The Handbook of Applied Linguistics || Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) 623

25 Computer AssistedLanguage Learning (CALL)

PAUL GRUBA

25.1 Introduction

Simply stated, Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) can be definedas “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teach-ing and learning” (Levy, 1997, p. 1). Although earlier practitioners relied onacronyms such as CAI (computer-aided instruction), CAL (computer-assistedlearning), CELL (computer-enhanced language learning) and TELL (technology-enhanced language learning), CALL is now widely regarded as the centralacronym to refer to studies concerned with second language and computer tech-nology. Other terms, however, continue to be introduced to focus on particularuses of the computer. For example, individual learning through adaptive com-puter systems, promoted as intelligent CALL (ICALL), and web-enhancedlanguage learning (WELL), is used by educators who promote Internet-basedactivities. A European Community group has formed under the banner ICT4LT(Information and Communication Technologies for Language Teachers). Fortheir part, Warschauer and Kern (2000) prefer to use the term NBLT (net-worked-based language teaching) to encompass a broader range of the inter-connected computers; whereas Debski (2000) has coined the term PrOCALL(project-oriented CALL) to highlight large-scale collaborative activities. Chapelle(2001), on the other hand, employs the acronym CASLA (computer applica-tions in second language acquisition) to serve as an umbrella phrase that pullstogether research in CALL, computer-assisted language assessment (CALT),and computer-assisted second language acquisition research (CASLR).

Overall, the main objective of CALL is to “improve the learning capacity ofthose who are being taught a language through computerized means”(Cameron, 1999a, p. 2). Note that such a definition focuses particularly onlanguage learning, not language teaching, while at the same time the use ofthe computer forces reconsideration of traditional stakeholder roles: learners,teachers, and researchers have each had to adapt to the demands and opportun-ities afforded by a range of new technologies. With the advent of networked

624 Paul Gruba

computers and the Internet, in particular, learners are increasingly called uponto design and execute their own computer-based activities.

The growing availability of Internet access has prompted CALL instructorsto move away from stand-alone workstations and more toward networkedcomputers (e.g., Debski, 2000; Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Socio-collaborativeapproaches to teaching and learning are replacing communicative ones, anddebates about pedagogy now center on aspects of learner autonomy, collab-orative project design, and appropriate assessment practices. CALL educatorsare also being challenged to keep pace with rapid change and innovation tomeet concerns about evolving technologies, professional development, andrising student levels of electronic literacy. Issues of power, access, and equityare also gaining wider prominence and debate in the CALL community(Warschauer, 1998).

Much of the current debate amongst CALL researchers concerns the establish-ment of a coherent agenda for research. The lack of a clear theoretical frameworkhas long dogged the maturation of CALL (Levy, 1997) and investigators arenow seeking to “take stock” of what has been accomplished (Cameron, 1999a,p. 9) in order to strengthen methodological approaches and define prioritiesfor investigation (Chapelle, 1997; Motteram, 1999; Salaberry, 1999).

To put current issues of CALL into perspective, this chapter begins with anattempt to locate the disciplinary influences on this emerging area of study.A history of CALL, roughly divided into Structural, Communicative, andIntegrative stages, is then presented. In turn, the chapter then examines theroles of computers, students, instructors, and researchers in CALL, and con-cludes with a critical discussion of recent developments.

25.2 Overview of CALL

As with the broader field of applied linguistics, CALL can be located at the cross-roads of a number of disciplines. Levy (1997, pp. 47–75) regards the studies inpsychology, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, instructional tech-nology, and human–computer interaction as primary influences. Although Levyis aware that the area can be framed somewhat differently, he draws on thesefive cross-disciplinary fields to as a way to structure the knowledge base. Studiesin psychology, for example, contribute insights about programmed instructionand cognition as they relate to CALL; research in computational linguisticsinforms work to do with machine translation, natural language processing,and concordance.

In her extensive review, Chapelle (2001, pp. 27–43) places CALL within sixcomputer-related sub-disciplines: educational technology, computer-supportedcollaborative learning (CSCL), artificial intelligence, computational linguistics,corpus linguistics, and computer-assisted assessment. Unlike Levy (1997),Chapelle argues that studies in human–computer interaction have had littleimpact on CALL and sees educational technology as a much more significantinfluence. In her view, the area became distinct in the mid-1980s with the


formation of professional organizations and journals specifically devoted tothe emerging field. According to Chapelle (2001, p. 15), the Australian journalOn-CALL appeared in the mid-1980s. Across the Atlantic, ReCALL firstappeared in 1988, and this was followed by Computer Assisted Language Learning:An International Journal two years later. In North America, CÆLL Journalspecifically targeted computer use in English as a second language (ESL) con-texts from its release in 1989. Other journals that helped frame CALL researchinclude The CALICO Journal and IALL Journal of Language Learning Technologies.Annual professional conferences, most prominently Euro-CALL, have alsohelped to solidify the emerging field.

25.2.1 A brief history

Although Delcloque (2000) has embarked on an ongoing project to detailthe history of CALL, sections of three books (Ahmad et al., 1985, pp. 27–44;Chapelle, 2001, pp. 1–26; Levy, 1997, pp. 13–46) provide extensive accountsof developments in the area. Ahmad et al. (1985) consider the work conductedin the United States and Britain in the years 1965–85. In one early projectcarried out at Stanford University, instructors created self-instructionalmaterials for Slavic language learning and delivered them via a mainframecomputer. Another group at the University of Illinois developed a systemnamed Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO), inwhich teachers were able to write a Russian-English translation course. Thecomputer program was able to provide both drills and marking for studentwork as well as an authoring component for instructors. The PLATO systemlater expanded to include a number of foreign languages and offered themin increasingly technically sophisticated ways. Although high costs prohibitedtheir widespread use, mainframe computer applications throughout the 1960sand 1970s were developed to the point of interactive features to help studentsread specialist scientific texts. With the arrival of the “microcomputer boom”in the late 1970s, however, expensive mainframe computer usage was phasedout. Developers and instructors alike began to shift their attention to personalcomputers.

