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The Handbook of Educational Linguistics Edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult

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Page 1: The Handbook of Educational Linguistics€¦ · The Handbook of Sociolinguistics Edited by Florian Coulmas The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences ... Edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis

The Handbookof EducationalLinguistics

Edited by

Bernard Spolsky andFrancis M. Hult

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Page 3: The Handbook of Educational Linguistics€¦ · The Handbook of Sociolinguistics Edited by Florian Coulmas The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences ... Edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis

The Handbook ofEducational Linguistics

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Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics

This outstanding multi-volume series covers all the major subdisciplines within linguistics todayand, when complete, will offer a comprehensive survey of linguistics as a whole.

Already published:

The Handbook of Child LanguageEdited by Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinneyThe Handbook of Phonological TheoryEdited by John A. GoldsmithThe Handbook of Contemporary Semantic TheoryEdited by Shalom LappinThe Handbook of SociolinguisticsEdited by Florian CoulmasThe Handbook of Phonetic SciencesEdited by William J. Hardcastle and John LaverThe Handbook of MorphologyEdited by Andrew Spencer and Arnold ZwickyThe Handbook of Japanese LinguisticsEdited by Natsuko TsujimuraThe Handbook of LinguisticsEdited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-MillerThe Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic TheoryEdited by Mark Baltin and Chris CollinsThe Handbook of Discourse AnalysisEdited by Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, and Heidi E. HamiltonThe Handbook of Language Variation and ChangeEdited by J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-EstesThe Handbook of Historical LinguisticsEdited by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. JandaThe Handbook of Language and GenderEdited by Janet Holmes and Miriam MeyerhoffThe Handbook of Second Language AcquisitionEdited by Catherine J. Doughty and Michael H. LongThe Handbook of BilingualismEdited by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. RitchieThe Handbook of PragmaticsEdited by Laurence R. Horn and Gregory WardThe Handbook of Applied LinguisticsEdited by Alan Davies and Catherine ElderThe Handbook of Speech PerceptionEdited by David B. Pisoni and Robert E. RemezThe Blackwell Companion to Syntax, Volumes I–VEdited by Martin Everaert and Henk van RiemsdijkThe Handbook of the History of EnglishEdited by Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou LosThe Handbook of English LinguisticsEdited by Bas Aarts and April McMahonThe Handbook of World EnglishesEdited by Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru, and Cecil L. NelsonThe Handbook of Educational LinguisticsEdited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult

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The Handbookof EducationalLinguistics

Edited by

Bernard Spolsky andFrancis M. Hult

Page 6: The Handbook of Educational Linguistics€¦ · The Handbook of Sociolinguistics Edited by Florian Coulmas The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences ... Edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis

© 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

BLACKWELL PUBLISHING350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia

The right of Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult to be identified as the Authorsof the Editorial Material in this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UKCopyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright,Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed astrademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names,service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of their respective owners. Thepublisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regardto the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is notengaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expertassistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

First published 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

1 2008

The handbook of educational linguistics / edited by Bernard Spolsky and Francis M.Hult.

p. cm. — (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-5410-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Language and education.

I. Spolsky, Bernard. II. Hult, Francis M.

P40.8.H36 2008306.44—dc22

2007030476

A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12pt Palatinoby Graphicraft Limited, Hong KongPrinted and bound in Singaporeby Markono Print Media Pte Ltd

The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainableforestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-freeand elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the textpaper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.

For further information onBlackwell Publishing, visit our website:www.blackwellpublishing.com

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And this is what Rabbi Chanina said: “I have learned muchfrom my teachers, and from my colleagues more than from myteachers, but from my students more than from them all.”

Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Taanit, 7a

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Contents

Notes on Contributors x

1 Introduction: What is Educational Linguistics? 1Bernard Spolsky

2 The History and Development of Educational Linguistics 10Francis M. Hult

Part I Foundations for Educational Linguistics 25

3 Neurobiology of Language Learning 27Laura Sabourin and Laurie A. Stowe

4 Psycholinguistics 38William C. Ritchie and Tej K. Bhatia

5 Linguistic Theory 53Richard Hudson

6 Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language 66Rajend Mesthrie

7 Linguistic Anthropology 83Stanton Wortham

8 The Political Matrix of Linguistic Ideologies 98Mary McGroarty

9 Educational Linguistics and Education Systems 113Joseph Lo Bianco

Part II Core Themes 127

Linguistically and Culturally Responsive Education10 The Language of Instruction Issue: Framing an Empirical

Perspective 129Stephen L. Walter

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viii Contents

11 Bilingual and Biliterate Practices at Home and School 147Iliana Reyes and Luis C. Moll

12 Vernacular Language Varieties in Educational Settings:Research and Development 161Jeffrey Reaser and Carolyn Temple Adger

13 Linguistic Accessibility and Deaf Children 174Samuel J. Supalla and Jody H. Cripps

14 Identity in Language and Literacy Education 192Carolyn McKinney and Bonny Norton

15 Post-colonialism and Globalization in Language Education 206Hyunjung Shin and Ryuko Kubota

Language Education Policy and Management16 Levels and Goals: Central Frameworks and Local Strategies 220

Brian North17 Language Acquisition Management Inside and Outside

the School 233Richard B. Baldauf Jr., Minglin Li, and Shouhui Zhao

18 Language Cultivation in Developed Contexts 251Jirí Nekvapil

19 Language Cultivation in Contexts of MultipleCommunity Languages 266M. Paul Lewis and Barbara Trudell

20 Ecological Language Education Policy 280Nancy H. Hornberger and Francis M. Hult

21 Education for Speakers of Endangered Languages 297Teresa L. McCarty, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, andOle Henrik Magga

22 The Impact of English on the School Curriculum 313Yun-Kyung Cha and Seung-Hwan Ham

Literacy Development23 Literacy 328

Glynda A. Hull and Gregorio Hernandez24 Vernacular and Indigenous Literacies 341

Kendall A. King and Carol Benson25 Religious and Sacred Literacies 355

Jonathan M. Watt and Sarah L. Fairfield26 Genre and Register in Multiliteracies 367

Mary Macken-Horarik and Misty Adoniou

Acquiring a Language27 Order of Acquisition and Developmental Readiness 383

Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and Llorenç Comajoan28 Language Socialization 398

