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The English Verb System For ESL Studentswritten by: Heather Marie Kosur • edited by: Rebecca Scudder • updated: 12/2/2013
The following article presents an overview of the English verb system for ESL students including the two tenses, four aspects, three moods, and two voices of English verbs. The article also contains verb charts that visually organize the formation of the English verb forms.
English VerbsUnlike many other widely-spoken Indo-European languages such as Spanish and French, the English verb system is largelyperiphrastic. Periphrasis, in contrast to inflection, is "a phrase of two or more words used to express a grammatical relationship that could otherwise be expressed by the inflection of a single word." All English verb forms except for the simple present and simple past are periphrastic.Although some grammars identify anywhere between twelve and sixteen English tenses, the nineteen finite, or conjugated, verb forms in English express more than just tense. To be more precise, English has:
Two tenses: present and past Four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect-progressive Three moods: indicative, subjunctive, imperative Two voices: active and passiveThe following sections discuss the tenses, aspects, moods, and voices of the English verb system.
TenseTense is the expression of location in time of an action or state. Grammatical tense only roughly relates to time. English has only two verb tenses: present and past. The general formula for forming the simple present tense in English is:
The general formula for forming the simple past tense in English is:
The base form of a verb in English is the infinitive without the preposition to functioning as an infinitive marker.Despite popular belief, English does not have a future tense. Futurity is, instead, expressed through modal verbs, specifically will and shall. For more information on the English modal system, please read the article English Modal Verbs.
AspectAspect is the expression of the temporal structure of an action or state. Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions or states with or without distinct end points. English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect-progressive.
Although not always identified, the simple aspect is the default aspect of the simple present and simple past tenses. The simple aspect expresses single actions, habits, and routines. For the formation of the simple present and simple past verbs, please refer to the charts in the "Tense" section.
The progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states at a specific time. For example, the use of the progressive aspect in I am floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in the past and am still floating the book in the present and presumably the future. The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple
present "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past progressive is [simple past "to be" + present participle].The perfect aspect expresses the consequences resulting from a previous action or state. For example, the use of the perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end result of my floating the book (my having floated the book) as opposed to the process of floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect is [simple present "to have" + past participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect is [simple past "to have" + past participle].The perfect-progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing actions or states that began in the past and continue to a specific time. For example, the use of the perfect-progressive aspect in I had been floating the book indicates that I started floating the book in the past and continued to float the book until a specific point in time at which I stopped floating the book. The formula for forming the present perfect-progressive is [simple present "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect-progressive is [simple past "to have" + past participle "to be" + present participle].Present participles, or -ing forms, are formed by adding the suffix -ing to the base form of a verb. For example, the present participles of eat and read are eating and reading. Past participles, or -en forms, are formed 1.) identically to the -ed past tense, 2.) by adding the suffix -en to the base form, or 3.) with a stem change. For example, the past participles of study,take, and begin are studied, taken, and begun.
MoodMood is the expression of modality of an action or state. Modality is the expression of possibility, necessity, and contingency. Modality can be expressed through modal verbs as well as through grammatical mood in English. English has three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.
The indicative mood allows speakers to express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or strong probability. Most sentences in English are in the indicative mood because the indicative is the most commonly used mood. For example, the statement I read the book and the question Did you read the book? are both sentences in the indicative mood.The subjunctive mood expresses commands, requests, suggestions, wishes, hypotheses, purposes, doubts, and suppositions that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance. The form of the present subjunctive is identical to the base form of English verbs. The form of the past subjunctive is identical to the plural simple past indicative. However, the subjunctive is only distinguishable in form from the indicative in the third person singular present subjunctive and with the verb to be in the present subjunctive and the first and third person singular in the past subjunctive.The imperative mood allows speakers to make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny permission. The form of the English imperative is identical to the base form of any English verb. The negative form of the English imperative is created by inserting the do operator and the negative adverb not before the base form of the verb.
VoiceVoice is the expression of relationships between the predicate and nominal functions. English has two voices: active and passive. In the active voice, the subject performs the action of or acts upon the verb and the direct object receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the transitive verb. For example, the sentence I read the book is in the active voice because the subject I performs the action
of reading and the direct object the book receives the action of reading. The sentence The book was read [by me], on the other hand, is in the passive voice because the subjectThe book receives the action of reading.
Grammatical Mood in English
More Information : grammatical mood, imperative mood, indicative mood, modal verbs, modality, mood,subjunctive mood, verb, verb mood
Grammatical mood is defined as a set of distinctive verb forms that express modality. Modality is the grammaticalized expression of the subjective attitude of the speaker, which includes opinions about possibility, probability, necessity, obligation, permissibility, ability, desire, and contingency. Although modality in English is often expressed through modal verbs, the English language also has three grammatical moods:
1. Indicative mood2. Subjunctive mood3. Imperative mood
Indicative MoodThe first grammatical mood in English is the indicative mood. The indicative mood allows speakers to form sentences that express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or strong probability. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English indicative:
Coal mining is a major industry of Appalachia. Jean Baptiste Pointe DuSable came to Illinois via the Mississippi River. We still need someone to buy ingredients for the punch. Do you know where the old man lives? How much wood does a woodchuck chuck? Has the train arrived?
The indicative mood is the most frequently used grammatical mood in the English language. The majority of sentences, at least in written English, are in the indicative mood.