From the early 1980s, increased computer availability fuelled a growinginterest in CALL. Teachers were able to write or modify computer applica-tions to suit specific language learning situations; as a result, more and morestudents were exposed to them both at home and on campus. In his review,Levy (1997) highlights the Time-Shared, Interactive, Computer ControlledInformation Television (TICCIT) project initiated at Brigham Young Univer-sity in 1971 as one of the first examples of multimedia-based instruction. Here,computers had the capacity to integrate text, audio, and video that could becontrolled by the learner. The TICCIT system was based on an explicit theoryof instructional design that allowed instructors to add content but, unfortu-nately, not to decide how to teach with the now programmed materials.

Levy (1997) also singles out the Athena Language Learning Project based atMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In this project, communicative

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approaches to language teaching underpinned the development of a multimediaauthoring environment and an integration of techniques based on research inartificial intelligence. One significant part of this project was the full integra-tion of language teachers in the development process; that is, project managerspromoted teaching and learning with computers above software design andinstructional theory.

As personal computers became easier to use, Storyboard and HyperCardbecame influential authoring programs during the early 1980s. Levy paysparticular attention to teacher-programmers as they began to work out theirown CALL practices. Materials were often designed as single activitiesand included simulation, text reconstruction, gap-filling, speed-reading, andvocabulary games (Levy, 1997, p. 23). By the end of the 1980s, CALL practi-tioners had produced a substantial body of work that focused mainly onpedagogical computer use. Critics at the time, however, began to question theeffectiveness of such practices and suggested a much deeper examination ofCALL activities and materials (Dunkel, 1991, pp. 24–5).

From the start of the 1990s, teachers began to make greater use of networkedcomputers, and by mid-decade the explosive growth of the Internet promptedCALL educators to increasingly adopt socio-collaborative modes of learning.In her recent overview, Chapelle (2001) notes that Internet usage promptednot only a much greater access to resources, but also provided the motivationfor developers to create sophisticated materials that would hopefully attractlarge audiences. Classroom-based CALL activities could include learnercommunities throughout the world through email, virtual environments,and shared domains. Pedagogical discussions of CALL have thus shifted toexploration of such communities and their use of collaborative activities (e.g.,Debski & Levy, 1999; Warschauer & Kern, 1999) but, once again, research inthis era was critiqued for its absence of a focused agenda (Chapelle, 1997). Inthe mid-1990s, an Australian national report found that “With minor exceptions,the application of technology in language teaching and learning has beenfragmented, frequently idiosyncratic, topic oriented and largely based ondistributive technologies” (Australian National Board of Employment, Educa-tion and Training, 1996, p. 195). On a similar note, Chapelle (2001, p. 175)concluded with that the twentieth century was “a time of idiosyncratic learn-ing, quirky software development, and naive experimentation” for secondlanguage learning and computers.

25.2.2 Major theoretical perspectives

Trends in CALL roughly parallel those in other areas of applied linguistics.Starting with the structural and behaviorist models that manifested inaudio-lingual approaches to language learning, CALL educators then exploredaspects of communicative approaches to language learning. Socio-cognitivetheories of instruction are now an integral part of CALL. Table 25.1 summar-izes key aspects of CALL over 30 years. This table provides a way to organize

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628 Paul Gruba

the rather fluid categories that characterize the development of CALL. Practi-tioners in the era of structural CALL placed a strong emphasis on grammarand they employed the use of mainframe computers to help students gainaccuracy in their language usage. Grammar-translation and audio-lingualmethods, grounded in behaviorism, went hand in hand with programmedinstruction. Students were able to repeat drills with the seemingly tirelessand patient computer-as-tutor, and instruction appeared to be at an upmostefficiency. Crook (1994, p. 12) sees the tutorial metaphor as a central preoccu-pation in the “computer-assisted instruction” (CAI) tradition of educationaltechnologies. The goals of CAI developers were centered on making responsesuniquely fitted to individual learner needs and delivering helpful, customizedfeedback through “intelligent tutorial systems.”

Crook (1994, pp. 13–16) examines the tutorial role of computers and thepopularity of drill exercises. First, he notes, computers never truly became“intelligent” because of the inherent difficulties in constructing algorithmsthat could sensitively respond to learner profiles. At the time, the sophistic-ated hardware needed to attempt this goal was available almost exclusivelyin military and industrial training contexts. Nonetheless, Crook writes, tutorialdrills have a continued appeal to educators for two reasons: (1) teachersuncomfortable with innovative uses in technology “may well adopt the com-paratively easy solution of focusing their commitment on straightforward,self contained programs” (p. 14); and (2) many instructors feel that repeatedexposures to certain practices and structures are beneficial to students.

Crook’s observations can be applied to the CALL context. Indeed, Decooand Colpaert (1999, p. 56) point out that there is “a mass of learners who aredeeply embedded in fixed educational structures and who are asking for andwelcoming effective forms of tutorial CALL matching those structures.” Theyurge researchers to re-evaluate the role of the computer in drills and practicefor classroom activities which are time-consuming and repetitive.