Kathleen C. Riley

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29 Interlanguage and Language Transfer 411Peter Skehan

30 Second Language Acquisition and Ultimate Attainment 424David Birdsong and Jee Paik

31 Explicit Form-Focused Instruction and SecondLanguage Acquisition 437Rod Ellis

Language Assessment32 Language Assessments: Gate-Keepers or Door-Openers? 456

Lyle F. Bachman and James E. Purpura33 Diagnostic and Formative Assessment 469

Ari Huhta34 Accountability and Standards 483

Alan Davies35 Scales and Frameworks 495

Neil Jones and Nick Saville36 Nationally Mandated Testing for Accountability:

English Language Learners in the US 510Micheline Chalhoub-Deville and Craig Deville

Part III Research–Practice Relationships 523

37 Task-Based Teaching and Learning 525Teresa Pica

38 Corpus Linguistics and Second Language Instruction 539Susan M. Conrad and Kimberly R. LeVelle

39 Interaction, Output, and Communicative Language Learning 557Merrill Swain and Wataru Suzuki

40 Classroom Discourse and Interaction: Reading Acrossthe Traditions 571Lesley A. Rex and Judith L. Green

41 Computer Assisted Language Learning 585Carol A. Chapelle

42 Ecological-Semiotic Perspectives on Educational Linguistics 596Leo van Lier

43 The Mediating Role of Language in Teaching and Learning:A Classroom Perspective 606Francis Bailey, Beverley Burkett, and Donald Freeman

44 A Research Agenda for Educational Linguistics 626Paola Uccelli and Catherine Snow

Author Index 643Subject Index 659

Contents ix

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Notes on Contributors

Carolyn Temple Adger directs the Language in Society Division at the Centerfor Applied Linguistics in Washington, DC. She has conducted several studiesof classroom discourse and interaction among teachers in a professional devel-opment setting and has applied linguistic research in work with teachers ofEnglish language learners. Her publications include Dialects in Schools andCommunities (with Walt Wolfram & Donna Christian, 2007) and What TeachersNeed to Know about Language (co-edited with Catherine E. Snow & DonnaChristian, 2002).

Misty Adoniou is a lecturer in literacy and ESL in the School of TeacherEducation and Community Services at the University of Canberra in Australia.Her research interests include multimodality in literacy teaching and children’sout-of-school literacy practices.

Lyle F. Bachman is Professor and Chair of Applied Linguistics at theUniversity of California, Los Angeles. His publications include FundamentalConsiderations in Language Testing (1990), Interfaces between Second LanguageAcquisition and Language Testing Research (co-edited with Andrew Cohen,1998), Language Testing in Practice (with Adrian S. Palmer, 1996) and StatisticalAnalyses for Language Assessment (2004). His current research interests includevalidation theory, epistemological issues in Applied Linguistics research,and issues in assessing the academic achievement and English proficiency ofEnglish language learners in schools.

Francis Bailey is Associate Professor of Second Language Education at theSchool for International Training, Brattleboro, Vermont, USA. His researchinterests include the role of semantic memory in the learning of elementaryschool children.

Richard B. Baldauf, Jr. is Associate Professor of TESOL at the University ofQueensland. He is coauthor, with Robert B. Kaplan, of Language Planning fromPractice to Theory (1997) and Language and Language-in-Education Planning in the

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Pacific Basin (2003), and is co-editor with Robert B. Kaplan of the “LanguagePolicy and Planning” polity study series published by Multilingual Matters.His interests include language policy and planning and TESOL curriculumrelated studies.

Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig is Professor of Second Language Studies at IndianaUniversity. Her books include Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition(2000), Interlanguage Pragmatics: Exploring Institutional Talk (with BeverlyHartford, 2005), and Pragmatics and Language Learning (with César Félix-Brasdefer and Alwiya Omar, 2006). She has published in Language Learning,Studies in Second Language Acquisition, and TESOL Quarterly, and is a formereditor of Language Learning.

Carol Benson is based at the Centre for Teaching and Learning at StockholmUniversity. Her PhD is in Social Sciences and Comparative Education, and herresearch and consulting focus on mother tongue based schooling in multi-lingual countries.

Tej K. Bhatia is Professor of Linguistics and Director of South Asian Lan-guages at Syracuse University. He has been Director of the Linguistic StudiesProgram and Acting Director of Cognitive Sciences at his university. Hispublications include three handbooks with William C. Ritchie. His authoredbooks include Colloquial Hindi (2007, revised edition), Advertising in RuralIndia: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism (2000), ColloquialUrdu (2000), Colloquial Hindi (1996), Negation in South Asian Languages (1995),Punjabi: A Cognitive-Descriptive Grammar (1993), and A History of the HindiGrammatical Tradition (1987). Email: [email protected]

David Birdsong is Professor of French Linguistics at the University of Texas,with a specialization in second language acquisition. He has held visitingpositions at Georgetown University and at the Max Planck Institute forPsycholinguistics. He has published articles relating to age and second lan-guage acquisition in such journals as Language, Journal of Memory and Language,and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.

Beverley Burkett is Project Leader for Language Education at Nelson MandelaMetropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. She has spent 22 yearsin teacher development and is currently team leader of a longitudinal researchstudy that is focusing on additive bilingualism.

Yun-Kyung Cha is Professor of Education at Hanyang University in Korea.He received his doctorate in the Sociology of Education at Stanford University(USA) and was awarded a National Academy of Education Spencer Fellow-ship (1991). His research interests focus on the comparative and sociologicalanalysis of school curricula, and the institutionalization of teacher educationand lifelong education programs.

Notes on Contributors xi

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Micheline Chalhoub-Deville is a Professor in the Educational ResearchMethodology Department at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro.She has published in journals such as Language Testing, Language Learning,Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, and World Englishes. Her most recentedited book is entitled Inference and Generalizability in Applied Linguistics:Multiple Research Perspectives (co-edited with Carol A. Chapelle & PatriciaA. Duff, 2006). Her main interest in second/foreign language testing includesperformance-based assessment, computerized testing, ELL testing, as well asadmissions and exit proficiency testing.