Subjunctive MoodThe second grammatical mood in English is the subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood allows speakers to form sentences that express commands, requests, suggestions, wishes, hypotheses, purposes, doubts, and suppositions that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English subjunctive:
It is recommended that you be on time. He will let us know if he can arrive early. If I were a rich man, then I would have all the money in the world. My boss insists that the computer be repaired by a licensed contractor. They wish we were able to type faster. Had the man been driving carefully, he would not have crashed into the tree.
The subjunctive mood is only distinguishable from the indicative mood third person singular present subjunctive and in most persons and numbers that require a conjugated
form of the verb to be. However, native speakers often use indicative forms in place of subjunctive forms. The present subjunctive mood also always appears in verb phrases that contain modal verbs.Imperative MoodThe third grammatical mood in English is the imperative mood. The imperative mood allows speakers to form sentences that make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny permission. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English imperative:
Dance like you’ve never danced before! Stop at the corner. Turn right at the courthouse. Eat your vegetables! Party like it’s 1999. Swallow the entire does of medicine.
The imperative mood is also the most frequently used mood in the English language. Both written and spoken commands, directions, and recipes all take the imperative mood of English verbs.
ReferencesHuddleston, Rodney. 1984. Introduction to the grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Imperative Mood of English Verbs
More Information : affirmative imperative, do, do-operator, grammatical mood, imperative mood, mood, negative imperative, not, operator, verb
The imperative mood is one of three grammatical moods in the English language. As a grammatical mood, the imperative expresses modality, which is the grammaticalized expression of the subjective attitudes and opinions of the speaker including possibility, probability, necessity, obligation, permissibility, ability, desire, and contingency. In the English language, the imperative mood is a verb form that allows speakers to make direct commands or requests and grant or deny permission. The following sections explain the formation and use of imperative verbs in the English language that both native English speakers and English language learners must master.Forming Affirmative ImperativesUnlike most conjugated verbs in English, verbs in the imperative mood consist of a single word rather than a phrase of two or more words. Also unlike other English verb forms, the grammatical subject of verbs in the imperative is always the second person singular or plural personal pronoun you. The imperative form of English verbs is identical to the base form (an infinitive without the p-word to functioning as the infinitive marker) of any English verb. For example:
Infinitive – Base – Affirmative Imperative to be – be – be to do – do – do to eat – eat – eat to drink – drink – drink to go – go – go to sleep – sleep – sleep to stay – stay – stay
to stop – stop – stop to study – study – study to wait – wait – wait
The form of the imperative that is identical to the base form of the verb is sometimes referred to as an affirmative or positive imperative. Affirmative imperatives tell someone to do something.
Forming Negative ImperativesUnlike affirmative imperatives, negative imperatives are periphrastic. Periphrasis is a term that means a “phrase of two or more words that perform a single grammatical function that would otherwise be expressed by the inflection of a single word.” Negative imperatives tell someone to not do something. The negative imperative form of English verbs is formed by the present tense form of the verb do followed by the adverbnot and then the affirmative imperative form. For example:
Infinitive – Base – Negative Imperative to be – be – do not be to do – do – do not do to eat – eat – do not eat to drink – drink – do not drink to go – go – do not go to sleep – sleep – do not sleep to stay – stay – do not stay to stop – stop – do not stop to study – study – do not study to wait – wait – do not wait
The do not of a negative imperative is often spoken and sometimes written as the contraction don’t as inDon’t be silly and Don’t sleep too late.Using ImperativesAlthough imperative verbs are often referred to as commands, the imperative mood also occurs in sentences that express the following situations:
Give commands Make requests Grant or deny permission Make offers Apologize Well-wishing
For example:
Be quiet! Open the window please. Go to the movie if you want. Do not take the car out tonight. Come to my party! Excuse me. Have a good day!
The imperative is a grammatical mood in English that expresses direct commands and requests. The form of the imperative mood of English verbs is identical to the base form.
References
Hopper, Paul J. 1999. A short course in grammar. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Kilby, David. 1984. Descriptive syntax and the English verb. Dover, New Hampshire: Croom Helm.Leech, Geoffrey N. 2004. Meaning and the English verb. Harlow, English: Pearson Longman.
Passive voice of imperative sentences (command and request) A sentence which expresses command or request or advice is called imperative sentence.
For example,
Open the door. Turn off the television. Learn your lesson.
For changing these sentences in to passive voice, auxiliary verb “be” is used. The word “Let” is added before sentence in passive voice. Auxiliary verb “be” is added after object in sentence in passive voice. Main verb (base form) of imperative sentence is changed to 3rd form of verb (past participle) in passive voice. For best understand read the following examples.Examples Passive voice of “Imperative Sentences”Active Voice Passive VoiceOpen the door. Let the door be opened.Complete the work. Let the worked be completed.Turn off the television. Let the television be tuned off.Learn your lesson. Let your lesson be learnt.Kill the snake. Let the snake be killed.Punish him. Let him be punished.Speak the truth. Let the truth be spoken.Help the poor. Let the poor be helped.Revise your book. Let your book be revised.Clean your room. Let your room be cleaned.
