The English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China: Its Evolution from 1949

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Evolution from 1949The English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China: Its

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Article

The English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China:

Its Evolution from 1949 Wenfeng Wang The University of Hong Kong [email protected] Agnes S.L. Lam The University of Hong Kong [email protected] Abstract ■ This article traces the evolution of the English language curriculum for senior secondary school in China from 1949 against the background of national developments in China. The latest English language curriculum (2003) is then introduced and discussed in comparison with the 1993 syllabus. The comparison suggests that the 2003 curriculum recognizes the humanistic value of English as a foreign language in fostering students’ cognitive and personal growth beyond its traditional instrumental value in providing access to scientific knowledge and economic development. This calls for a concomitant fundamental change in teachers with its associated difficulties for teachers in curricular implementation and the need for new teacher development programmes. Keywords ■ China, English language curriculum, senior secondary school. The English Language Curriculum Guidelines for Senior Secondary School, with the approval from Ministry of Education (MOE) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), was published by People’s Education Press in April 2003. It serves as an authoritative document defining a new set of objectives, prescribing the content to be covered, recommending teaching methods and assessment measures, and outlining the outcomes to be achieved on the English course (Dubin and Olshtain 1986: 34; Richards 2001: 2). Three sets of textbooks to support the curriculum have also been

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66 Regional Language Centre Journal 40.1

compiled and published. The piloting of the new curriculum began in September 2004 in four provinces in China. This is a major development in English language education in China at the senior secondary level. This article attempts to chart the evolution of the English language curriculum for senior secondary school since the establishment of the PRC in 1949 in relation to national developments in China. The 2003 curriculum is intro-duced and discussed in detail with reference to the 1993 English language syllabus as that was the most widely implemented syllabus prior to the present one. Possible difficulties for teachers to implement the curriculum are also identified and addressed in this article.

Evolution of the English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China from 1949

Foreign language education at all levels in China has reflected the changes of the socio-political climate in China over time (Adamson 2002, 2004; Adamson and Morris 1997; Cortazzi and Jin 1996; Hildebrandt and Liu 1991; Jin and Cortazzi 2006; Lam 2002, 2005, 2007; Ross 1993; Xu 1990). In research (for example, Scovel 1995) tracing the development of foreign language education in China, three periods are normally recognized: the first period (1949–65), the second period (1966–76) and the third period (from 1977 onwards). This division is a historical recognition of the upheaval caused by the Cultural Revolution (the second period) between the first and third periods (Lam 2002: 245). Within this broad division, finer distinctions have been made by Lam (2002: 246) (see Table 1).

Table 1. Six Phases in Foreign Language Education in China Historical Period Phases in Foreign Language Education Years

The interlude with Russian Early 1950s Before the Cultural Revolution

The back-to-English movement 1957–1965

Repudiation of foreign learning 1966–1970 During the Cultural Revolution

English for renewing ties with the West 1971–1976

English for modernization 1977–1990 After the Cultural Revolution

English for international stature From 1991



67 The English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China

This article first reviews the six phases in foreign language education in China with special reference to the English language curriculum for senior secondary school from 1949. Appendix 1 presents a correspondence be-tween the six phases and the year of publication of the English language syllabus/curriculum for senior secondary school in China. Early 1950s: The Interlude with Russian At the initial stage after the establishment of the PRC, national priority was given to nation building. During this period, China was looking to the Soviet Union for aid in economic development, friendly relations with the United States being not possible owing to American support for the Nationalist Party (Adamson 2004: 36). Though English was taught as a school subject, it was not accorded importance; for example, there was no description of the role of English and the purpose for having an English course in the 1951 Putong Zhongxue Yingyu Kecheng Biaozhun Caoan [The Draft of the English Language Curriculum Guidelines for Ordinary Secondary School]. On 28 April 1954, the MOE announced that all for-eign language teaching except Russian would be halted in secondary schools in order to lighten the learning burden on students (Tang and Gao 2001: 2). However, China’s dream of finding an ally in the Soviet Union was not realized because the Soviet Union did not treat China as an equal and did not provide the aid in the manner as promised (Lam 2002: 246; Lynch 1998: 115). As Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated in the late 1950s, the teaching of other foreign languages, especially English, resumed in the school curriculum. In the 1956 Gaoji Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Senior Secondary School], English was described as:

an important tool for acquiring knowledge in science and technology in the world and for communicating with the world. A foreign language course can help young people acquire education in socialism and enable them to learn more about their mother tongue, develop their thinking ability and broaden their perception. (Translated from Ministry of Edu-cation, 1956, p. 1 [italics added].)