Carol A. Chapelle, Professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics at Iowa State Uni-versity in the United States, is past president of the American Associationfor Applied Linguistics (2006–7) and former editor of TESOL Quarterly (1999–2004). Her research explores issues at the intersection of computer technologyand applied linguistics. Her books on this area are Computer Applications inSecond Language Acquisition: Foundations for Teaching, Testing, and Research (2001),English Language Learning and Technology: Lectures on Applied Linguistics in theAge of Information and Communication Technology (2003) and Assessing Languagethrough Computer Technology (with Dan Douglas, 2006).

Llorenç Comajoan holds a PhD in Linguistics from Indiana University and isa professor at the University of Vic, Catalonia (Department of Philology, Schoolof Education). His interests include the interrelationship of discourse andsemantic features in second language acquisition as well as language attitudesby children of immigrant origin in Spain. He has published articles inLanguage Learning, Catalan Review, and Caplletra. His contribution was fundedby a grant to the Department of Linguistics of the University of Barcelona(C-RED 2005).

Susan M. Conrad is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Portland State Univer-sity in Portland, Oregon, USA. Her co-authored book projects in corpus lin-guistics include Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use (1998),Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999), and Variation in English:Multi-Dimensional Studies (2001).

Jody H. Cripps is a doctoral student in the Second Language Acquisition andTeaching Interdisciplinary Program at the University of Arizona. His researchinterests are second language processing and second language use with aspecialty in literacy.

Alan Davies is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University ofEdinburgh. His books include: The Native Speaker: Myth and Reality (2003),A Glossary of Applied Linguistics (2005), and Assessing Academic English: TestingEnglish Proficiency 1950–2005 – the IELTS solution (2007). One-time editor ofApplied Linguistics and of Language Testing, his main research interests are inlanguage assessment and in the construct of the native speaker.

xii Notes on Contributors

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Craig Deville currently serves as the Director of Psychometric Services withMeasurement Inc. His interests include language testing, educational achieve-ment assessment, computerized testing, and validation. He has publishedwidely, including in such journals as Language Testing and Applied PsychologicalMeasurement, and has contributed chapters in numerous edited volumes. Hismost recent co-authored chapter appeared in the fourth edition of EducationalMeasurement (ed. R. L. Brennan, 2006).

Rod Ellis is currently Professor in the Department of Applied LanguageStudies and Linguistics at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Hispublished work includes Understanding Second Language Acquisition (awardedthe BAAL prize in 1986), The Study of Second Language Acquisition (awarded theDuke of Edinburgh Prize in 1995), Task-Based Learning and Teaching (2003), and(with Gary Barkhuizen) Analyzing Learner Language (2005).

Sarah L. Fairfield teaches Sociology and Humanities at Geneva College, and isa doctoral student in the Social and Comparative Analysis of Education at theUniversity of Pittsburgh.

Donald Freeman is Professor and Director of the Center for Teacher Educa-tion, Training, and Research at the School for International Training, Brattleboro,Vermont, USA. His research focuses on teacher education designs and theconnections between teacher and student learning.

Judith L. Green is Professor of Education in the Gevirtz Graduate School ofEducation, University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research focuses onthe social construction of knowledge in classrooms with linguistically andculturally diverse students. She is currently editor of the Review of Researchin Education (30), and co-editor of two recent handbooks: ComplementaryMethods for Research in Education (2006, for the American Education ResearchAssociation) and Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Literacy Research (2005, forthe National Conference for Research on Language and Literacy). Email:[email protected]

Seung-Hwan Ham is a doctoral student in educational policy at MichiganState University. His academic interests are in cross-national and historicalanalyses of curricular changes and associated transformations in schoolingand teacher training.

Gregorio Hernandez received his PhD in Education in Language, Literacy,and Culture at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of theTransnational Literacy Researchers Group, in the Center for the Americas,Vanderbilt University. His research focuses on literacy practices in and out ofschool, Hispanic migration in the US, and the politics of literacy education inMexico and Latin America.

Nancy H. Hornberger is Professor of Education at the University ofPennsylvania, where she also convenes the annual Ethnography in Education

Notes on Contributors xiii

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Research Forum. Her research interests are multilingual language educationpolicy and practice, with a focus on indigenous and immigrant heritagelanguage education. Her recent and forthcoming volumes include Continua ofBiliteracy: An Ecological Framework for Educational Policy, Research, and Practice inMultilingual Settings (2003), Language Loyalty, Language Planning, and LanguageRevitalization: Recent Writings and Reflections from Joshua A. Fishman (2006, withMartin Pütz), Can Schools Save Indigenous Languages? Policy and Practice on FourContinents (in press), and the Encyclopedia of Language and Education (in press).

Richard Hudson is Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at University CollegeLondon. His 12 books include Language Networks: The New Word Grammar(2007) and Teaching Grammar: A Guide for the National Curriculum (1992). Hiswebsite is www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/home.htm.

Ari Huhta works as a researcher at the Centre for Applied Language Studiesat the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. He specializes in foreign and secondlanguage assessment, and has participated in a number of national and inter-national research and development projects in the field (e.g., IEA LanguageEducation Study, DIALANG, EALTA); he has published in several journals,such as Language Testing.

Glynda A. Hull is Professor of Education in Language, Literacy, and Cultureat the University of California, Berkeley. Her research focuses on literacyand new media, identity formation, and urban education. Her books includeChanging Literacy, Changing Workers: Critical Perspectives on Language, Literacy,and Skills (1997), School’s Out: Bridging Out-of-School Literacies with ClassroomPractice (co-edited with Katherine Schultz, 2002), and The New Work Order(co-authored with James Paul Gee and Colin Lankshear, 1996).

Francis M. Hult is Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Depart-ment of Bicultural-Bilingual Studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio.He has also taught at Lund University and the University of Pennsylvania. Heis the founder and manager of the Educational Linguistics List (Edling-L). Hisresearch explores processes of language planning and curriculum develop-ment that attempt to manage the status of national languages with respectto minority and foreign languages in multilingual polities. His current workfocuses on the positions of English and Swedish as they relate to languagepolicy, linguistic culture, and language education in Sweden. His publica-tions have appeared in the journals World Englishes (with Kendall King andE. Cathrine Berg), Language Policy, and Current Issues in Language Planning. Heholds a PhD in educational linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania.

Neil Jones holds an MSc and PhD in Applied Linguistics from the Univer-sity of Edinburgh (UK) on the application of item response theory. He hasextensive experience as teacher and director of studies in several countriesincluding Poland and Japan, where he set up English teaching departments at

xiv Notes on Contributors

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university level. In Cambridge ESOL he works on innovative developmentsincluding item banking and computer-based testing.