The Subjunctive Mood of English Verbs
More Information : grammatical mood, modality, mood, subjunctive mood, verb, verb mood
English verbs express three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Grammatical moodis defined as a set of distinctive verb forms that express modality. Modality is the grammaticalized expression of the subjective attitude of the speaker, which includes opinions about possibility, probability, necessity, obligation,
permissibility, ability, desire, and contingency. In the English language, the subjunctive mood expresses commands, doubts, guesses, hypotheses, purposes, requests, suggestions, and wishes that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance.Formation of the Subjunctive MoodThe English language differs from many other Indo-European languages in that subjunctive forms of English verbs closely resemble the corresponding forms of the indicative mood. The English subjunctive is distinguishable in form only from the indicative in the third person singular present tense forms and in forms that require the verb be as the initial auxiliary verb of the verb phrase.The verb phrase patterns for the subjunctive mood in the active voice are as follows:
Simple Present – base Present Progressive – simple present subjunctive be + present participle Present Perfect – simple present subjunctive have + past participle Present Perfect-Progressive – simple present subjunctive have + past participle be +
present participle Simple Past – base(ed), base + stem change (same as simple past indicative) Past Progressive – simple past subjunctive be + present participle Past Perfect – simple past subjunctive have + past participle Past Perfect-Progressive – simple past subjunctive have + past participle be + present
participleThe verb phrase patterns for the subjunctive mood in the passive voice are as follows:
Simple Present – simple present subjunctive be + past participle Present Progressive – simple present subjunctive be + present participle be + past
participle Present Perfect – simple present subjunctive have + past participle be + past participle Present Perfect-Progressive – simple present subjunctive have + past participle be +
present participle be + past participle Simple Past – simple past subjunctive be + past participle Past Progressive – simple past subjunctive be + present participle be + past participle Past Perfect – simple past subjunctive have + past participle be + past participle Past Perfect-Progressive – simple past subjunctive have + past participle be + present
participle be+ past participleThe conjugations of the verb be in the subjunctive mood and active voice are as follows:
Simple Present – be Present Progressive – be being Present Perfect – have been Present Perfect-Progressive – have been being Simple Past – were Past Progressive – were being Past Perfect – had been Past Perfect-Progressive – had been being
As a copular verb, be lacks passive forms. Only transitive verbs, which are verbs that take objects, and verbs with verb phrase complements may be conjugated into the passive voiceThe following chart outlines the verb phrase patterns for the subjunctive mood:
The following chart provides examples of the subjunctive mood for regular verbs, irregular verbs, and the anomalous verb be. The verbs highlighted in blue different completely from the forms of the indicative mood, and the verbs highlighted in green differ from the forms of the indicative mood only in the third person singular. The verbs not highlighted are identical in form in the subjunctive and indicative moods. The copular verb be as well as other copular verbs and some intransitive verbs (usually without verb phrase complements) lack subjunctive passive forms.
For example:
It is recommended that your child bring a coat to the field trip. (active simple present subjunctive)
God save the Queen. (active simple present subjunctive) The church requests that all parishioners be praying at noon tomorrow. (active present
progressive subjunctive)*
It is desirable that he have processed the requests by the end of the week. (active present perfect subjunctive)*
I suggest that you have been reading the assigned chapters ahead of schedule. (active present perfect-progressive subjunctive)*
If I were a boy, I would turn off my phone. (active simple past subjunctive) She would not have yelled at him if he were smiling in his school picture. (active past
progressive subjunctive) Had the bus arrived on time, your grandmother would not have been so angry. (active
past perfect subjunctive) My brother would not have failed his licensing examination if he had not been partying.
(active past perfect-progressive subjunctive)
My boss recommends that the cake be ordered from the pricey bakery. (passive simple present subjunctive)
It is imperative that alcoholic drinks be being drunk only by legal adults at this party. (passive present progressive subjunctive)*
The editor will insist that a reference have been included in the article. (passive present perfect subjunctive)*
The Dean desires that the final report have been being compiled by the staff today. (passive present perfect-progressive subjunctive)
You could lose everything if your house were hit by a tornado. (passive simple past subjunctive)
Were the main hallway being repainted, I would take the long way around to my office. (passive past progressive subjunctive)
If your car had been damaged in the hail storm, you could have filed a claim with your insurance company. (passive past perfect subjunctive)
My garden would have produced more than enough food for the winter had my crops not been being eaten by rabbits and squirrels at night. (passive past perfect-progressive subjunctive)*Although grammatically correct, certain forms of the subjunctive are rarely used in contemporary English.