1957–1965: The Back-to-English Movement Meanwhile, industrial expansion in the mid-1950s reawakened the official interest in English as a valuable language of science and technology to connect China with the Western economy (Adamson 2002: 167; Lam 2002: 246). English began to replace Russian in educational prominence.




In the 1963 Quanrizhi Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Lan-guage Syllabus for Full-time Secondary School], English was described as

an important tool for acquiring cultural and scientific knowledge, for conducting international communication and cultural exchange and developing a better understanding among peoples in the world. A good mastery of English can help China learn science and technology for our socialist construction; can help share our experience with friendly nations and help strengthen the relationship between peoples in the combat against imperialism. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 1963, p. 1 [italics added].)

1966–1970: Repudiation of Foreign Learning The development of English as the most important foreign language in China would have been phenomenal at that point, if not for the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. During the first half of this revolution, the teaching of English was not possible, as the learning of anything foreign was categorically repudiated as unpatriotic (Lam 2002: 246). 1971–1976: English for Renewing Ties with the West In 1971, the United States formally recognized China as a member of the United Nations and further diplomatic talks between Zhou Enlai and Henry Kissinger brought the two countries closer. In February 1972, Richard Nixon, as President of the United States, visited China and this historic visit enhanced Sino-American dialogue leading to commercial, cultural and educational exchange (Lam 2002: 246). Though English teaching during this period was being revived, there was no syllabus authorized by the MOE and each province issued its own syllabus and textbooks, most of which were considered to be politicized (Adamson 2004: 127). 1977–1990: English for Modernization After the Cultural Revolution ended, the fifth phase was one of recovery in all areas of national development. In 1978, Deng Xiaoping’s Policy of Four Modernizations to modernize agriculture, industry, science as well as technology and defence was announced. This policy soon evolved into the Reform and Opening Policy, which made it crucial for the Chinese to learn foreign languages, especially English (Lam 2002: 246). In the 1980 Quanrizhi Shinianzhi Zhongxiaoxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Full-time Ten-year Primary and Secondary School], it was stated that




‘Red and expert’ people with a good English proficiency are needed for the enhancement of the national scientific and cultural standards, for the modernization of China, and for the building of a strong socialist country. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 1980, p. 1 [italics added].)

The role ascribed to English underwent a subtle change in the 1986 Quanrizhi Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Full-time Secondary School] with a focus on economic development and no longer adherence to ‘red’ (meaning ‘communist’) ideology. This change was incorporated more fully in the 1990 Quanrizhi Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Full-time Secondary School].

For the purpose of meeting the needs of our Open Door Policy and speeding up the socialist modernizations, and meeting the call of ‘Edu-cation should face modernization, the world and future’, efforts should be made to enable as many people as possible with ideals, morality, knowledge and self-discipline to acquire certain competence in one or more foreign languages. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 1990, p. 1 [italics added].)

From 1991: English for International Stature Although the Open Door policy won tremendous international goodwill for China in the 1980s, this amity diminished after the 1989 Tiananmen Incident. But when the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991, the balance of power in the global arena made it possible for China to adopt a more international orientation again (Lam 2002: 246). This was articulated, for example, in China’s endeavour to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) and Beijing’s bid to host the 2008 Olympic Games, both of which were successful. Such an international outlook requires further openness to foreign learning (Lam 2002: 246). Throughout the 1990s, syllabi and materials from primary school to adult education were designed or revised. The 1993 Quanrizhi Gaoji Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Full-time Senior Secondary School] emphasized students’ communicative competence, independent learning ability and the use of English, as stated in the course objectives:

The English course aims to consolidate and enrich students’ basic lin-guistic knowledge, and develop basic skills (listening, speaking, read-ing and writing); to develop students’ elementary competence in oral and written communication with English, with a focus on reading ability;




to help students develop independent learning ability and lay a solid foundation for further learning and use of English. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 1993, p. 1 [italics added].)

The Communicative Approach was adopted for the first time in the history of English language education in China (Adamson 2001; Liao 2001). The 2000 Quanrizhi Putong Gaoji Zhongxue Yingyu Jiaoxue Dagang [English Language Syllabus for Full-time Ordinary Senior Secondary School] already recognized the contribution of English language learning in the development of citizenship. It was stated in the syllabus that:

The learning and mastery of a foreign language for international ex-change is a basic requirement for a citizen in the 21st century. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 2000, p. 1 [italics added].)

