswhich are used by insects andsmall mammals. Because of theirwide mouths cattle do not grazeselectively and as a result do nottarget flower heads and herbagewhich is important for botanically-diverse habitats. Cattle are able tocreate their own access into roughareas and the trampling of theseareas can be an important way ofcontrolling scrub.

However, there is a number of factorsthat influence the sort of grazingsystems that are, or are not, put inplace by land managers. Theseinclude market forces, theprofitability of different sorts offarming activities and EU and UKagricultural policies. These haveresulted in significant changes tofarmland habitats over recent decadesand will continue to play a crucialrole in their future management.

Political andeconomic factorsaffectinglivestock grazingOur ability to retain sustainablelivestock grazing, using suitabletypes and numbers of livestock at theappropriate time of year, is essentialto the maintenance of manyimportant wildlife habitats.

Loss of heathland to arable production. Steve Clarke/English Nature

The second half of the twentiethcentury saw huge increases in cropand livestock production in Englandthrough intensification of farmingmethods and specialisation offarm businesses. This has beenachieved through:

• increased use of pesticidesand artificial fertilisers;

• ploughing and re-seeding ofold grassland;

• a move from hay to silage;

• more mechanisation and landdrainage;

• the introduction of high-yieldingcrop varieties; and

• a switch from spring to autumnsown crops.

Unfortunately, many of theseadvances have been at the expense offarmland wildlife. Habitats have beenlost or reduced to small fragmentsand their capacity to support wildplants and animals has been degraded.Old grasslands that have remained‘unimproved’ by artificial fertilisers,herbicides, drainage and re-seedinghave become very rare with 97%being lost by the mid-1980s.


Species-rich grassland. Paul Glendell/English Nature

Sheep on over-grazed upland on Dartmoor. Paul Glendell/English Nature

This led to a number of importantwildlife habitats suffering from thepressure of over-grazing, particularlyin the uplands.

In the light of these, and otherproblems, the Common AgriculturalPolicy has undergone a series ofreforms which has resulted in changesto the way in which farmers receivesupport payments. From 2005onwards farmers will no longerreceive payments based on thenumber of animals they own.This presents both threats andopportunities for the future of thelivestock sector and it is still unclearexactly how the industry will respondto the challenges that it presents.It is, however, clear that this will havea significant impact on the nature ofthe farmed environment in England.

This period of change offers anumber of opportunities to movelivestock farming onto a moreenvironmentally-sustainable basisbut it also means that market forceswill become increasingly important.The livestock industry will no longerbe buffered from the reality of the

An increase in livestock numbers insome parts of the country has beendramatically accelerated by thesupport payments for sheep and cattleprovided by the CommonAgricultural Policy. The use of‘headage’ based payments, calculatedon the number of livestock on afarm, naturally resulted in farmersseeking to maximise their incomeby increasing livestock numbers.

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These changes present us with a newset of challenges that will need to beaddressed if valuable wildlife sitesare to be managed appropriately.The solutions to these problems arelikely to vary considerably betweenupland and lowland areas.

The lowlandsMany of our lowland habitats wereonce integral to mixed arable andextensive livestock farming systems.Grasslands, wetlands and heathlandswere traditionally grazed, at relativelylow intensities, by hardy breeds ofsheep, cattle and ponies. However,the specialisation and intensificationof agriculture over the last 50 yearshas resulted in a decline in thesemixed, low intensity systems.

market by headage-based productionsubsidies and farm businesses willneed to be economically viable intheir own right if they are tocontinue. As a consequence theindirect environmental benefits of thesubsidy system, which oftenmaintained uneconomic livestockgrazing, will be lost.

Policy changes are likely to haveboth positive and negative impactson livestock grazing, including:

• Reduced grazing pressure in theuplands and on common land,although it is difficult toestimate the scale and timingof this reduction.

• Under-grazing or the withdrawalof grazing. This will beparticularly evident in areassuch as the lowlands wherelivestock production has alreadydeclined, and it could alsobecome a problem in areaswhich currently have significantnumbers of livestock.

• A reduction in the profitabilityof beef cattle. This will leadto a decline in extensive cattlegrazing as farmers leave theindustry or move towards moreintensive production systems.

• A decline in mixed farming andgrazing. Increased specialisationwill mean it is harder to maintainthe mosaic of habitats uponwhich many species depend.

Many of our surviving lowlandwildlife habitats are no longer part ofthe economic farm business, oftenonly remaining as isolated fragments,and commercial grazing has in someareas ceased to be a viable economicactivity. As a result it is increasingly

Galloway cattle grazing. Paul Glendell/English Nature

difficult to find livestock to grazeremaining wildlife sites. In manycases this has led to a rapiddeterioration in their environmentalcondition. Without appropriatemanagement, scrub and invasiveweedy plants often take over, withconsequent losses of wildflowers,butterflies, reptiles and other speciescharacteristic of these areas. Oncegrazing has been lost altogether itcan be very difficult and expensiveto reinstate as the necessary skills,infrastructure and livestock may nolonger be present.