Kendall A. King is Associate Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown Uni-versity. Her work addresses ideological, interactional, and policy perspectiveson second language learning and bilingualism. Her publications includeLanguage Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes(2000) and articles in the Journal of Sociolinguistics, International Journal ofthe Sociology of Language, Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, and Journalof Child Language. She is editor (with Elana Shohamy) of the journal LanguagePolicy.

Ryuko Kubota is Professor in the School of Education and the Depart-ment of Asian Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Her research interests are in critical pedagogies, culture, politics, and racein second language education. Her publications appear in such journalsas Canadian Modern Language Review, Foreign Language Annals, Journal ofSecond Language Writing, TESOL Quarterly, World Englishes, and WrittenCommunication.

Kimberly R. LeVelle is a doctoral student in Applied Linguistics andTechnology at Iowa State University. She completed her MA in TESOL atPortland State University. Her research interests include language pedagogy,assessment, and corpus linguistics.

M. Paul Lewis ([email protected]) holds a PhD in Linguistics fromGeorgetown University and did field work with SIL International in CentralAmerica from 1975–90 and 1994–6. He was International SociolinguisticsCoordinator for SIL International from 1996 to 2003 and is an InternationalSociolinguistics Consultant for that organization. His publications include:K’iche’: A Study in the Sociology of Language, the volume Assessing EthnolinguisticVitality: Theory and Practice (edited with Gloria Kindell), and various articles,contributions to edited volumes, and electronic papers. He was general editorof SIL’s Publications in Sociolinguistics series and is currently a consultingeditor of SIL’s Publications in Language and Education series as well as editorof Ethnologue: Languages of the World.

Minglin Li is Associate Professor in EFL at Ludong University in China andis currently undertaking a PhD at the School of Education, University ofQueensland. Her research interests are EFL teaching and teacher education,language education policy and planning in China.

Joseph Lo Bianco is Professor of Language and Literacy Education at theUniversity of Melbourne. His recent books include Australian Policy Activism inLanguage and Literacy (2001, with R. Wickert), Australian Literacies: InformingNational Policy on Literacy Education (2001, with P. Freebody), Voices from PhnomPenh: Development and Language (2002), Teaching Invisible Culture: ClassroomPractice and Theory (2003, with C. Crozet), and Site for Debate: Australian

Notes on Contributors xv

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Language Planning (2004). His current research projects include English andIdentity in China and New Theorization in Language Planning.

Mary Macken-Horarik is Senior Lecturer in Language and Literacy Educationat the University of Canberra, Australia. She has published widely in the fieldof systemic functional linguistics. Her recent publications include “Negotiat-ing Heteroglossia” (a special issue of Text, edited with J. R Martin) in 2003. Sheis currently writing a book about systemic functional semiotics in school English.

Ole Henrik Magga is Professor in Saami linguistics at the Saami UniversityCollege (Sámi allaskuvla) in Guovdageaidnu (Kautokeino), Norway. Hisresearch has been mostly on Saami syntax, but he has also studied aspectsof onomastics, language teaching and language planning. He has for severaldecades been active in defense of the rights of indigenous peoples, includingtheir rights to education, both on national and international levels as the firstchairman of the Saami Parliament in Norway and the first chairman of the UNPermanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. Email: [email protected].

Teresa L. McCarty is the Alice Wiley Snell Professor of Education PolicyStudies at Arizona State University. Her research, teaching, and service focuson Indigenous language education, language policy, and ethnographic studiesof American Indian education. Her recent books include A Place To Be Navajo:Rough Rock and the Struggle for Self-Determination in Indigenous Schooling (2002),Language, Literacy, and Power in Schooling (2005), and “To Remain an Indian”:Lessons in Democracy from a Century of Native American Education (with K. T.Lomawaima, 2006).

Mary McGroarty is Professor in the Applied Linguistics Program of the Eng-lish Department at Northern Arizona University, where she received the 2006Teaching Scholar Award that recognizes sustained use of research in all levelsof teaching. Editor of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, her researchinterests include language policy, pedagogy, and assessment, with recentarticles in Language Policy (2006) and Language Testing (2005).

Carolyn McKinney is a senior lecturer in the School of Education, Universityof Witwatersrand, South Africa. She has published on research methods inlanguage and literacy, critical literacy, identity/subjectivity and learning, aswell as critical pedagogy. Her research interests focus on language, race, andgender in education and youth identities. Email: [email protected]

Rajend Mesthrie is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Cape Town.He is currently President of the Linguistics Society of Southern Africa. He haspublished widely in sociolinguistics, with special reference to variation andcontact in South Africa, including Language in South Africa (2002).

Luis C. Moll is Professor of Language, Reading, and Culture and AssociateDean for Academic Affairs at the College of Education of The University ofArizona. His main research interest is the connection among culture, psycho-

xvi Notes on Contributors

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logy, and education, especially as it relates to the education of Latino childrenin the US. Among other studies, he has analyzed the quality of classroomteaching, examined literacy instruction in English and Spanish, studied howliteracy takes place in the broader social contexts of households and com-munity life, and attempted to establish pedagogical relationships amongthese domains of study. His recent book, a co-edited volume titled Funds ofKnowledge: Theorizing Practices in Households, Communities, and Classrooms(with N. González & C. Amanti), was published in 2005. He was elected tomembership in the US National Academy of Education in 1998.

Jirí Nekvapil teaches sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and general linguisticsat the Department of Linguistics at Charles University, Prague. He has publishedextensively in these areas. His current research focuses on language planningin Europe, Language Management Theory, and the impact of the economy onthe use of languages.

Bonny Norton is Professor and Distinguished University Scholar in theDepartment of Language and Literacy Education, University of BritishColumbia, Canada. She is also Honorary Professor in the School of Education,University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and Visiting Senior Research Fel-low at King’s College, University of London, UK. Her award-winning researchaddresses identity and language learning, education and development, andcritical literacy. Recent publications include Identity and Language Learning (2000),Gender and English Language Learners (2004, with A. Pavlenko), and CriticalPedagogies and Language Learning (2004, with K. Toohey). Her website can befound at http://lerc.educ.ubc.ca/fac/norton/

Brian North is Head of Academic Development at Eurocentres, the languageschool foundation, and recently elected Chair of EAQUALS (EuropeanAssociation for Quality Language Services). He is co-author of the Councilof Europe Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,Teaching, Assessment (2001).