Negating Subjunctive Verb PhrasesThe negation of the subjunctive mood further differs from the negation of the indicative mood. Negation is the grammatical operation whereby a proposition is replaced by one that states the opposite. An affirmative form expresses the validity or truth of a basic assertion. A negative form expresses the falsity of a basic assertion.To negate a simple form in the indicative mood, insert the operator do and the negative adverb not before the verb. For example:
He studies. (positive) He does not study. (negated) She goes to the movies. (positive) She does not go to the movies. (negated)
To negate a simple form in the subjunctive mood, however, simply insert the negative adverb not before the verb. For example:
The teacher demands that he study. (positive) The teacher demands that he not study. (negated)
It is imperative that she go to the movies. (positive) It is imperative that she not go to the movies. (negated)
Use of the Subjunctive MoodThe subjunctive mood most often appears in if-clauses and following certain verbs and phrases that express possibility, necessity, and contingency. Unlike the indicative mood, the subjunctive mood almost always appears in a subordinate clause. Also referred to as dependent clauses, subordinate clauses are grammatical structures that consist of a subordinating conjunction followed by a subject and a predicatebut that cannot function independently as complete sentences.If-clauses are the first type of subordinate clause in which the subjunctive mood appears. An if-clause is a subordinate clause that begins with the subordinating conjunction if. The subjunctive mood in English most frequently appears in adverb if-clauses because such if-clauses always express possibility, necessity, and contingency. For example:
If I were to cancel, would you be too upset? (subjunctive) If he were a rich man, he would buy himself a huge house in the hills. (subjunctive) You would have passed the test if you had studied. (subjunctive)
However, not all if-clauses contain subjunctive forms. Noun if-clauses some adverb if-clauses contain indicative forms. For example:
I do not care if he comes or not. (indicative) If she attends college is up to her. (indicative) If it rains, the picnic will be postponed. (indicative)
The main difference between subjunctive if-clauses and indicative if-clauses is that the subject and verb may invert in subjunctive if-clauses. For example:
If I were to cancel, would you be too upset? (subjunctive) Were I to cancel, would you be too upset? (subjunctive) You would have passed the test if you had studied. (subjunctive) You would have passed the test had you studied. (subjunctive)
I do not care if he comes or not. (indicative) *I do not care comes he or not. (incorrect) If it rains, the picnic will be postponed. (indicative) *Rains it, the picnic will be postponed. (incorrect)
In addition to appearing in if-clauses, the subjunctive mood also follows certain verbs and phrases that express possibility, necessity, and contingency. For example, some of the most common verbs that take the subjunctive mood in the noun clause that follows the verb include the following:
advise that ask that command that demand that desire that insist that propose that recommend that request that suggest that urge that wish that
Some of the most common English phrases that also take the subjunctive mood in the noun clause that follows the phrase include:
It is best that It is crucial that It is desirable that It is essential that It is imperative that It is important that It is necessary that It is recommended that It is urgent that It is vital that It is a good idea that It is a bad idea that
Decline of the Subjunctive in Modern EnglishUnlike in other many other modern Indo-European languages, modern English is quickly losing distinct verb forms in the subjunctive mood. For example, consider the following English song lyrics:
If I were a boy, even just for one day, I’d roll out of bed in the morning and throw on what I wanted and go drink beer with the guys. (Beyoncé)
If I were a carpenter and you were a lady, would you marry me anyway, would you have my baby? (Johnny Cash)
If I was a rich girl, see, I’d have all the money in the world, if I was a wealthy girl. (Gwen Stefani)
If I was a sailor, I would sail you out to sea, take you across the ocean, ask you to marry me. (Young Rebel Set)In the first two examples, Beyoncé and Johnny Cash use the subjunctive form of the verb be in the if-clauses If I were a boy, If I were a carpenter, and if you were a lady. In the second two examples, Gwen Stefani and Young Rebel Set use the indicative form of the verb be in the if-clauses If I was a rich girl, if I was a wealthy girl, and If I was a sailor. However, in all four cases, the if-clauses express contingency regardless of the form of the verb. Modern English speakers often use indicative forms with subjunctive meanings within if-clauses and especially with the verb be within if-clauses.Modern English speakers similarly use other indicative forms to express the subjunctive mood. For example, consider the following sentences:
I recommend that he wash his hands after handling the turtle. I recommend that he washes his hands after handling the turtle. It is important that she arrive on time for her job interview. It is important that she arrives on time for her job interview.
In all four examples, the that-clauses express subjunctivity. In the first and third sentences, the verbs washand arrive take subjunctive forms. In the second and fourth sentences, the verbs take indicative forms but still express subjunctive meanings. The decline of the subjunctive in English is even more apparent and inevitable when considering the fact that about half of the subjunctive forms are already identical to the indicative forms. The subjunctive had been walking is indistinguishable in form from the indicative had been walking. In fact, the use of subjunctive forms is only required in the most formal registers of English usage. Language change is inevitable, and all distinct subjunctive forms may soon disappear from the English language.
The subjunctive mood of English verbs expresses commands, doubts, guesses, hypotheses, purposes, requests, suggestions, and wishes that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance. Verbs conjugated into the subjunctive are distinguishable in form only from the indicative in the third person singular present tense forms and in forms that require the verb be as the initial auxiliary verb of the verb phrase.
ReferencesBrinton, Laurel J. & Donna M. Brinton. 2010. The linguistic structure of Modern English, 2nd edn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Hopper, Paul J. 1999. A short course in grammar. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Huddleston, Rodney. 1984. Introduction to the grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gramatical Moods in English
Grammatical moods in English
Mood
In this use The "mood" does not mean mental, state of mind or feeling.
It is alteration of mode. (Mood is sometimes referred to as "mode" instead.)
Definition:
Grammatical mood is the quality of a verb that conveys the writer's attitude toward a subject.
In linguistics, many grammars have the concept of grammatical mood, which describes the relationship of a verb with reality and intent.
Many languages express distinctions of mood through morphology, by changing (inflecting) the form of the verb.
A verb phrase can also express mood, which refers to the "factual or non-factual status of events."
It is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality.
It is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although these concepts are conflated to some degree in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages, insofar as the same word patterns are used to express more than one of these concepts at the same time.
There are three moods in English
•Indicative mood•Imperative mood•Subjunctive mood
Realis mood
Realis moods are a category of grammatical moods that indicate that something is actually the case or actually not the case.
The most common realis mood is the indicative mood. Some languages have a distinct generic mood for expressing general truths.
Indicative mood
The indicative mood, (evidential mood), is used for factual statements and positive beliefs.
All intentions that a particular language does not categorize as another mood are classified as indicative. In English, questions are considered indicative. It is the most commonly used mood and is found in all languages.
Example
・John was born in London.
There is ample evidence to support this statement, so the writer uses the indicative mood to state it as fact.