Richmond (1999) argues that a true picture of CALL resembles a splitbetween “dedicated” and “integrated” streams. Much more widely practiced,“dedicated CALL” largely consists of using stand-alone programs to drill andpractice items of grammar, vocabulary, and syntax. Richmond argues that thecomplexity and costs of software, as well as a host of technical problems, hasshied teachers and students away from more integrated uses of the computer.The popularity of “dedicated CALL” has prompted researchers to continue todevelop increasingly sophisticated tutorial applications that aid vocabularyacquisition, improve the writing in character-based languages, and buildsustained interactions with target materials (e.g., Hamburger, Schoelles, &Reeder, 1999). Over the long term, Richmond predicts, the increased ease ofsoftware use and greater access to networks will bring the “dedicated” practicescloser to “integrated” ones.

Following an overall shift in teaching methods aligned with cognitiveconstructivist theories of learning, practices in communicative CALL sought


to help students develop their own mental models through use of the targetlanguage. Exercises were designed to guide meaningful peer interactionsand promote fluency. Esling (1991), created a series of task-based CALLactivities to promote productive email exchanges between ESL students attwo Canadian universities. In these activities, for example, students weredirected to describe photographs, give directions, or express an opinion.The role of computer software was to help deliver visual materials fordescription, process word documents, or provide interactive simulations.In another project, Abraham and Liou (1991) studied the spoken languageof learners at workstations to compare the talk elicited by different typesof computer applications and to see if the talk was more useful and pro-ductive than would otherwise be the case in non-computer situations. Intheir conclusion, they report that the talk elicited by the different programsdid not vary widely, nor was it significantly different than in non-computersituations.

Integrative CALL seeks to make full use of networked computers as ameans to engage learners in meaningful, large-scale collaborative activities(Debski, 2000; Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Instructors promote close tiesbetween learning processes, objectives, and a student ownership of the out-comes. As with mainstream computer-supported collaborative learning (e.g.,Bonk & King, 1998; Koschmann, 1996; Land & Hannafin, 2000), meaningfulinteraction and authentic project work are highlighted. Authentic discourseprovides the basis for learning material. Students are taught techniques inonline publishing, and are urged to produce their own texts. Fostering learneragency, or “the satisfying power to take meaningful action and see the resultsof our own decisions and choices” (Murray, 1997, p. 126 cited in Warschauer,2000b, p. 524), is a primary goal of integrative CALL. The key distinctionbetween communicative CALL and integrative CALL is that, in the former,learner choice and self-management of activity are driven by task-basedapproaches to syllabus design. At its most liberal interpretation, a syllabus inintegrative CALL simply represents a “dynamic blueprint” where learningoccurs through “accidents” generated by projects (Barson, 1999). In contrast,a syllabus in communicative CALL is likely to be discrete and related to a setof curricular guidelines that have been defined in advance of learner needs(Corbel, 1999).

In practice, however, the realization of integrative CALL may lie beyond therealm of language learning institutions constrained by a lack of resources,embedded teaching practices, and large class sizes. Such is the case in adultmigrant education centers in Australia, for example (Taylor & Corbel, 1998)or in educational centers in South Africa (Oberprieler, 1999). At such sites,students are generally directed to access online materials alone, teachersare not free to alter a syllabus based on established curriculum guidelines.Students may not have the means to make use of the Internet outside limitedclass times.

630 Paul Gruba

25.3 Key Areas: The Roles of Computers,Students, Teachers, and Researchers

Broadly speaking, CALL is made possible through an interdependent relation-ship among computers, students, and instructors. The use of computers, forexample, influences the nature of student activities which in turn affects howteacher may set goals and construct the learning environment. The aim of thissection is to provide a detailed examination of the roles computers, learners,and teachers play in CALL settings.

25.3.1 Roles of the computers

In the structural stage of CALL, educators characterized the computer as a“tutor” who patiently delivered repetitive drills. In this way the computercould engage the independent student in individualized, self-paced instruc-tion through efficient materials delivery. Later, in communicative CALL,the computer was seen as a “pupil” that was trained to navigate through“microworlds” (Papert, 1980). Communicative CALL practitioners also usedthe computer to stimulate conversations amongst small groups of studentswho sat in front of it. In recent integrative CALL approaches, the computeracts like a “unified information manager” (Ullmer, 1994), that comes equippedwith a host of applications, or a “toolbox,” that stand ready to be used in theconstruction of projects. More and more, a computer environment can create a“social space” in which to conduct purposeful interactions through virtualreality (Toyoda & Harrison, 2002).

With the widespread use of computers in the 1980s, concern grew abouttheir effectiveness (Kulik, Kulik, & Schwalb, 1986). Significantly, critics soughtjustification of claims that computers help to raise test scores and speedlanguage acquisition (Dunkel, 1991) or otherwise promote cognitive aug-mentation through carefully designed materials (Clark & Sugrue, 1991). Suchconcerns were raised against a background of comparison studies which pittedcomputer-assisted instruction against other modes of learning and oftenconcluded there was “no significant difference” between the types of presenta-tions (Russell, 1999).

Although claims are still made that computers in education are “oversoldand underused” (Cuban, 2001), many educators now see their use as anexpected and necessary part of learning (Debski & Gruba, 1999; Pennington,1999a). These days, the computer is likely to be seen in the “subservient role oftool in the service of the larger goals and contexts of instructional communities”(Meskill, 1999, p. 141). That is, most educators now downplay the centralityof computers and simply acknowledge their integrated use in classroommanagement, materials presentation, and learner interactions.

In light of studies which view motivation as a key factor in language learn-ing success (for an extensive review, see Dörnyei, 2001), CALL practitioners


have been keen to point out that computer environments themselves canmotivate many student (Soo, 1999). According to Pennington (1996), learnersgain motivation through computer use because they are less threatened andthus take more risks and are more spontaneous. With reference to computer-based writing, Pennington (1999a, p. 289) credits positive attitudes towardcomputing as a key factor in student motivation to produce high qualitymaterials. Increased access to authentic materials, email usage, and collaborat-ive activities have also been seen to spur student motivation to learn language(e.g., Biesenbach-Lucas & Weasenforth, 2001; Warschauer, 1995).