Jee Paik is a PhD candidate in French linguistics at the University of Texas.Her dissertation research concerns the expression of emotion in the first andsecond language.

Teresa Pica is a professor at the University of Pennsylvania. Her researchaddresses questions on classroom practice in light of second language acquisi-tion theory and research.

James E. Purpura (mailto: [email protected]) is Associate Professor ofLinguistics and Education in the TESOL and Applied Linguistics Programs atTeachers College, Columbia. He teaches courses in language assessment. Inaddition to several articles, his recent books include Assessing Grammar (2004)and Learner Strategy Use and Performance on Language Tests (1999). His researchinterests include the assessment of grammatical ability, the cognitive under-

Notes on Contributors xvii

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pinnings of language tests, and measuring second language acquisition. He iscurrently President of the International Language Testing Association.

Jeffrey Reaser is an assistant professor in the teacher education and linguisticsprograms at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, NC. His primaryresearch interest is developing, implementing, and measuring the effects ofdialect awareness programs in public schools. He is co-author of curric-ular materials supporting the PBS documentary “Do You Speak American?”and the Voices of North Carolina dialect awareness curriculum. Email:[email protected]

Iliana Reyes is an assistant professor in the Department of Language, Reading,and Culture, and a member of the faculty in the Interdisciplinary GraduateProgram in Second Language Acquisition and Teaching at the Universityof Arizona. Her research focuses on bilingual and biliteracy development,language socialization, and child development. She is the principal investig-ator of a longitudinal research study that focuses on emergent biliteracy andliteracy practices in immigrant families in the US Southwest. Her most recentpublications have appeared in the Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, Bilingual-ism: Language and Cognition, and the International Journal of Bilingualism.

Lesley A. Rex is Associate Professor in the School of Education at the Univer-sity of Michigan, where she is Co-Chair of the Joint PhD Program in Englishand Education and Faculty Leader for Secondary Teacher Education. Her mainresearch focus is literacy teaching and learning. She is particularly interestedin classroom interaction and discursive construction of literacy knowledgeand student participation, complicated by issues of class, ethnicity, language,culture, and disability. Her most recent book is a collection of studies thatdemonstrate interactional ethnography as a research approach for under-standing how learning opportunities are created and limited: Discourse ofOpportunity: How Talk in Learning Situations Creates and Constrains (2006). Youcan reach her and her work through www.umich.edu/∼rex/

Kathleen C. Riley is a part-time faculty member of the Departments ofLinguistics and of Sociology and Anthropology at Concordia University,Montreal, Canada. She conducted her doctoral research in French Polynesiaand post-doctoral work in the suburbs of Paris (Université de Paris X, Nanterre)and has published articles in the Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Océaniennes(1996), the HRAF Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender (2003), as well as in several editedvolumes. A forthcoming article will appear in Language and Communication.

William C. Ritchie is Associate Professor of Linguistics at Syracuse Univer-sity. His publications include an edited volume entitled Second LanguageAcquisition Research: Issues and Implications (1978) and three handbooksco-edited with Tej K. Bhatia: The Handbook of Child Language Acquisition (1999),The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (1996), and The Handbook ofBilingualism (2004).

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Laura Sabourin is a research associate in the Brain Development Lab at theUniversity of Oregon. She completed her BA in Linguistics at McGill, andgained her MSc in Psycholinguistics from the University of Alberta and herPhD in Neurolinguistics from the University of Groningen, The Netherlands.She is currently editing a special issue of the journal Second LanguageResearch on “Brain imaging techniques in the investigation of second languageacquisition.”

Nick Saville is Director of Research and Validation for the University of Cam-bridge ESOL Examinations. He represents Cambridge ESOL in the Associationof Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) and has close involvement with otherEuropean initiatives, including the Council of Europe’s Common EuropeanFramework of Reference (CEFR). Currently he is Associate Editor of LanguageAssessment Quarterly and is on the editorial board of Language Testing.

Hyunjung Shin is a PhD candidate in second language education at theOntario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, Canada.Her research interests include transnationalism, globalization and languageeducation, ethnographic approaches to language research, sociolinguistics, andcritical pedagogies. Her works have appeared in Critical Inquiry in LanguageStudies.

Peter Skehan is Professor of Applied English Linguistics at the ChineseUniversity of Hong Kong. He researches in the areas of task-based instructionand foreign language aptitude. He authored A Cognitive Approach to LanguageLearning (1998). E-mail: [email protected]

Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, Emerita, Guest Researcher at Department ofLanguages and Culture, University of Roskilde, Denmark; “docent” (visitingprofessor) at Åbo Akademi University, Dept of Education, Vasa, Finland. Herlatest books in English include Linguistic Genocide in Education: Or WorldwideDiversity and Human Rights? (2000), Sharing A World of Difference: The Earth’sLinguistic, Cultural, and Biological Diversity (2003, with Luisa Maffi and DavidHarmon), Imagining Multilingual Schools: Languages in Education and Glocalization(2006, co-edited with Ofelia García and María Torres Guzmán). For morepublications, see http://akira.ruc.dk/∼tovesk/

Catherine Snow is the Henry Lee Shattuck Professor of Education at theHarvard Graduate School of Education. She has published several books andmany articles in refereed journals and chapters in edited volumes. Snow chairedthe National Research Council Committee on Preventing Reading Difficultiesin Young Children, the RAND Reading Study Group that produced thevolume Reading for Understanding: Towards an R&D Agenda, and the NationalAcademy of Education committee that produced the 2005 volume Knowledgeto support the teaching of reading. For more information: http://gseweb.harvard.edu/∼snow/

Notes on Contributors xix

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Bernard Spolsky retired from Bar-Ilan University in 2000 as Emeritus Professor.He has written and edited two dozen books, including Educational Linguistics:An Introduction (1978), Conditions for Second Language Learning (1989), TheLanguages of Jerusalem (1991), Measured Words (1995), Sociolinguistics (1998),The Languages of Israel (1999), Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics (1999),and Language Policy (2004), as well as about 200 articles and chapters. He wasfounding editor of three journals, Applied Linguistics, Journal of Asia TEFL, andLanguage Policy. He lives in the Old City of Jerusalem where he is writing amonograph on fundamentals of language management. http://www.biu.ac.il/faculty/spolsb/

Laurie A. Stowe is an associate professor of Linguistics at the Universityof Groningen in the Netherlands. Her research focuses on the neurologicalbasis of language investigated with neuroimaging methods like event-relatedpotentials and regional blood flow change, publishing in such journals asNeuroImage and Cognitive Brain Research. She graduated from the University ofWisconsin at Madison and from Cornell University.