・Was John born in London?
This verb asks a question and so is in the indicative mood.
・She believes her physician is well qualified.
Whether "she" is correct or not, the verb "is" indicates that "she believes" her statement to be true. The verb "believes" is in the indicative mood, because the writer of the sentence is reporting what she talks to be fact.
・Is her physician at her beside?
The verb "is" is in the indicative mood because it asks a question.
Points
The indicative mood is for statements of actuality or strong probability:
Example
·The spine-tailed swift flies faster than any other bird in the world.·The Missouri and Mississippi Rivers rose to record heights in 1993.·Midwesterners will remember the flooding for many years to come.·One may use "do", "does", or "did" with the indicative for emphasis.
Present indicative:
・ Joey laughs on television.
Past indicative:
・ Joey laughed on television.
Future indicative:
・ Joey will laugh on television tomorrow.
Generic mood
The generic mood, in linguistics, is a mood used to make generalized comments about a class of thing.
In English, generic verbs are not morphologically distinct from indicative . In most cases, generic statements can only be recognized by context and linguistic experience.
Declarative mood
The declarative mood indicates that the statement is true , without any qualifications being made.
It is in many languages equivalent to the indicative mood, although sometimes distinctions between them are drawn. It is closely related with the inferential mood.
Irrealis mood
Irrealis moods are the set of grammatical moods that indicate that something is not actually the case .
Simply put, they are any verb or sentence mood that are not realis moods. They may be part of expressions of necessity, possibility, requirement, wish or desire, fear, or as part of counterfactual reasonings, etc.
Points
・ Necessity・ Possibility・ Requirement・ Wish or Desire・ Fear・Part of counterfactual reasonings, etc.
Irrealis verb forms are used when speaking of an event which has not happened, is not likely to happen, or is otherwise far removed from the real course of events.
For example, in the sentence"If you had done your homework, you wouldn't have failed the class",
had done is an irrealis verb form.
Imperative mood
The imperative mood expresses direct commands or requests as a grammatical mood.
Example
·Leave the room!·Call an ambulance!·Let them die!·Get up!·Look it up!·Just do it!
These commands or requests tell the audience to act a certain way. It also may signal a prohibition,permission, or any other kind of exhortation.
Points
・ Command・ Urgent demand・ Request・Prohibition
NOTE:Using the imperative mood may sound blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care.
Morphology
Formulation of the English imperative simply uses the bare infinitive form of the verb.
The infinitive form usually corresponds to the second-person present indicative form, with the exception of the verb " be ". The subject of these sentences can only identify as you (the second person).
Example
·Come here.·Stop!·Eat!·Have a nice day!·Don't go!·Let me free!
Usage
Easily, the use of imperative mood has consequences of appearing offensive or inappropriate in social situations due to universally recognized politeness rules .
Therefore, there exist common practices to formulate exhortations indirectly as questions or assertions, such as the following:
・ Could you come here for a moment?・I beg you to stop.
and not as commands, such as:
・ Come here.・Stop!
Politeness strategies (for instance, indirect speech acts) can seem more appropriate in order not to threaten a conversational partner in their needs of self-determination and territory: the partner's negative face should not appear threatened.
As a result, to express a request or prohibition does not necessarily require to use the imperative mood frequently.
The imperative mood's appropriateness depends on such factors as psychological and social relationships, as well as the speaker’s basic communicative intention (illocutionary force).
For example, the speaker may have the simple intention to offer something, to wish or permit something, or just to apologize, and not to manipulate their conversational partner.
In such cases, people will not place restriction on the use of imperative:
・ Come to the party tomorrow!・ Just smoke the cigarette if you want!・Have a nice trip!
Indicative and prohibitive mood
The prohibitive mood negates the imperative mood. The two moods often seem different in word order or in morphology.
Subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood is a verb mood typically used in dependent clauses to express a wish,emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or action that has not yet occurred
It is sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood, as it often follows a conjunction.
The details of subjunctive use vary from language to language.
Points
・ Wish・ Emotion・ Possibility・ Judgment・ Opinion・ Necessity・Action that has not yet occurred.
The subjunctive mood appears in relatively few constructions.
It is used most often to express conditions contrary to fact and to express wishes, suppositions, and doubts. The subjunctive appears most often in formal writing and in the speech of educated persons.
The indicative mood almost always replaces the subjunctive mood in informal writing and everyday speech.
Example
・I wish my father were still alive.
This is a wish, so "were" is in the subjunctive mood.
・Suppose he were still alive, would he favor that action?
The verb "were" is in the subjunctive mood because "suppose he were still alive" is a supposition.
・If this be treason, make the most of it!
The speaker firmly believes he or she is not guilty of treason, but there may be doubt in the minds of others. The subjunctive "be" express this doubt.
・ If Helen Wills Moody were representing us at Wimbledon today, victory would be ours.
The conjunction "If" introduces a conditional statement. Since Helen Wills Moody is not alive to represent us at Wimbledon, the condition is contrary to fact. The verb "were representing" indicates that this condition is contrary to fact.
Form
In modern English, most verb tenses in the Subjunctive Mood are similar or identical to the corresponding tenses in the Indicative Mood. It should be noted that verbs in the Subjunctive Mooddo not modify, but have the same form regardless of the subject.
The Simple Present Subjunctive and Simple Past Subjunctive of the verb "to be" are shown below. The Indicative forms are also given, for purposes of comparison.