Despite a general enthusiasm for computers, student resistance to their usecan potentially reduce motivation through activities which promote isolation,dull creativity, and otherwise contribute to learner frustrations (Lewis & Atzert,2000).

One key role of computers is to deliver materials. Indeed, in structural CALL,efficient materials delivery was a prime focus of the technology. Sophisticatedapplications have been designed to adapt and fit individual learner needs.Materials in communicative CALL served as prompts for both discussion andpractice. Increasingly, Internet access to foreign newspapers, specializedwebsites, and other forms of media has shifted a view of materials as authenticdiscourse. Specifically because they help make available such a wide range ofauthentic materials, Kramsch and Anderson (1999, p. 31) write that “computersseem to realize the dream of every language teacher – to bring the languageand culture as close and as authentically as possible to students in the class-room.” However, they remind us, even though digitized materials give theappearance of authenticity, such media reshape the context of language use.That is, it is important for the consumers of multimedia to remember that suchmaterials create their own unique symbol system through the juxtaposition,selection, and filtering of complex aural and visual elements (Potter, 2001;Salomon, 1979).

Computers also permit the creation of electronic materials. Davies (1998)provides a succinct four-part overview of multimedia authoring packages forlanguage teachers. In the first of his categories, he cites products which alignwith the “Keep it Simple and Stupid” school of design. The popularity of thisapproach rests with its relative ease of use. Secondly, an integrated approachusing a full authoring suite can be utilized for materials production. A thirdapproach is to use a multipurpose application and then later move and adaptmaterials into related computer environments. In his fourth “Generic CALL”category, Davies writes about the formation of a European Community project,known as MALTED (Multimedia Authoring for Language Tutors and Educa-tional Development), that aims to create an authoring environment whichspecifically meets the requirements of language teachers. Participating projectmembers are set to develop the means of authoring multimedia coursewarethat can be shared and revised according to the requirements of local contexts.By using an open framework, the project hopes to encourage contributionsbased on a range of instructional design approaches. Similar work is underway

632 Paul Gruba

in the Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers(ICT4LT) community.

Levy (1999a) pulls together theory, research, and evaluation throughoutthe process of CALL materials design. He singles out audience awareness,unbridled creativity, and a clear understanding of development tools as themost fundamental characteristics of good designers. From there, designersneed to determine the focal use of an element and ground its intended use ineither holistic or discrete language learning activities. At the same time, theymust determine where their materials will sit along the computer as a tutor oras a unified information system continuum.

With reference to the broader CASLA agenda, Chapelle (2001) urgesthe production of software tools that are designed specifically for languageacquisition use and research. Of course, such tools could also be productivelyapplied to language teaching situations in order to provide an authenticeducational experience to research participants. At present, Chapelle observes,there is no single tool that can perform functions such as task difficultyestimates and yet support a structure for learner models. Table 25.2 providesChapelle’s list of desired functions and their purposes.

As shown by its frequent mention in Table 25.2, the nature of technology-mediated tasks for language acquisition and assessment is a particular pointof interest for CALL (Chapelle, 2001; Hoven, 1999a). The basic definition ofpedagogical tasks is “a focused, well-defined activity, relatable to pedagogicdecision making, which requires learners to use language, with an emphasison meaning, to attain an objective, and which elicits data which may be thebasis for research” (Bygate, Skehan, & Swain, 2001, p. 12).

Such a definition of tasks in computer environments, particularly in regardto integrative CALL, may well change. For example, as Driscoll (2000) points out,social constructivist approaches to instruction prefer that tasks not be “well-defined” so that learners themselves can work out how to meet the challengesof a particular “problem space.” In Debski (2000), for example, it is argued thatcollaborative learners themselves need to negotiate what to do and how tocomplete activities. That is, task definition in and of itself is an opportunity forlearning in an ill-defined domain. The optimal role of “objectives,” too, mayrequire consideration because they may change within the context of a groupproject. Authenticity must be re-examined as lines blur between the class-room and the world beyond (Chapelle, 1999). Further, future definition oftechnologically-mediated tasks may well need an explicit view of mode ofpresentation as a way to acknowledge the effects of medium on comprehension.

Significantly for CALL educators, computers have the potential to helpstudents with special needs, for example, in their use of screen readers, Brailledevices, or other assistive technologies. The goal of “web access initiative”projects is to make all objects available in “gracefully depreciating” forms sothat however they are to be used, they are still accessible (LeLoup & Ponterio,1997). Awareness about the provision and design of accessible materials,however, is very low amongst CALL practitioners. Discussions focused on


Table 25.2 Functions needed in CASLA software tools and their purposes

Software function

Estimate task difficulty

Analyze learners’ linguisticoutput

Analyze the language of objects(written text, audio, video)

Support objects ordered ina database

Gather process-oriented data

Support a structure for alearner model

Author learning conditions

Source: From Chapelle (2001, p. 171). Reproduced with the permission of Cambridge UniversityPress and the author.

Purpose

Select appropriate level of task forintended learners

Provide feedback for task development

Assess task authenticityAssign point value and collect

diagnostic data for languageassessment

Gather learner data for research

Assess task authenticityAssess linguistic complexity of input

Store examples of a variety ofcontent and genres to be useddirectly or as models for languagetasks

Assess participation in learningcondition

Assess learner characteristics in specifictasks

Store learner data for intelligenttutoring, assessment

Explore the nature of learner models forresearch

Develop tasks for instruction andresearch and operationalize SLAtheory

design issues (Levy, 1999a; Peterson, 2000) neglect to mention accessibility.Potentially, inattention to accessible materials design may prompt legalchallenges. In the case of Australia, for example, Commonwealth legislationrequires anyone who publishes on the Internet to ensure that resources areaccessible (Nevile, 1999). Fortunately, the tools and the means for making thecontent accessible are improving.