Samuel J. Supalla is Associate Professor of Sign Language/Deaf Studies inthe Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and School Psychology atthe University of Arizona. His research has been funded through the NationalInstitutes of Health, US Department of Education, and James S. McDonnellFoundation. The focus of his research is on understanding modality-specificattributes of signed language structure and addressing instructional andassessment considerations in terms of accessibility for deaf children. Thedevelopment of measures for language and literacy skills deemed appropriatefor deaf children are included in Dr. Supalla’s research agenda along withconsiderations for ramifications on policy for deaf education.

Wataru Suzuki is a PhD candidate in the Second Language Educationprogram at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the Universityof Toronto, Canada. His research interests include applied linguistics andpsycholinguistics (particularly cognitive and sociocultural theories of secondlanguage acquisition). Email: [email protected]

Merrill Swain is Emeritus Professor in the Second Language Education Pro-gram at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University ofToronto, Canada. Her interests include bilingual education (particularly Frenchimmersion education) and communicative second language learning, teach-ing, and testing. Her recent research is about languaging and second languagelearning. She has published widely. Email: [email protected]

Barbara Trudell ([email protected]) holds a PhD from the Universityof Edinburgh’s Centre of African Studies. She has worked in local-languageliteracy and education since 1982, in both South America and sub-SaharanAfrica. She is currently the Director of Academic Affairs for SIL International,

xx Notes on Contributors

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Africa Area. Recent publications and research interests focus on language policyimplementation, language-in-education issues, local agency, and the variousaspects of language development in the sub-Saharan African context. Hercurrent research is on local-language literacy programs in rural Senegalesecommunities.

Paola Uccelli is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Harvard Graduate School ofEducation. She received her BA in Linguistics from the Pontificia UniversidadCatólica in Lima, Perú, and her EdD in Human Development and Psychologyfrom the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has taught Spanish at theHarvard Romance Languages and Literatures Department, and has carriedout research on grammatical and discourse development. Her current researchfocuses on reading comprehension with a particular interest in designingdiagnostic assessments and effective interventions for English languagelearners. Her research is being conducted in collaboration with CAST (Centerfor Applied Special Technology), and CAL (Center for Applied Linguistics)and it is supported by the Institute of Education Sciences.

Leo van Lier is Professor of Educational Linguistics at the Monterey Instituteof International Studies. His books include Interaction in the Language Curriculum:Awareness, Autonomy and Authenticity (1996) and The Ecology and Semiotics ofLanguage Learning: A Sociocultural Perspective (2004). He is the Editor of theModern Language Journal.

Stephen L. Walter ([email protected]) received his PhD in linguisticsfrom the University of Texas at Arlington and is currently Department Chairand Associate Professor in the Department of Language Development of theGraduate Institute of Applied Linguistics in Dallas, Texas. His most recentpublication is Eritrea National Reading Survey: A Research Report on the Status ofMother Tongue Education in Eritrea (2006). Currently, he is the senior researcheron a longitudinal, international study of multilingual education in minoritylanguage communities in developing countries.

Jonathan M. Watt is Associate Professor of Biblical Studies at Geneva College(Beaver Falls, PA). He is the author of Code-Switching in Luke and Acts (1997)and various articles on sociolinguistics and religion.

Stanton Wortham is the Judy and Howard Berkowitz Professor at the Univer-sity of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education. He also has appointmentsin Anthropology, Communications and Folklore. His research applies tech-niques from linguistic anthropology to study interactional positioning andsocial identity development in classrooms. He has also studied interactionalpositioning in media discourse and autobiographical narrative. Publicationsinclude: Acting Out Participant Examples in the Classroom (1994), Narratives inAction (2001), Education in the New Latino Diaspora (2002, co-edited with EnriqueMurillo and Edmund Hamann), Linguistic Anthropology of Education (2003,

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co-edited with Betsy Rymes), and Learning Identity (2006). More informationabout his work can be found at http://www.gse.upenn.edu/∼stantonw.

Shouhui Zhao is Research Fellow of the Centre for Research in Pedagogy andPractice at Nanyang Technological University. His research interests includeChinese applied linguistics and language planning.

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1 Introduction: What isEducational Linguistics?

BERNARD SPOLSKY

First named as a field 30 years ago (Spolsky, 1974b) and defined in twointroductory books (Spolsky, 1978; Stubbs, 1986), educational linguistics hasrapidly expanded and has become widely recognized in reference texts (Corson,1997; Spolsky, 1999) and in university programs and courses. With thegrowing significance of language education as a result of decolonization andglobalization, more and more educational systems are appreciating the needto train teachers and administrators in those aspects of linguistics that arerelevant to education and in the various subfields that have grown up withineducational linguistics itself.

I first proposed the term “educational linguistics” because of my dissatisfac-tion with efforts to define the field of applied linguistics. In the narrowestdefinition, courses and textbooks on applied linguistics in the 1960s dealt withthe teaching of foreign languages; in the widest definition (for example, inthe scope of subjects covered in the international congresses starting to beorganized by AILA) it came to include all of what Charles Voegelin had called“hyphenated linguistics,” that is to say, everything but language theory,history, and description. One of the central issues of debate was the relation-ship between theoretical or mainstream linguistics and the applied field. Itwas becoming clear, particularly with the failure of the audio-lingual methodon the one hand and the refusal of transformational linguistics to acceptresponsibility for practical issues on the other, that the simplistic notion thatapplied linguistics was simply linguistics applied to some practical questionwas misleading.