Were vs. Was
We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he would tell you". Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was.
But the "if I were you" structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb " to be " .
It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after:
・ if・ as if・ wish・ suppose
Formal⇒The "were" form is correct at all times.Informal⇒The "was" form is possible in informal, familiar conversation.
NOTE:We do not normally say "if I was you", even in familiar conversation.
For any verb, the Simple Present Subjunctive is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb.
For any verb except the verb "to be", the Simple Past Subjunctive is identical to the Simple Past Indicative.
For all of the past and present tenses conjugated with auxiliaries, the Subjunctive tenses are formedin the same way as the Indicative tenses, except that the Subjunctive of the auxiliaries is used.
Future subjunctive
A future subjunctive can be constructed using the conjugated form of the verb "to be" plus theinfinitive or with the usage of the modal auxiliary verb " should ".
Note that the "were" clauses are followed by the present conditional (" would ") , while the "should" clauses are followed by the future indicative (" will ") .
Example
・ If I were to die tomorrow, then you would inherit everything.・ If you were to give the money to me, then I would say no more about it.・ If I should go, then will you feed the hens? [or If I/he go...]・If he should fall, who will carry the flag in his place? [or If he fall...]
NOTE:The subjunctive does not change according to person.(I, you, he, she, it, we, they )
・ It is a good idea that you be a fastidious grammar student.(active simple present subjunctive)
・ The boss desires that all employees beworking when she returns.(active present progressive subjunctive)
・ It is desirable that she have included references in the report.(active present perfect subjunctive)
・The parents demand that the child have been cleaning his room for at least an hour before watching television.(active present perfect-progressive subjunctive)
・ If I were a rich girl, I would be very lucky indeed.(active simple past subjunctive)
・ The teacher would not have to punish the entire class if the break monitor were behaving.(active past progressive subjunctive)
・ If I had eaten all the cookies, then ants would not have gotten into my kitchen.(active past perfect subjunctive)
・ Had the boy been studying as he said, he would not have failed the test.(active past perfect-progressive subjunctive)
Example
・ The executives insist that the copier be repaired by a trained technician.(passive simple present subjunctive)
・ It is imperative that alcoholic drinks be being drunk by only adults at this party.(passive present progressive subjunctive)
・ It is essential that references have been included in the report.
(passive present perfect subjunctive)
・ The committee asks that the final report have been being compiled by the staff today.(passive present perfect-progressive subjunctive)
・Were your car damaged by an uninsured motorist, then you could sue for damages.(passive simple past subjunctive)
・ If the driveway were being resealed, then I would park on the road.(passive past progressive subjunctive)
・ Had your windows been destroyed by the storm, then you could have filed an insurance claim.(passive past perfect subjunctive)
・ If the pumpkins had not been being stolen, then we would have had dozens.(passive past perfect-progressive subjunctive)
NOTE:The verb "be" and similar intransitive verbs (copula) do not have subjunctive passive forms.
Usage
To express a formal request, or suggestion
Content clauses expressing commands, requests, or suggestions commonly use the present subjunctive in US English, but this usage is now very rare in speech and rare in writing in UK English.
Such clauses may be introduced by a verb like propose, suggest, recommend, move (in the parliamentary sense), demand, or mandate, by an adjective like imperative, important, adamant, ornecessary, or by a noun like insistence or proposal.
Sentence that express suggestions or requirements with verbs such as those listed below often require the subjunctive mood.
Sentences beginning with expressions such as those listed below may also signal the need for the subjunctive mood.
When writing in the subjunctive mood, the verb in the dependent clause -the clause introduced by the word "that"- is always in the base form.
For example, use "be" (not am, is, or are) for all three persons (first, second, and third)
Example
・ I insist that I be allowed to ride in the ambulance with my baby.(not "am")
・ I recommend that he be sentenced to life in prison.
(not "is")
・ We require that you be certified as first responders at the operational level.(not "are")
Other verbs are also written in the base form. even when the subject is third person singular.
Example
・ The doctor suggested that Bruce try physical therapy before considering surgery.(not "tries")
・ It is important that Judy document the injury as soon as possible.(not "documents")
・ It is required that the hotel post emergency procedures information in the guest rooms.(not "posts")
The Simple Present Subjunctive is more commonly used in formal English than in informal English.
For instance, the sentence "He advises that you not be late," is an example of formal English.
In informal English, the same idea would probably be expressed by the sentence "He advises you not to be late," in which the infinitive is used, rather than a clause requiring the Simple Present Subjunctive.
Points
The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in English, whereshould + infinitive is often used:
・ The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night.・It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible.
To express a wish
The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, are used in the subordinate
clauses of sentences which use the verb to wish in the main clause.
Example
・ I wish he were here.・ I would that my Lord forgive me one day.・ He would that his master not be so cruel.・ I would that the subjunctive be restored to glory.・ He wishes that he were rich.・ They wish that they had studied harder when they were young.・She wishes that you would come to the meeting tomorrow.
NOTE:It should be noted that the word "that" can be omitted from a sentence which uses the verb "to wish" in the main clause.
However, after the construction "would" that to express wishful hypothesis rather than condition, it seems that either past or present subjunctive could be used, depending on whether the hypothetical situation "were" completely abstract and not imminent (present) or potentially realizable (past).
Example
・ I repent; I would that my Lord forgave me.・ In humble request, he would that his master were not so cruel.・Fellow editors, I would that the subjunctive were restored to glory.
The form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause.