One aspect of computer usage, however, is its potential to exacerbate existingdifferences in society (Warschauer, 2000b; 2002). The costs of buying, using, and

634 Paul Gruba

maintaining computers also impacts upon how a language learning programis perceived. In this way, computers are for more than just learning: theyshape the perception of the program and attract students eager to be seenusing the latest technologies (Cuban, 2001).

25.3.2 Roles of the learner

In each of the three stages of CALL, the role of students changes in tandemwith shifts in learning theory, the capabilities of computers, and instructionalprocesses. In structural CALL, students were dependent on programs ofinstruction that efficiently delivered grammar and vocabulary materials.Communicative CALL practices sought to place learners in independentrelationships with the computer, as students progressed through interactivework with applications. Within integrative CALL, students are expected to workcollaboratively and utilize the computer as a “toolbox” for group projectwork. Increasing student familiarity with computers now challenges CALLeducators to direct their use for the specific purposes of language learning(Chapelle, 2001). To better understand the relationship of students to thecomputer, CALL researchers have explored learner strategies, examined thestatus of learners, and begun to characterize the skills and practices requiredto work effectively in computer environments.

Generally, applied linguists hold a strong interest in learner strategies(Chamot, 2001). In CALL, this interest has been directed to looking at stud-ent behaviors regarding online reading, listening, speaking, and writing(Hegelheimer & Chapelle, 2000; Liou, 2000), particularly in regard to the com-prehension of second language multimedia. Chun and Plass (1997) framed thekey issues of “multimedia comprehension” based on studies of online readingand visual interpretation. Hoven (1999b), too, proposed a model for learners’listening and viewing skills in multimedia environments.

Based on transcripts of verbal report protocols of Australian learnersof Japanese, Gruba (1999) created a framework for understanding secondlanguage digital video comprehension. He concluded that visual elementswork in a number of ways that go beyond merely “supporting” verbal elements;they are better thought of as integral resources to comprehension whoseinfluence shifts from primary to secondary importance as a listener develops amature understanding of the videotext.

Though far from perfect, speech technologies for language learning arerapidly developing (Ehansi & Knodt, 1998; Goodwin-Jones, 2000a) as edu-cators seek to make student learning more engaging within the computerenvironment. With an emphasis on pronunciation, Aist (1999) provides asolid outline of current developments in speech recognition software forlanguage learning. Essentially, the student can interact through speech in threegeneral ways. The first, Aist denotes, is in the form of “visual feedback,”which shows a student a display of intonation and loudness patterns. Whena student utterance is compared to that of a native speaker and scored


automatically, a “template-based” approach is used. A third way to assiststudents with pronunciation is to have a “model-based” approach. By build-ing up a model of mispronunciations through comparison to native speakerutterances or predicted common errors, students gain specific feedback onerrors and a guide on how to correct them.

As the production of mainstream educational journals like Computers andComposition attest, computer-assisted writing has been a fertile ground for theobservation of strategic student use of word-processing and email applications(Pennington, 1999b). One of the major findings in this area is that studentsproduce longer compositions and are more positive about writing when theyuse computers. Pennington (1999a) attributes such positive attitudes primarilyto the ease of generating text, clarity of the copy, and the cyclical nature of crit-ical text-generation-and-revision processes. When negative attitudes emerge,they are likely to stem from a low student awareness of word-processingcapabilities and quickly manifest themselves as feelings of intimidation,frustration, and a dislike of mechanics.

Although Blin (1999) found that few CALL studies have researched auto-nomous learner processes, one direction in the move toward integrativeCALL is to allow for, and promote, learner autonomy throughout a course ofinstruction. Certainly, the recent descriptions of PrOCALL projects (Debski,2000) make a strong case for self-directed student work. Within the context ofCALL, learner autonomy can be defined as “the development of a capacityfor engagement with and critical reflection on the learning process” (Shield& Weininger, 1999, p. 100). Aligned more with socio-collaboration, autonomy“involves the development of interdependence through which a group of learn-ers and teacher will collaboratively take responsibility for and control oftheir learning/teaching environment” (Blin, 1999, p. 134). Demonstration ofautonomous behavior can be found by examining how students negotiate,make use of resources, set goals, and sustain learning.

Hoven (1999a) clearly places the learner in control of his or her own learn-ing. She believes that the learner needs to be in control of the “content, mode,order, pace, and level of self-direction of the package” (p. 150). An advocate ofintegrative CALL, Hoven argues that syllabus design should be framed ina sociocultural theoretical perspective in which the texts are negotiated,mediated, and made to be interactive. In her principles for implementing a“learner-centered CALL” syllabus, she suggests that any allocation of controlto the learners needs to be accompanied by awareness-raising activities thatencourage responsible management. As part of this, she argues that sophist-icated online help facilities coupled with effective navigation elements mayhelp foster learner control.

Although exactly what defines “literacy” is debatable (for an extensivereview, see Kern, 2000), in the context of CALL the term seeks to describe therange of technical skills and embedded social practices students need beforethey can productively engage in computer-based activities. As the range oftools continues to expand in this area (Goodwin-Jones, 2000b), it is a lack of

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computer skills, of course, that may discourage full participation in CALLclassrooms (Lewis & Atzert, 2000); conversely, students proficient with com-puters may gain new status and ways to use language beyond those of theirpeers (Johnson, 1991, p. 78). Although Corbel (1997) promoted “computerliteracy” as a way to examine such practices, Shetzer and Warschauer (2000)discredit the term because of its relatively narrow focus on technical aspects ofusage. For their part, “electronic literacy” is a preferred term to encompass theskills and practices regarding how to find and organize information as well ashow to read and produce it (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000, p. 173; Warschauer,1998).