Under-grazing is a key concern inthe lowlands and already affectsover 530 Sites of Special ScientificInterest covering 21,000 hectares ofland. Under-grazing is expected tobecome increasingly widespread asa result of the changes to the waylivestock farmers are supported.

Importantlowland habitatsand the grazingissues that affectthemLowland calcareous grassland has avery rich flora, including manynationally rare and scarce species.It supports many differentinvertebrates including scarcebutterflies like the adonis blue, thesilver-spotted skipper and the wart-biter cricket. It also provides afeeding and breeding area for anumber of scarce or declining birdsincluding stone-curlews.


Sutton Marshes with heavy scrub. Peter Wakely/English Nature

Parsonage Down Site of Special Scientific Interest. Peter Wakely/English Nature

Where livestock production stilloccurs in the lowlands there hasbeen a shift towards more intensivegrazing systems. The use of moreproductive grass varieties oralternative fodder crops such asmaize, the greater use of fertilisersand a shift from hay to more frequentcuts for silage also have had negativeenvironmental consequences.This has led to a massive loss oftraditional hay meadows and theirassociated plants and wildlife.

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Well-managed calcareous grasslandhas an open, grazed sward.Livestock grazing is essential tomaintain a species-rich sward; leftungrazed it can become covered inrank grasses and scrub and requireexpensive clearance work.

Lowland acid grassland ischaracterised by plant species such asheath bedstraw, sheep’s-fescueand wavy hair-grass. Dwarf shrubssuch as heather and bilberry canalso occur in small quantities.Lowland acid grasslands can berich in lichens, mosses and a varietyof fungi. They are also importantfor breeding bird species such aswoodlark, stone-curlew and nightjarand support a number of invertebratesthat only occur in acid grasslands,such as solitary bees and wasps andthe rare field cricket.

Well-managed lowland acidgrasslands have an open, grazedsward of small, tussocky grasses.They also have patches of openground suitable for colonisation bylichens, ephemeral plants andinvertebrates. Sites require activemanagement, in particular grazing,if they are to support these species.

Lowland neutral grasslandincludes three particularly importantgrassland types.

Wildlife Enhancement Scheme on lowland acid grassland.Peter Wakely/English Nature

Hay meadow. Peter Wakely/English Nature

• Species-rich meadows andpastures cut for hay and thengrazed. Once characteristic oflowland England this habitat isnow very rare; where it remains itsupports species such as green-winged orchid, adder’s-tonguefern and pepper saxifrage.

• Riverside flood meadows are alsocut and grazed but are subject towinter flooding. They have plantspecies such as greater burnet and,in a few sites, fritillary. Largermeadows are also important forbreeding and wintering waterfowl.

• Coastal and floodplain grazingmarshes which are particularlyimportant for breeding andwintering waterfowl such assnipe, curlew and swans. Thesemarshes also have ditches thatare rich in aquatic plants andinvertebrates.

Each of these habitats is affectedby under-grazing with meadowsbeing particularly vulnerable asthey are often small, isolated and inareas where there is a lack ofdemand for hay and grazing.Without livestock grazing,these habitats become dominated

by tall grasses which suppresssmaller plants and reduce thebotanical richness of these sites.

Lowland heath occurs on poor,acidic soils and is characterised byplants such as heather, cross-leavedheath and gorse. Lowland heathlandprovides a habitat for birds ofEuropean importance, includingthe Dartford warbler, nightjarand woodlark. It is also the primaryhabitat for rare reptiles, such as thesand lizard and smooth snake.

Birds, reptiles and heathland plantspecies require a mosaic of both openand dense vegetation. Well-managedheathland contains areas of grasslandand gorse, scattered trees and scruband also bare ground. This habitatcan only be maintained through activemanagement, of which livestockgrazing is an essential component.


Heather cut sward on lowland heath. Peter Wakely/English Nature

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The uplandsUpland habitats support a wide varietyof birds, insects, mammals andreptiles. All require variation in thestructure and composition of thevegetation in order to complete theirlife-cycles successfully. Livestockgrazing can play an important part inmaintaining the vegetation structure ofupland habitats but this can only beachieved if the type, breed and numberof livestock are appropriate to the sitein question. Grazing is not necessaryfor all upland wildlife, however. Somehabitats, for example wet blanket bogand wooded limestone pavement,benefit from areas where no grazingby livestock occurs.