As explained below, the form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is determined by whether the time of the action referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than, the same as, or later than the time of the action referred to in the main clause .
1.An earlier time
When the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause, the Past Perfect Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause.
Example
・ We wished he had spoken to us.・ I wish you had called earlier.・They will wish they had listened to us sooner.
In the case of a progressive, ongoing action, the Past Perfect Progressive Subjunctive may be used instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive.
Example
・She wishes she had been staying with us last week.
In each of these examples, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive or the Past Perfect Progressive Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause.
2.The same time
When the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause, the Simple Past Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause. Example
・ When she was at the party, she wished she were at home.・ Now that he is in China, he wishes he understood Chinese.・When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us.
In the case of a progressive, ongoing action, the Past progressive Subjunctive may be used instead of the Simple Past Subjunctive.
Example
・They wish they were traveling now.
In each of these examples, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive or the Past Progressive Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to the same time
as the main clause.
3.A later time
When the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary "would" is usually used in the subordinate clause.
Example
・ You wished she would arrive the next day.・ I wish she would change her mind.・He will wish we would join him the following week.
In each of these examples, the use of the Simple conjugation with "would" indicates that the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause.
4.Use of the auxiliary "Could" in expressing wishes
It should be noted that the modal auxiliary "could" can also be used in the subordinate clause of a sentence expressing a wish.
The auxiliary could forms conjugations in the same way as the auxiliary "would".
Example
・ I wish I could help you tomorrow.・I wish I could help you now.
The Simple conjugation with could may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is later than, or the same as, the time referred to in the main clause.
The Perfect conjugation with "could" may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than the time referred to in the main clause.
Example
・ I wish I could have helped you yesterday.
To express a purpose
The conjunction "lest", indicating a negative purpose, generally introduces a subjunctive clause:
Example
・ I eat lest I die.・I will place the book back on the shelf, lest it get lost.
The conjunction "in order that", indicating a positive purpose, also sometimes introduces a subjunctive clause, though it more commonly introduces a clause using the auxiliary verb "may" (or in the subjunctive, "might"):
Example
・ I am putting your dinner in the oven in order that it (may) keep warm.・He wrote it in his diary in order that he (might) remember.
To express a doubt or supposition
The subjunctive is sometimes used after other conjunctions to express doubt or supposition, althoughthis usage is nowadays more often replaced by the indicative.
Example
・ I will not let thee go, except [=unless] thou bless me.・ Murder, though it have no tongue, will speak.・ Whoever he be, he shall not go unpunished.・ But [=although] he were dead, yet shall he live.・ If I be found guilty, I shall be given the maximum punishment.・ I won't do it unless [or until] I be told to do it.・Whether he vote for this or not (If he vote for it or if he not vote for it), we must proceed with the plan.
・ I want you to give this money to him so that he have enough for lunch.(the conjunction "so that" takes a subjunctive in formal English)
To express a hypothesis
Conditional mood
The conditional mood is the form of the verb used in conditional sentences to refer to ahypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event that is contingent on another set of circumstances.
This mood is thus similar to the subjunctive mood, although languages that have distinct verb forms for the two use them in distinct ways.
Subjunctive vs conditional
This is a fairly complex topic and even the experts disagree on the nuances. The web has vast amounts of information on the formation and use of the conditional/subjunctive, the decline of the subjunctive in English, and provides many examples.
The conditional mood involves statements in which the results or outcome are contingent (depend) on a given situation or condition , including, like the subjunctive, hypothetical situations.
The certainty of the outcome can vary from absolutely certain (not always considered the "true" conditional) through generally, potentially, and rarely certain to contrary to fact (the unreal conditional).
Example
・ If you take LSD you start to hallucinate. (Certain)・ When I feed my dog, he usually bites me. (Generally certain)・ If he were to arrive right now, we might have a chance to see him. (Hypothetical/uncertain).・If I made lots of money, I would invest in gold (Contrary to fact).
The subjunctive mood treats statements of emotion, wishing, uncertainty, and contrary to fact/hypothetical situations:
Example
・ I wish he were dead!・ May you always be prosperous!・ I wish I were in Figi, it is too cold here.・Would that it were true!
There is a link between the conditional and subjunctive: in an unreal present conditional statement (one hypothetical or contrary to fact), the main clause (the result) is in the conditional while the subordinate clause (the condition) is in the subjunctive:
Example
・I would have more fun in Berlin if I spoke German. (I don't speak German).
Reduction in the usage of the subjunctive
In some dialects of English, the indicative has taken the place of the subjunctive, although this is considered erroneous by some in formal speech and writing. The similarity of the subjunctive and the past tense has led to the confusion between the two, and the error is evident in various pop culture references and music lyrics.
Example
・ If I was President...・ If he was a ghost...・If I was a rich girl...
This reduction of usage is not uniform; compare:
Example
・ If I Were a Carpenter, a song written by Tim Hardin・If I Were a Boy, a song written by Toby Gad and BC Jean and recorded by singer Beyoncé Knowles in 2008.
However, in the context of the examples above, inversion cannot occur with the indicative as it would with the subjunctive; the following are ungrammatical, except insofar as they could be misinterpreted as questions:
Example
・ Was I the President...・Was he a ghost...
Furthermore, many of the fossil phrases are often re-analyzed as imperative forms rather than as the subjunctive. The subjunctive is not uniform in all varieties of spoken English. However, it is preserved in speech, at least in North American English and in many dialects of British English.