Accordingly, Shetzer and Warschauer (2000) divide the electronic literacyframework into three overlapping areas: communication, construction, andresearch. Thus, to become adept at communication via computer, the learnermust be able to interact and collaborate in decentered, asynchronous ways.For skillful construction, students need to master hypertext authoring in orderto blend written text, graphics, audio, and video together in coherent narratives.They must also learn to collaborate effectively, and take into account responsesfrom both intended and Web-based unintended audiences. Students conductingresearch via the Internet need to hone their critical skills in order to evaluateboth the validity and appropriate interpretation of source materials. Insummary, Shetzer and Warschauer argue that learners engaged in electronicliteracy practices must ultimately become autonomous and take charge oftheir own learning. One role for instructors, then, is to promote independentlifelong learning strategies.

25.3.3 Roles of the instructor

The integration of CALL into the classroom has challenged instructors tobecome familiar with new technologies and redefine their views of teaching.Indeed, according to Kramsch (1993, p. 201):

The enormous educational potential of the computer is confronting teachers withtheir pedagogic responsibilities as never before. Never before have teachers sourgently needed to know what knowledge they want to transmit and for whatpurpose, to decide what are the more and the less important aspects of thatknowledge, and to commit themselves to an educational vision they believe in.

Not only have computers shifted instructional practices, they have changedthe way materials are designed, assessment is conducted, and how programsare evaluated. Although once the realm of specialists, CALL techniquesand practices have become an integrated part of professional developmentprograms.

Not surprisingly, a major portion of CALL literature focuses on classroompractices. Chapelle (2001, p. 8), for example, provides a list of 13 CALL teachinghandbooks published in the early 1980s. More recently, Cameron (1999b),


Debski and Levy (1999), Egbert and Hanson-Smith (1999), Jager, Nerbonneand Van Essen (1998), and Pennington (1996), Warschauer and Kern (2000)have produced substantial collections of CALL material largely aimed atpedagogical theory and practice. In Felix’s (2001) collection, an interactiveCD-ROM of online language learning resources is included. One central themeof much of the literature concerns the role of the instructor within a CALLsetting.

In both structural and communicative CALL, the teacher often served as amediator between the computer and students throughout the learning pro-cess. Although computer usage generally fostered a “programmed” approachto instruction, instructors were nonetheless reminded to stay on hand to keepthings running smoothly. In a study of learner talk elicited by computers,Abraham and Liou (1991, p. 104) suggested that teachers “need to make surethat students understand instructions and can supply the kind of responsesrequired to make the program advance.” Even in today’s Internet-focusedsettings, teachers still can act as a “reintermediary” (Corbel, 1999; Tapcott,1999) in order to mediate between learners and the resources availableoutside.

Within integrative CALL, teachers are encouraged to take on a less intrusiverole. In classrooms described in the PrOCALL Project (Debski, 2000), forexample, students are asked to nominate their own projects and, at the sametime, take responsibility for shaping the objective, syllabus, and assessmentcomponents of the subject.

Here, Lewis and Atzert (2000) found that an extensive use of computersfostered anxiety in some students and thus detracted from language learninggoals. To counter such anxieties, Lewis and Atzert suggest that teacherssituate computer technologies in a historical and cultural context in such away that students can form a critical perspective of their use.

Technological environments can be seductive, Kramsch and Anderson (1999)write, particularly because multimedia can seemingly dull the capacity to becritical. That is, sophisticated productions can lead us into believing that whatappears real on the screen is real in life. Because of this, one responsibility forteachers regarding students is to “deepen their understanding of the relationshipbetween text and context when teaching language as communicative practice”(Kramsch & Anderson, 1999, p. 39) in order to avoid portraying multimedia insimplistic ways.

To prepare teachers for professional development workshops, Hatasa(1999) provides a 16-point checklist for self-evaluation of technological literacy.Although somewhat simplistic and focused on technological aspects, Hatasanonetheless lays the foundation for discussion on what types of skills shouldbe required for proficient CALL instructors.

Debski and Gruba (1999) undertook a qualitative survey into foreign lan-guage instructors’ attitudes toward integrative CALL. Key perceptions includeda primary teacher concern for authenticity and recreating real-life situations.The instructors saw computers as a way to encourage social interaction so that

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Table 25.3 Suggested areas of professional development for integrativeCALL educators

Area

Assist students to overcome anxietiesfostered by extensive computer usage

Initiate and sustain student activity andinteraction through computers; encouragecreative, autonomous learning

Design new criteria for assessment thatensures equitable marking of group projects,accounts for computer skills and contendswith individual learning goals

Take an active role in research andevaluation projects

Consider the sociopolitical impact ofcomputer usage beyond the classroom

Acquire electronic literacy skills, includingmultimedia texts interpretation, basicmaterials design and production

Reference(s)

Lewis & Atzert, 2000

Debski, 2000; Warschauer &Kern, 2000

Barson, 1999; Debski &Gruba, 1999

Lynch, 2000; Motteram, 1999;Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000

Warschauer, 1998, 2002

Bickerton, 1999; Corbel, 1993;Hatasa, 1999; Kramsch &Anderson, 1999; Levy, 1999;Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000

the computers acted as “active partners” rather than “passive assistants” tothe instructional process (p. 232). The classroom instructors were critical of“instructional uses of technology” in situations where computers either didnot encourage or simply stifled social interactions. Such a perception ofcomputers had made some teachers abandon CALL altogether.