Historically the size of herds or flocksgrazing upland areas was limited bythe available forage vegetation andthe manpower to shepherd animalsaround the hills. Over the winter allcattle and most sheep were brought

Fen, marsh and swamp covers adiverse group of wetlands, includingbasin fens, which are restricted tohollows; seepage fens and springs,restricted to the area around thegroundwater that feeds them; andreedbeds. Fens are very rich inwildlife, and contain up to 550different higher plants, a third of ournative species. Fen habitats supportmore than half the UK’s species ofdragonfly and are home to theswallowtail butterfly. A range ofaquatic beetles, and several thousandother insects and spiders are found inthese habitats, which are also animportant breeding ground for birdssuch as bitterns.

Drainage and water abstractioncontinue to be the main problemsfacing these sites but the growth ofscrub and a lack of suitable grazing,are also significant problems.

Ellerton Ings, ragged-Robin and yellow iris. Peter Wakely/English Nature

North York Moors National Park, heather on Blakey Ridge.Peter Wakely/English Nature


Spring gentian, Langden Beck. Derek Ratcliffe/English Nature

Impact of grazing management. Peter Wakely/EnglishNature

down from the hills and the few thatremained received additional hay onlyduring periods of bad weather. Thismade it unlikely that any particulararea was damaged through over-grazing or trampling.

With the introduction of production-related support, however, thischanged and sheep numbersincreased dramatically. Manyfarmers also moved away fromtraditional, hardy breeds and towardsfaster-maturing continental breedswhich required additional feeding.This has resulted in widespreadover-grazing and inappropriatesupplementary feeding, causingsignificant damage to vulnerableupland habitats. In many casesover-stocking has meant that therich mosaic of upland plants hasbeen replaced with a uniformcovering of close cropped grasses.It has also led to problems of soilerosion and poor water quality.

Over-grazing remains an issue ofkey concern in the uplands, affecting190 Sites of Special ScientificInterest covering 130,000 hectares ofland. Changes to the CommonAgricultural Policy will remove theartificial incentive for farmers tooverstock. This is a positive stepforward but in itself is unlikely toresult in the sort of management thatupland habitats require.

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Catons Wildlife Enhancement Scheme exclosure 3rd year.Peter Wakely/English Nature Typical acid grassland plants. Peter Wakely/English Nature

Important uplandhabitats and thegrazing issuesthat affect themUpland calcareous grasslandcontains a mixture of grasses andherbs such as sheep’s-fescue,common bent and wild thyme.Many lime-loving plants such ascommon rock-rose, bird’s-eyeprimrose and bloody crane’s-bill canalso be found in these species-richpastures. Upland calcareousgrasslands are of particularimportance for a number ofnationally-rare butterfly species,including the northern brown argusand the small blue.

Livestock will often graze this habitatin preference to heaths or more acidgrasslands. This can cause intensegrazing pressure and over-grazingis one of the main issues affectingthis habitat. Reduced stockingnumbers and the introduction ofmixed grazing with cattle, combinedwith shepherding, can help bringthese areas back into goodenvironmental condition.

Upland acid grassland typically hasspecies-poor swards but is animportant nesting ground for waderssuch as curlew, redshank and lapwing,and it is also an important feeding andhunting ground for moorland nestingbirds such as golden plover andmerlin. Many of the insects associatedwith acid grassland are specific to theconditions found in this environmentand do not occur in other habitats.

Over-grazing is by far the greatestcause of damage to this habitat but itis also affected by inappropriatemoor-burning and stock-feeding.


Upland heath typically has a rangeof dwarf shrubs such as heather,bilberry, and crowberry. Wet uplandheath is most commonly found in thenorth and west and is dominated bymixtures of cross-leaved heath,deergrass, heather and purple moor-grass and can include rare mossesand liverworts. Upland heath is animportant habitat for merlin, henharrier and short-eared owl and thereare also scattered remnantpopulations of black grouse.

Many upland heaths are over-grazedand are burned too frequently. Thiscan reduce the amount and diversityof the heath, both in terms of speciesand structure.

Upland neutral grassland includesboth enclosed meadows and pasturesin upland valleys and neutral grassland

Hay meadow in Upper Teesdale SSSI. English Nature

on open moorland and is characterisedby a rich mixture of grasses andherbaceous plants. The most strikingfeature of the vegetation is generallythe variety and abundance of herbs,including wood crane’s-bill, greatburnet and lady’s-mantles. Uplandpastures are of considerableimportance for a number of smallsongbirds, such as skylark, andare used for feeding and breedingdisplays by the increasingly rareblack grouse.

Over-grazing can cause changes inthe growth of plants, the speciespresent and in the structure of thevegetation. Maintaining uplandmeadows in favourable conditiondepends on a continuation of hay-cutting and low-intensity grazing,coupled with occasional dressingsof farmyard manure and lime.