Though the 2000 syllabus was only implemented in parts of China and soon replaced by the more fully developed 2003 curriculum guidelines, its transitional role in the overall development of English language education in China cannot be ignored. With China’s joining the WTO in 2001, the awarding of the 2008 Olympic Games to Beijing, and the use of English as a medium of instruction, albeit only to a sporadic degree, in some programmes in colleges and universities, the importance of English as a global language can only be further enhanced in both educational policies and practices in China (Nunan 2003). The use of English is also somewhat more visible in the everyday life of more Chinese people, particularly in the larger cities. Its role in the development of Chinese learners into world citizens is highlighted in the 2003 Putong Gaozhong Yingyu Kecheng Biaozhun [English Language Curriculum Guidelines for Senior Secondary School], along with its function in the growth of China as a nation. It is stated in the Guidelines that

Language is the most important tool for thinking, communication and social activities. It plays a significant role in the all-round development of human beings. Through English language learning, students can develop their intelligence, affect, attitudes, and values and shape their character… The English course can help enhance our national stan-dards, meet the needs for the Open Door Policy, for communication with the world, and for the growth of national strength. (Translated from Ministry of Education, 2003, pp.1-2 [italics added].)

From this brief historical review, it can be seen that the curricular goal in the 2003 syllabus is the culmination of a series of curricular changes. The




essential features of this curriculum will now be summarized in the next section.

Features of the 2003 English Language Curriculum The 2003 English language curriculum for senior secondary school in China has been summarized as ‘one way, two assessments, two processes, four tasks, five components and nine bands’ (see Table 2; translated from Ministry of Education 2006).

Table 2. Features of the New Curriculum Features Details

One way Enquiry-based learning Two assessments Formative and summative, mainly formative

Two processes Students developing language use ability and devel-oping as people

Four tasks To develop students’ interest in learning English, language use ability, creativity, and cultural awareness

Five components Linguistic skills, linguistic knowledge, learning strategies, affect, and cultural awareness

Nine bands

The above components are graded into nine bands (two bands for primary school, three bands for junior secondary school and four bands for senior secondary school).

A few aspects in the new 2003 syllabus are particularly noteworthy. The emphasis on enquiry, rather than knowledge reception, is a fundamental change in educational orientation, as is the introduction of formative assessment (to help learners develop) in addition to summative assessment (as a final measure of learners’ competence). The formative element in assessment is consistent with the new calibration of progressive stages of foreign language learning into nine bands. In terms of final curricular goals, the mention of ‘developing as people’, ‘creativity’ and ‘cultural awareness’ cohere well into a humanistic vision of future generations of Chinese learners as thinking individuals capable of cognitive and personal development on their own beyond the confines of education. As the new 2003 syllabus is apparently targeted at addressing the inher-ent deficiencies in the 1993 syllabus, its main features are best appreciated




when compared with those in the 1993 English language syllabus, as in the following section.

Comparing the 2003 Curriculum and the 1993 Syllabus The 1993 English language syllabus was the last most widely imple-mented syllabus in senior secondary school in China before the 2003 curriculum was piloted in the year 2004 (Adamson 2001; He 2003; Hu 2002). A comparison between the two documents, therefore, is quite necessary for a fuller understanding of the new 2003 curriculum. The following comparison is conducted in terms of course description, course objectives, course design, teaching aims and demands, and implementa-tion guidelines (Appendix 2). Course Description In describing the role of a foreign language, the 1993 syllabus emphasized its instrumental value for ‘acquiring cultural and scientific knowledge, gathering information, and conducting communication with the world’ (Ministry of Education 1993: 1). The purpose of foreign language teaching in China was ‘to meet the needs of the Open Door Policy and to speed up the socialist modernizations’ (Ministry of Education 1993: 1). The new curriculum goes beyond using English for the acquisition of knowledge and recognizes the humanistic value of a language in the transformation of the learners’ cognitive and personal development beyond its instrumental value in knowledge acquisition. English language learning, as described in the 2003 curriculum guidelines, can help students develop ‘intelligence, affect, attitudes, values, and character’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 1). Course Objectives The 1993 syllabus stressed two basics: basic linguistic knowledge and basic language skills. The new 2003 curriculum addresses, in the first place, students’ affect, setting the objectives ‘to help students further clarify the purpose of learning English and develop autonomous learning and cooperative learning abilities; to help students develop effective English learning strategies’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 2). Students’ language use ability is based on ‘a mastery of knowledge, skills, affect, learning strategies, and cultural awareness’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 2). According to the new curriculum, an English course should help develop students’ ‘critical thinking ability, information gathering and