Some dialects replace it with the indicative or construct it using a modal verb, except perhaps in the most formal literary discourse. According to the Random House College Dictionary, "Although the subjunctive seems to be disappearing from the speech of many, its use is still the mark of the educated speaker."
Welcome to the Purdue OWL
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Contributors:Purdue OWL.Summary:
This handout provides a detailed overview (including descriptions and examples) of gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.) The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been
removed.)
Gerund as direct object:
They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.) They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)
Gerund as subject complement:
My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.) My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)
Gerund as object of preposition:
The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.) The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.)
A gerund phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.
Finding (gerund)a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)offering (gerund)you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents.
jabbering away to (gerund)his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
faking (gerund)an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
Being (gerund)the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)
Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.
Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.
Contributors:Purdue OWL.Summary:
This handout provides a detailed overview (including descriptions and examples) of gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n, or -ne as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, seen, and gone.
The crying baby had a wet diaper. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car. The burning log fell off the fire. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.Removing (participle)his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.walking (participle)along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Children interested in music early develop strong intellectual skills.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.interested (in) (participle)music (direct object of action expressed in participle)early (adverb)
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.Having been (participle)a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. * Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep. The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award. The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to remember
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n, or -ne (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they
modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:
o a) comes at the beginning of a sentenceo b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential elemento c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
Contributors:Purdue OWL.Summary:
This handout provides a detailed overview (including descriptions and examples) of gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject) Everyone wanted to go. (direct object) His ambition is to fly. (subject complement) He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) We must study to learn. (adverb)
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of to plus a verb—with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.
Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this
address
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:
We intended to leave early.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.to leave (infinitive)early (adverb)
I have a paper to write before class.
The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper.to write (infinitive)before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Phil agreed to give me a ride.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.to give (infinitive)me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
They asked me to bring some food.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)to bring (infinitive)some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)to be (infinitive)the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive)of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)
Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the wordsubject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.
Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:
agree begin continue decide
fail hesitate hope intend
learn neglect offer plan
prefer pretend promise refuse
remember start try
Examples:
Most students plan to study. We began to learn. They offered to pay. They neglected to pay. She promised to return.
In all of these examples no actor can come between the italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:
advise allow convince remind
encourage force hire teach
instruct invite permit tell
implore incite appoint order
Examples:
He reminded me to buy milk. Their fathers advise them to study. She forced the defendant to admit the truth. You've convinced the director of the program to change her position. I invite you to consider the evidence.
In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Verbs that use either pattern:
ask expect (would) like want need
Examples:
I asked to see the records. I asked him to show me the records. Trent expected his group to win. Trent expected to win. Brenda likes to drive fast. Brenda likes her friend to drive fast.
In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.
Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar. To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.
Points to remember
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.
Split infinitives
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.
Examples:
I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)
Contributors:Purdue OWL.Summary:
This handout provides a detailed overview (including descriptions and examples) of gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
Comparing Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is precisely indicated as the cause of the speaker's irritation. In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who just happens to have been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a participle, not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.
The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of each pair, a gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle change in meaning between the two sentences in each pair.
Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was extraordinary.)The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was extraordinary, demonstrating the technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not impress him.)He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as they competed.)
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.* (Ambiguous: who is running and laughing?)
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives
The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the following lists:
Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream
Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but infinitives often also serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in many situations, especially for people whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still others can take either. Many such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.
Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects
agree decide expect hesitate
learn need promise neglect
hope want plan attempt
propose intend pretend
Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)
He promised to go on a diet.(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
They agreed to sign the treaty.(not: They agreed signing the treaty.*)
Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking.*)
They will attempt to resuscitate the victim(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*)
Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects
deny risk delay consider
can't help keep give up be fond of
finish quit put off practice
postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit)
regret enjoy keep (on) dislike
admit avoid recall mind
miss detest appreciate recommend
get/be through get/be tired of get/be accustomed to get/be used to
Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)
I recall asking her that question.(not: I recall to ask her that question.*)
She put off buying a new jacket.(not: She put off to buy a new jacket.*)
Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*)
Charles keeps calling her.(not: Charles keeps to call her.*)
Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects
start begin continue hate
prefer like love try
remember
Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.She has continued working at the store.
They like to go to the movies.They like going to the movies.
Brent started to walk home.Brent started walking home.
Forget and remember
These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the object.
Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime later.)
Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)
Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered sometime later.)
In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive gerund form having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible confusion.
Sense verbs that take an object plus a gerund or a simple verb
Certain sense verbs take an object followed by either a gerund or a simple verb (infinitive form minus the word to). With many of the verbs that follow the object, the use of the gerund indicates continuous action while the use of the simple verb indicates a one-time action. Still, sometimes the simple verb can indicate continuous action if one-time action wouldn't make sense in the context.
feel hear notice watch
see smell observe
Examples:
We watched him playing basketball. (continuous action)We watched him play basketball. (continuous action)
I felt my heart pumping vigorously. (continuous action)I felt my heart pump vigorously. (continuous action)
She saw them jumping on the bed. (continuous action)She saw them jump on the bed. (one-time action)
Tom heard the victim shouting for help. (continuous action)Tom heard the victim shout for help. (one-time action)
The detective noticed the suspect biting his nails. (continuous action)The detective noticed the suspect bite his nails. (one-time action)
We could smell the pie baking in the kitchen. (continuous action)We could smell the pie bake in the kitchen. (continuous action)
Sometimes the simple-verb version might seem unconventional, so it's safer in most cases to use the gerund version.