Applied linguistics as it had developed seemed to me to be a fairly soullessattempt to apply largely irrelevant models to a quite narrow range of problems,especially in teaching foreign languages. It produced a couple of potentialmonsters in language teaching: the deadening drills of the audio-lingualmethod, and the ungoverned chaos of the early natural approach. I saw thechallenge in this way:

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2 Bernard Spolsky

Many linguists believe that their field should not be corrupted by any suggestionof relevance to practical matters; for them, linguistics is a pure science and itsstudy is motivated only by the desire to increase human knowledge. Others,however, claimed that linguistics offers a panacea for any educational problemthat arises and quickly offer their services to handle any difficulties in languageplanning or teaching. Each of these extreme positions is, I believe, quite wrong,for while it is evident that linguistics is often relevant to education, the relation isseldom direct. (Spolsky, 1978: 1)

In a review of a recent Festschrift dealing with applied linguistics, Davies(2006) suggested a distinction between those like Henry Widdowson whoargued for a dictionary definition of the field, maintaining that there is “anapplied linguistics core which should be required of all those attempting therite de passage” and those who prefer the approach by ostensive definition, “ifyou want to know about applied linguistics, look around you.” He correctlyplaces me somewhere in this latter camp, although in the case of educationallinguistics, which I argue is more focused, I think I have less trouble in findinga core, in the interactions between language and education. It was thevery lack of a core in applied linguistics that led me to propose educationallinguistics. On the analogy of educational psychology, I hoped it would bepossible to define a field relevant to education but based on linguistics.

It soon became clear that the term is necessarily ambiguous: it includesthose parts of linguistics directly relevant to educational matters as well asthose parts of education concerned with language. This turns out to be apretty wide scope, as most parts of education do involve language: we foundfor instance the measured competence in mathematics of new immigrantstudents in Israel was lowered by their limited Hebrew proficiency. But morerecent thought, following at least a decade of research and publication inthe area of language policy, has given me a clearer view of how to locateeducational linguistics, which I now see as providing the essential instrumentsfor designing language education policy and for implementing language educa-tion management. Language policy, I argue, exists within all speech com-munities (and within each domain inside that community), consisting of threedistinct but interrelated components: the regular language practices of thecommunity (such as choice of varieties); the language beliefs or ideology of thecommunity (such as the values assigned to each variety by various membersof the community); and any language management activities, namely attemptsby any individual or institution with or claiming authority to modify thelanguage practices and language beliefs of other members of the community.

Tracing the history of language management, the earliest activities werethose aiming to preserve sacred texts (the work of the Sanskrit, Arabic, andHebrew grammarians, for instance) or to translate them into new languages.Later, with the establishment of the Spanish and French academies, the emphasismoved to preserving the purity of standard varieties. To this, the French Revolu-tion added, and the German Romantics confirmed, the emphasis on defining

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Introduction 3

a centralized standard language variety in order to assert national identity.This task, concentrating on language status and supported by puristic lan-guage cultivation (or corpus planning), was the central management activityin newly developed independent nations in the nineteenth century and againwith the end of colonialism after World War II. While this had obviouseffects on education (especially on the choice of language of instruction), therecognition that language acquisition policy was a key component of languagemanagement had to wait until it was suggested by Cooper (1989). While it istrue that most students of language policy continue to focus on decisionsconcerning status at the level of the nation-state, it is starting to be recognizedthat the major changes in language practices and beliefs are the results ofmanagement activities concerning education.

An obvious example is the way that decisions concerning language ofinstruction have been the major cause in Africa and other former colonies ofthe downgrading and extinction of minority languages. Similarly, pressuresare now developing in Asia and elsewhere to introduce English into primaryschools, either alongside the local language or replacing it as medium ofinstruction especially for science subjects. In South America, the destruction ofindigenous languages was virtually guaranteed by Spanish refusal to admitthem into the educational system. In the Soviet Union, the better facilitiesprovided to Russian-medium schools raised the status and importance of thelanguage and threatened the territorial languages. In New Zealand, the changefrom Maori to English in the 1870s in the Native Schools was the beginning ofthe suppression of language, and the movement for Maori language regenera-tion of the last two decades has been focused on the schools. It is reasonableto claim then that the most important language management activities arenow those taking place within the school system.

A parenthetical word of concern may, however, not be out of place.Recently, especially in the field of language assessment, there has been a grow-ing recognition of the issue of ethical responsibility for the use of languagetests. Whereas at one stage language testers spent most of their time studyingand talking about the reliability and validity of a test, they are now morelikely to be concerned with test use and misuse. Strong alarm has been ex-pressed, for example, about the use of language tests to exclude asylum seekersor to control immigration. Similarly, the growing employment of national stand-ardized tests to ensure accountability of education systems is interfering withefforts to provide education suitable for minorities and new immigrants.

This sense of responsibility and ethical disquiet has also moved to languagemanagement, in part as a result of the criticism of the contribution of imperi-alist and colonialist policies to language endangerment and also as a resultof widespread recognition of the need to apply principles of human rightsto language policy. It is clear that language management can be directedtoward socially and morally inappropriate goals, such as the homogenizationand suppression of minority languages. Many scholars hold that the contrarypressure, toward the revival of fading languages or toward giving power to

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4 Bernard Spolsky

minority languages, is necessarily good and to be encouraged – a commonargument makes an analogy between biological and linguistic diversity thatremains debatable.

By definition, however, any language management is the application of powercoming from authority, and has totalitarian overtones. It assumes that thelanguage manager (government or activist or scholar) knows best and it isthus in essence patriarchal. Taking a liberal or pluralistic point of view, onewould argue that people should be allowed free choice of language, as ofreligion, provided only that they do not interfere with or harm others. On thisprinciple, individuals should also be offered an opportunity to acquire thelanguage in which national and civic activities are undertaken, and the languageor languages which will provide them with access to economic success. Alanguage education policy which denies such access (such as the ban onEnglish in the Maori Kura kaupapa) needs very strong justification.

At the same time, one may question the demands made by ethnic languagerevival movements that all members of the ethnic group must use only theethnic language, granting rights to the group, or even worse, to a specificlanguage as an object, at the cost of individual freedom to choose. This is anexample of conflict of values: identity with a large group (family, ethnic group,religion, or nation) is valuable, but so is the right to choose one’s ownlanguage. From a pluralist point of view, there is no obvious way to apply ahigher value to one or the other, leaving a free choice accompanied of courseby a price. But what gives me (the putative language manager) the authorityto make decisions for others? Can I point to some ideal society in whichutopian pluralism has been achieved, or simply to the many failures of effortsto manage languages? I can be comfortable with what I might call languageaccommodation: providing all citizens with linguistic access to civic life butdefending their freedom to choose also which language best represents theirsocial, cultural, and religious identity.