analysis ability, problem solving ability, and a world vision’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 2), which are essential for a citizen in the twenty-first century (Pasch and Norsworthy 2002). All these reflect a humanistic approach, which, according to Johnson and Johnson (1998: 158), respects the integrity of learners, allowing for personal growth and responsibility, taking psychological and affective factors into account and representing whole-person learning, going significantly beyond the use of English as a conduit of knowledge acquisition. Course Design The 1993 syllabus required only one compulsory module. There were no specifications for the teaching aims and demands for Grade 1. Grade 2 and Grade 3 shared one set of aims and demands in general and distinctions were made only in some aspects of listening, speaking, reading and writ-ing for the two grades. The new curriculum offers two modules (one compulsory and one elective) and grades the aims and demands with a four-band system according to learners’ language use ability, and describes each component at different bands in detail. The ability-banded framework can help solve such problems as the unbalanced development of the cur-riculum in different regions, the learning gaps between different stages (primary, junior secondary and senior secondary), and the waste of re-sources as a result of repetition in the curricula. The ability-banded design also provides more flexibility and openness in the curriculum, making it more possible to teach students with diverse competences. Teaching Aims and Demands For teaching aims and demands, the 1993 syllabus emphasized the devel-opment of two basics: basic linguistic knowledge and basic language skills. It isolated linguistic knowledge into discrete items, for example, word class, verb tense, sentence structures, and confined linguistic skills to classroom application, for example, ‘students can understand classroom English and the explanation of new language points with language learned, do question and answer on the text, and retell the story orally or in writ-ing’ (Ministry of Education 1993: 2-3). The new 2003 curriculum gives meaning to both knowledge and skills and integrates the two by engaging students in active use of the language with what they have learned as knowledge and developed as skills and by describing the language ability as what they can do with the English language, for example, ‘students know language forms and their functions in real communication, under-




stand and master the ways to describe people and objects, to describe the development of events’ (Ministry of Education 1993: 3). For students’ all-round development, the new curriculum stresses the development of their affect, learning strategy and cultural awareness along with their linguistic knowledge and linguistic skills, and defines specific teaching aims and demands for these components at different bands. Implementation Guidelines The implementation guidelines help to reach the goals set for a curricu-lum. The guidelines in the new curriculum, as compared with those in the 1993 syllabus, are more concrete, hence playing a stronger guiding role. The guidelines for teaching include ‘focusing on all learners and helping them lay a solid foundation for lifelong development; attending students’ affect and creating a pleasant, democratic and harmonious learning atmos-phere; reinforcing the guidance for students’ learning strategies and help-ing them develop autonomous learning ability’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 23-25). These guidelines represent the learner–centeredness philoso-phy in curriculum development (Nunan 1988: 2003). For teachers’ better understanding of the teaching methods, model teaching plans are pro-vided. For assessment, the stress is put on the explanation of the underly-ing rationale. It emphasizes that ‘both formative assessment and summative assessment be used and attention be paid to the motivating and facilitating roles of assessment in students’ learning’ (Ministry of Education 2003: 40-42). The curriculum provides assessment methods with examples, designed to help teachers put theory into practice. The comparison between the new curriculum and the 1993 syllabus suggests that the 2003 curriculum has recognized the humanistic value of English as a foreign language in fostering students’ cognitive and per-sonal growth as individuals beyond its instrumental value in providing access to scientific knowledge in the world. The English courses devel-oped according to this curriculum should ideally incorporate five compo-nents: linguistic knowledge, linguistic skills, affect, learning strategies and intercultural awareness. The five components are graded with a four-band system, making the curriculum more flexible and feasible. It also emphasizes that English courses should help students develop critical thinking ability, information gathering and analysis ability, and language use ability with a view to bringing about lifelong learning and whole-person development.




Possible Difficulties for Teachers in

Implementation and Directions for Change English language teaching in China has long been recognized as teacher-centered and textbook-driven, emphasizing students’ linguistic knowledge (Cortazzi and Jin 1996; Wu 2005). The new curriculum demands a rather drastic change on the part of teachers (He 2003; Wang 2002, 2003; Wu 2005). To implement it, teachers are likely to meet a host of difficulties, with teacher change being the most difficult (Fullan 1992, 2001; Hall and Hord 2001). First, teachers need to change their views about the role of language, to recognize its humanistic function beyond its traditional instru-mental function. Secondly, they need to change their roles in the classroom from a knowledge transmitter to that of an educator aiming at students’ whole-person development (Wang 2002: 104) or to change from a mindset of Jiaoshu (teaching the book) to that of Yuren (cultivating people) (Jin and Cortazzi 2006). Thirdly, teachers need to adopt an enquiry-based approach and make students the centre of learning. Fourthly, teachers need to use formative assessment measures in addition to uniform summative tests. Above all, teachers’ own multifaceted competence (including language proficiency, knowledge of learning strategies, cooperative learning, critical thinking, cultural awareness and the training of all these abilities) needs to be constantly upgraded and enriched, without which their other roles can hardly be performed (Wang 2002: 104).