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Upland blanket bog is a globallyrare habitat and includes species ofheather, cross-leaved heath,deergrass, cottongrasses and bog-moss species. Its associated poolscan support a number of rare andscarce invertebrates, such as northerndart moth and great yellowbumblebee. Many of these bogs areof European importance for birdssuch as merlin and a number ofwaders, including golden plover,curlew and dunlin.

Over-grazing, burning and drainageare particular problems for this habitat.

What we aredoingEnglish Nature recognises theextremely valuable role that livestockgrazing plays in managing our mostimportant wildlife habitats. The future

viability of the livestock sector, inparticular extensive beef production,is therefore intrinsically linked to ourability to deliver our environmentalobjectives. We will be working hard,with a range of other organisationsand partners, to find ways to helplivestock farmers make the most ofthe environmental credentials of theirproduct in the market place. We willalso be looking at the best way tosupport those livestock farmers andgraziers who are managing importanthabitats with little economic return, toensure that the public benefits thattheir activities produce are recognisedand rewarded.

Wildlife scheme discussion. Peter Wakely/English Nature

Blanket bog. Malcolm Stall/English Nature


Local Grazing Schemes: a bestpractice guide (2nd Edition)

June 2003.

Free from the GAP office.

Farmland wildlife: past, presentand future

ISBN: 1 85716 792 9.

A5, full colour.

Free of charge from English Naturepublications.

Sustainable grazing in theEnglish uplands

ISBN: 1 85716 806 2.

A5, full colour.


Grazing management of lowlandheathlands

March 2005.

A5, full colour.


What you can doThere is a number of ways landownerscan protect and enhance the wildlifehabitats on their farm. This can rangefrom managing land under an agri-environment scheme, such asEnvironmental Stewardship, toreducing the number or sort oflivestock grazing vulnerable areas.

There is a number of organisations thatcan provide advice on the best way tomanage valuable habitats, includingthose at the end of this leaflet.

Further reading

The Breed Profiles Handbook:a guide to the selection of livestockbreeds for grazing wildlife sites

From English Nature publications(Catalogue code IN7.1).

Price - £15 inc. P&P.

Stock Feeding on Moorlandsin England - EnvironmentallySustainable Grazing in the Uplands

ISBN: 1 85716 624 8.

Full colour, 12 pages.


Guide to Animal Welfare in NatureConservation Grazing

September 2001.

Free from the GAP office address inthe contact details.

Farming for wildlife. Farmers sharing their expertise.Peter Roworth/English Nature

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The Grazing Animals ProjectThe GAP Office The Kiln Mather Road Newark NottinghamshireNG24 1WTTel: 01636 670095 [email protected] www.grazinganimalsproject.org

LEAF: Linking Environmentand FarmingThe National Agricultural CentreStoneleighWarwickshireCV8 2LZTel: 0247 6413911www.leafuk.org

Royal Society for the Protectionof BirdsThe LodgeSandyBedfordshireSG19 2DLTel: 01767 680551www.rspb.org.uk

The Wildlife Trusts UK OfficeThe KilnWatersideMather RoadNewarkNG24 1WTTel: 0870 0367711www.wildlifetrusts.org

Contact names and addresses:

Department for Environment,Food and Rural AffairsNobel House17 Smith SquareLondon SW1P 3JRTel: 020 7238 6000www.defra.gov.uk

English NatureNorthminster HousePeterboroughPE1 1UATel: 01733 455000www.english-nature.org.uk

The Environment AgencyRio HouseWaterside DriveAztec WestAlmondsburyBristol BS32 4UDTel: 0845 9333111www.environment-agency.gov.uk

Farming and WildlifeAdvisory GroupThe National Agricultural CentreStoneleighKenilworthWarwicksCV8 2RXTel: 01203 696699www.fwag.org.uk

Rare Breeds Survival TrustStoneleigh Park, Warwickshire.CV8 2LG Tel: +44 (0) 24 7669 6551


Sheep in snow covered field in Cotswolds, near Cirencester. Paul Glendell/English Nature

English Nature is theGovernment agency that champions theconservation of wildlifeand geology throughoutEngland.

This is one of a range ofpublications published by: External Relations TeamEnglish NatureNorthminster HousePeterborough PE1 1UA

www.english-nature.org.uk

© English Nature 2005

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Front cover photographs:Top left: Cattle grazing. Paul Glendell/English Nature Bottom left: Sheep grazing uplandmoor (Fleetwith) with Helvellynbehind. Paul Glendel/English NatureMain: Hole Of Horcum Site of SpecialScientific Interest. Peter Wakely/English Nature

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The importance of livestock grazing for wildlife conservation