Questioning language management like this may seem to move us beyondthe spheres of language policy and educational linguistics into fundamentalquestions of identity and philosophy, but it is a reasonable step in a study ofboth fields. At the same time, it is only fair to note that most scholars in thefield tend toward activist positions, assuming that their expertise in variousaspects of educational linguistics gives them responsibility as well as abilityto attempt to manage language education. In editing this handbook, we tooaccept this responsibility, if with a continuing modicum of skepticism andmodest doubt.

In planning the book, we selected what we considered the more centralareas of educational linguistics and added other fields in which there has beenrelevant research and publication over the last few decades. We divided the44 commissioned chapters into three clusters. For each chapter, we invitedthe scholar we believed could give the best description of the development,current state, and future prospect of the topic. We also encouraged contributorsto choose a colleague to add a wider perspective. This reflected our decision

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Introduction 5

on joint editorship, and the fact that Francis M. Hult has written the secondchapter recounting and analyzing the history of the field, which I personallyfound very revealing.

The first cluster of chapters presents the foundational background, settingout the knowledge derived from neurobiology, linguistic theory, psychology,sociology, anthropology, and politics relevant to educational linguistics andthe educational systems in which it operates. Language, it has come to berealized especially since the work of Chomsky, is embodied in the brain, andgrowing knowledge of the brain is therefore relevant if not yet directly applic-able (Schumann, 2006). Thus the section opens with a chapter on neurobiologyby Laura Sabourin and Laurie A. Stowe, further developed in the chapter onpsycholinguistics by Tej K. Bhatia and William C. Ritchie. Basically, a centralprinciple of all the chapters in this section is the realization that the core fieldsdo not have direct application but rather set possibilities and have implica-tions for activity. Applied linguists, I suggested earlier (Spolsky, 1970), aresomewhat like little boys with hammers looking for something to hit; onenotes the ease with which some of them moved from structurally basedlanguage textbooks to transformational exercises. A much more reasonablediscussion of the relevance of linguistic theory to education is presented inthe chapter by Richard Hudson. At the same time, as the work of Labov andother sociolinguists has shown us, all varieties of language and their uses arecontextualized in social settings, depending on common co-construction andthe interplay of social and linguistic structures and patterns. That gives import-ance to the fields of sociolinguistics and sociology of language presented byRajend Mesthrie. Much of the understanding of social contextualization wasalso a result of work in the foundation field of linguistic anthropology, discussedin the chapter by Stanton Wortham. The inevitable effect of code choice onpower relationships, the realization that choice of language for school andother functions has major power to include or exclude individuals, has taughtmany people to take what is often called a “critical” approach and ask whobenefits from decisions about choice. Thus, while educational linguistics trieslike most other disciplines to achieve a measure of scientific objectivity, it isoften committed and regularly interpreted as being on one side or the other inthe politics of education. These aspects are discussed in a chapter on the politicalmatrix of linguistic ideologies by Mary McGroarty. It is finally importantto note that linguistics is not the sole core area, but educational linguisticsdraws equally on such other relevant fields as anthropology, sociology, politics,psychology, and education itself. This opening section is tied together by anessay by Joseph Lo Bianco on educational linguistics and education systems.

In the centre of the volume, we include 25 chapters dealing with specificthemes or sub-areas of educational linguistics that show the synthesis ofthe knowledge from the theoretical foundations in Part I. The first group ofpapers in this part picks up my original question about the nature of the lan-guage barrier between home and school (Spolsky, 1971, 1974a). A chapter byStephen L. Walter reviews the evidence concerning the choice of language of

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6 Bernard Spolsky

instruction in schools: all major empirical studies support the UNESCO-proclaimed belief in the value of initial instruction in the language thatchildren bring with them from home, and suggest that it takes at least five orsix years of careful preparation in some model of bilingual education beforemost pupils are ready to benefit fully from instruction in the national officialschool language. Unfortunately, the reality is far different, with the majority ofgovernments and education departments satisfying themselves with at mostone year of preparation before launching into teaching in a standard language.

Other chapters look at the home–school gap. Iliana Reyes and Luis C. Mollfocus on cultural as well as linguistic differences between home and school.Jeffrey Reaser and Carolyn Temple Adger tackle the difficult situation thatarises when the home language is stigmatized as a dialect or nonstandard. Inthe next chapter, Samuel J. Supalla and Jody H. Cripps consider the relevanceof the language barrier to the education of the Deaf, a group now increasinglyrecognized by some as analogous to a linguistic or ethnic minority. In achapter by Carolyn McKinney and Bonny Norton, new definitions of literacyare shown to be related to developments of multiple identities in modernsocieties. In the final chapter in this group, dealing with postcolonialismand globalization in language education, Hyunjung Shin and Ryuko Kubotaattempt to analyze causes, looking at the effects of colonization and itsaftermaths and the growing pressure of globalization.

The second group of chapters in this part deals specifically with languageeducation policy and management. The chapter by Brian North describes workin Europe to define common goals for foreign language teaching, the majoreffort to revise language teaching in Europe in response to the development ofthe European Community. The second chapter in the section, by Richard B.Baldauf, Jr., Minglin Li, and Shouhui Zhao, considers language teaching insideand outside schools. The third chapter, on language cultivation in developedcontexts by Jirí Nekvapil, presents the theories and practices of languagemanagement cultivation initially developed by the Prague School of linguistswho were interested in the elaboration of developed literary languages at atime when the American school of language planning was tending to concen-trate on the issues faced by previously underdeveloped languages. M. PaulLewis and Barbara Trudell next describe the work continuing with languagecultivation in underdeveloped contexts, such as the development of writingsystems, the choices involved in adapting vernacular languages to school andother uses, and the sharing of functions with standard languages. In a chapteron ecological language education policy, Nancy H. Hornberger and Francis M.Hult explore specific directions for the application of the ecology of languageapproach to the study of language policy and planning in education. Writingabout education for speakers of endangered languages, Teresa L. McCarty,Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, and Ole Henrik Magga look at the extreme cases,presenting arguments for the involvement of education systems in the preserva-tion of endangered languages. The final chapter in this section by Yun-Kyung Cha and Seung-Hwan Ham adds a note of realism or sounds the tocsin,