Professional development for teachers (see Table 25.3), particularly those whobelieve in and can implement socio-collaborative theories embodied in inte-grative CALL, is an ongoing challenge to the educational community. Increasedstudent levels of electronic literacy and commonplace use of computers willmake keen “early adopters” of technology less rare. The innovations they havepioneered, however, will flounder without a wider base of instructors who areable to sustain innovative practices in ways that are sensitive to local contexts.

25.3.4 Establishing CALL research priorities

Primary research concerns in CALL shift with each stage. Within structuralCALL, investigators examined ways in which the use of the computer helpswith the efficacy of instruction (see, for example, Dunkel, 1991). Such concerns


were moved aside as researchers began to examine the total environment oflearning. Under communicative views of instruction, studies investigated thevariety of factors which were thought to influence the “distributed cognition”amongst computers, learners, and instructors (e.g., Salomon, 1993). In thecurrent stage of integrative CALL, sociocultural theories of language learningare moving to the center of research agendas (Belz, 2002) and discussioncontinues about the use of second language acquisition as a basis for CALLresearch (Chapelle, 1997, 2001; Salaberry, 1999).

Chapelle (1997, p. 21) sparked debate when she argued that cohesiveresearch agenda required a “perspective on CALL which provides appropriateempirical research methods for investigating the critical questions about howCALL can be used to improve instructed SLA [second language acquisition]”.In Chapelle’s view, cross-disciplinary contributions to empirical CALL researchwere found wanting and published studies had often vaguely describedkey definitions. She identified two key research questions: (1) “What kind oflanguage does a learner engage in during a CALL activity?” and (2) “How goodis the language experience in CALL for L2 learning?” (Chapelle, 1997, p. 22).Essentially, Chapelle sees attempts to answer the first question as descriptive.That is, they provide a basis for decisions creating a syllabus. The secondquestion is evaluative in that it aims to examine the quality of learner lan-guage. Although Chapelle points out that these questions, of course, are notthe only ones that could be explored in the CALL classroom, she concludedher call for a research agenda focused on aspects of instructed SLA.

In reply to Chapelle (1997), Salaberry (1999) argued that SLA theory was toonarrow to support a basis for CALL research, and that work that embraceda sociocultural perspective of learning may be more productive. Salaberrypointed out that a more comprehensive agenda would examine the medium ofpresentation in CALL activities and more closely examine psycholinguisticassumptions, and concluded that “the analysis of computer mediated com-munication, including the analysis of learners’ use of technical componentsthat render CMC possible, deserves to be at the forefront of future researchagenda” (Salaberry, 1999, p. 106).

In the area of educational media research, the dismissal of media comparisonapproaches led to a rise of investigations concerned with “media attributes”(Wetzel, Radtke, & Stern, 1994). Educational media researchers (e.g., Clark,1994; Kozma, 1994) now urge investigators to consider those variables thatcluster around “media” (e.g., speed of presentation, familiarity, editing style,clarity of images, topic). Additionally, researchers need to examine thoseassociated with “method” (e.g., instructor behavior, repeated viewings, lengthof exposure, motivational attitudes) as a way to account for differences inperformance. In a similar vein, Tatsuki (1993) claims that CALL research hasalso suffered because of significant flaws that include exceedingly small samplesizes, a lack of control groups, a tendency to overgeneralize, and a failure tooperationalize key variables. As with Dunkel (1991), Tatsuki (1993) called onresearchers to abandon comparative designs in favor of more “basic research

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into how learners learn language and how specific media affect language learn-ing” (p. 24). Fortunately, such advice has been largely heeded and researchersnow look more closely at how the interactions of computers, learners, andinstructors influence the process of language learning.

In regard to the examination of learner behaviors, or strategies, CALLresearchers need to explore the framework of “constructively responsive”readers set out by Pressley and Afflerbach (1995). This perspective, based onthe underpinnings of cognitive constructivism (for an overview, see Driscoll,2000), regards comprehenders as flexible, concerned with main ideas, and, mostimportantly, responsive to the presentation of textual resources as they attemptto build a coherent macro-structure. There are a number of reasons to advocatethis approach. First, unlike perspectives of learner behavior established oninformation-processing models of cognition (e.g., O’Malley & Chamot, 1990), itstheoretical foundation remains current and defensible in light of the recentconstruction-integration model of comprehension proposed by Kintsch (1998).Secondly, the framework is sufficiently complex to accommodate a wide rangeof interactions with electronic texts that, no doubt, exist. The complexity ofthis framework can help investigators go far beyond the relatively narrowconceptualizations of learner behaviors offered by the three-category “cognitive,metacognitive and social/affective” framework of O’Malley and Chamot (1990).Importantly, as Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) point out, their framework isfar from being “saturated” and thus permits its use as a cornerstone for invest-igations. CALL theorists can proceed with confidence that use of the frameworkdoes not first require justification as a conceptual point of departure.

With these foundations laid, researchers could concentrate on the investiga-tion of specific features of electronic literacy practices. Indeed, Pressley andAfflerbach’s (1995) use of reading literature as the basis for their frameworkaccords with Chun and Plass’ (1997) proposition that reading theory be usedas a basis for multimedia comprehension research. Combined with the currentdrive to integrate constructivist approaches to instructional media design(e.g., Levy, 1999), the common ground shared between constructively respons-ive reading theory and trends in educational software development couldform a strong foundation for continued in-depth research on multimedia textcomprehension.

The need for evaluation of CALL projects and activities is a recurrent themein the literature and has become more urgent as the field expands (Chapelle,2001, p. 26). As Motteram (1999) has observed, CALL researchers appearto have focused on finding ways to justify large investment in computers.Several factors, however, are merging to strengthen CALL evaluation research.Broadly speaking, the increased emphasis on computer-based learning through-out education has produced new tools for analysis, increased funding, andwidened interest.

Work in CALL evaluation, however, is sparse and may require new researchtechniques to better understand how practitioners shape their projects, designmaterials, and go about teaching with computers (Goodfellow, 1999; Levy,


1997). Lynch (2000) provides one example of CALL program evaluation. Basedon evaluative work on network-based classrooms (Bruce, Kreeft-Peyton, &Baston, 1993) and on his own context-adaptive model (Lynch, 1996), Lynch firstestablishes the goals, audiences, and preliminary thematic framework of thePrOCALL project before embarking on an initial data collection system. In thisstudy, data was gathered from a range of sources including classroom documentsand observations, teacher logs and interviews, student focus group sessions,and quality of teaching surveys. He then worked with the project director andteachers to revise evaluation and research goals in a cyclical fashion.

Lynch (2000) organized and coded his data with the help of qualitative dataanalysis software (NUD•IST 4.0, for Non-numerical unstructured data indexingsearching and theorising; 1997). Although Lynch concluded that most studentswere positive about the PrOCALL innovation, he found that some were fru-strated by such an approach to language teaching and learning. A low thresh-old of computer skills and language abilities was a key factor in frustrations.Lynch notes that proponents of integrative CALL must be careful to strikeappropriate balances between those activities which focus on electronicliteracy skills and those which provide opportunities for language learning.Future evaluation efforts, he recommends, should be ongoing and involve allstakeholders connected to the project.

25.4 Discussion

Because of large-scale computer-based tests, student work styles and theincreasingly commonplace use of information technologies, Chapelle (2001)predicts “anyone concerned with second language teaching and learning inthe 21st century needs to grasp the nature of the unique technology-mediatedtasks learners can engage in for language acquisition and how such taskscan be used for assessment” (p. 2). Interpreted broadly, Chapelle’s commentforeshadows a time in the near future when computers will occupy a muchmore central position in applied linguistics.

Clearly, the networked-based and socio-cognitive approaches that markintegrative CALL are here to stay. Mainstream educators have widely examinedsuch learning environments (Jonassen & Land, 2000); CALL specialists need todraw from these experiences and make them relevant to second languagecontexts. Although the interdisciplinary nature of CALL makes it an unwieldyarea of research on occasion, a wider exploration of related literature shouldnonetheless be encouraged. The journal Computer Supported Cooperative Work,for example, contains a number of articles salient to those interested insocio-cognitive aspects of CALL; other journals of interest include Journal of theLearning Sciences, Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Journal of EducationalComputing Research, Journal of Computing in Higher Education, and EducationalTechnology. For those interested in online writing instruction, the journalComputers and Composition is a valuable forum of discussion on issues.

642 Paul Gruba

Notably, integrative CALL practitioners have been at a loss to deal withassessment issues. As Barson (1999, p. 25) observes, there is a “troubling lackof correlation between standard achievement tests and the complex of valuesrequiring assessment and appreciation in self-realization learning.” For theirpart, those who seek to improve CALL pedagogical practices must neces-sarily begin to address assessment concerns, particularly through collectedvolumes of work that focus on specific techniques of instruction. Becauselarge-scale language examinations such as the Test of English as a ForeignLanguage (TOEFL) are now available as computer-based versions, languagetesting specialists will continue to gain insights into the use and implicationsof computers in language assessment (see, for example, Ginther, 2001; Tayloret al., 1998). CALL educators will need to work alongside these language test-ing professionals to develop integrated assessment practices, particularly incases such as web-based testing (Roever, 2001). As Barson (1999) recognizes,there is a major challenge ahead to create classroom-based and teacher-supported instruments that can accurately capture foreign language proficiencyin the context of computer-supported collaborative learning.

Given the increasing centrality of technologies to applied linguistics, it isdisappointing to see recent attempts to define pedagogic tasks (Bygate, Skehan,& Swain, 2001) ignore the role of computers. The absence of technology insuch discussions limits the insights about task design and research solely totraditional classrooms. For their part, advocates of integrative CALL mustestablish guidelines for project-based tasks similar to those which can be foundin mainstream activities (e.g., Jonassen & Land, 2000). Arguably, too, progresscan be made in online TBLT (Task Based Language Teaching) by drawingfrom the field of instructional design, particularly in regard to “task analysisprocedures” (Jonassen, Hannum, & Tessmer, 1999) that could encourageresearchers to think more systematically about the reusability of objects acrossan entire language program.

CALL research both needs to be conducted in a wider variety of organiza-tions and over longer periods of time. All too often, as Levy (2000) points out,investigations are situated in well-resourced tertiary institutions and provideonly a snapshot of complex events. As Corbel (1993) reminds us, however, eachparticular setting has its own peculiar approaches to change management,work styles, institutional culture, and management structures that themselvesall contribute to particular views of educational computer usage.

Finally, as Warschauer (1999; 2000b; 2002) examines the impact of computersbeyond the classroom and begins to unpack the “digital divide,” other CALLresearchers need to be urged to read more widely in areas of social informatics,cyber-cultures, and cultural studies. One notable absence in the framing of“critical applied linguistics” (Pennycook, 2001), for example, was a lack of dis-cussion of the impact of technologies in the field. A stronger critique of tech-nologies could only strengthen CALL and move it further away from a tendencyto paint somewhat troublefree and utopian visions of technology in education.

See also 20 Second Language Learning, 22 Social Influences onLanguage Learning, 23 Literacy Studies.


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FURTHER READING

Bell, D. & Kennedy, B. M. (2000)The cybercultures reader. London:Routledge.

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Documents

The Handbook of Applied Linguistics || Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)