Conclusion This article has tracked the evolution of the English language curriculum for senior secondary school in China from 1949 to the present time against the background of national developments in the country. This curricular evolution is generally in tandem with the change in overall foreign lan-guage education policy in China for the period reviewed. The latest English language curriculum for senior secondary school (2003) has been introduced and discussed at some length in comparison with the 1993 English language syllabus. The comparison suggests that the new curricu-lum has highlighted in particular the humanistic value of English beyond its instrumental function which has traditionally been valued in most foreign language programmes around the world. In the 2003 syllabus, it is specified that students should develop in five areas: linguistic knowledge, linguistic skills, affect, strategy and cultural awareness. The new curricu-lum aims at developing students’ critical thinking ability, information




gathering and analysis ability and language use ability with a view to nourishing lifelong learning and whole-person development. This human-istic philosophy underpinning the new 2003 syllabus calls for a concomitant transformation on the part of teachers in China. As such, in the process of implementing the new curriculum, teachers are likely to meet many difficulties, the most revolutionary of which will be to change their mindset from within; teachers need to be ready to change their beliefs about themselves as teachers before they can be motivated to enhance their own competence so as to implement the new 2003 curriculum in any reasonable way. In order to bring about the ideal effects made explicit in the new syllabus, teacher development programs that aim at such funda-mental change in teaching philosophy are, therefore, in urgent need in China. Nevertheless, setting such curricular goals so explicitly is certainly commendable in itself as a crucial step in the foreign language education of millions of learners in such a large country.

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APPENDIX 1

Foreign language education in China from 1949: Six phases with reference to the English language syllabi/curricula for senior secondary school Historical Period Phases in Foreign

Language Education Years Year of the English

Language Syllabi/ Curricula for Senior

Secondary School

1. The interlude with Russian

Early 1950s 1951, 1956 Before the Cultural Revolution

2. The back-to-English movement

1957–1965 1963

3. Repudiation of foreign learning

1966–1970 During the Cultural Revolution

4. English for renewing ties with the West

1971–1976

No authorized syllabi by MOE

5. English for modernization

1977–1990 1978, 1980, 1986, 1990 After the Cultural Revolution

6. English for international stature

From 1991 1993, 1996, 2000, 2003

APPENDIX 2 Some highlights from the 1993 English language syllabus and the 2003 English language curriculum guidelines for senior secondary school in China (translated from Ministry of Education 1993, 2003).

English Language Syllabus for Senior Secondary School (1993)

English Language Curriculum Guidelines for Senior Secondary School (2003)

Course Description

A foreign language is an impor-tant tool for acquiring cultural and scientific knowledge, gathering information, and conducting communication with the world. For the purpose of meeting the needs of the Open Door Policy

Language is the most important tool for thinking, communication and social activities. It plays a significant role in the all-round development of a person. Through English language learning, students can develop their intelligence, affect, attitudes, and




and speeding up the socialist modernizations, efforts should be made to enable as many people as possible to acquire certain competence in one or more foreign languages.

values and shape their character. With the English language, they can also learn about culture, advanced science and technology, and conduct interna-tional communication. The English course can help improve our national standards, meet the needs for the Open Door Policy, for communication with the world, and for the growth of national strength.

Course Objectives

To consolidate and enrich students basic linguistic knowledge, develop their basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing); to develop students’ elementary competence in oral and written communication with English, with a focus on reading ability; to help students develop independent learning ability and lay a solid foundation for further study and use of English; to provide students with education on morality, patriotism and socialism; to help students acquire more knowledge of foreign cultures; to develop students’ intelligence and abilities in thinking, observation, attention, memorization, imagination and association.

To help students further clarify the purpose of learning English, develop autonomous learning and cooperative learning abilities; to help students develop effective English learning strategies; to develop students’ com-prehensive language use abilities with an integration of linguistic knowledge, linguistic skills, learning strategies, affect, and cultural awareness; to help students develop thinking ability, information gathering and analysis ability, problem solving ability; to help students develop intercultural communication awareness and competence; to broaden students’ international vision, refine their patriotism and sense of national responsibility, lead them to healthy affect, attitudes and values, and help them lay a solid foundation for future development and lifelong learning.

Course Design

Grade 1: 4.5 class hours x 35 weeks = 157 class hours Grade 2: 4 class hours x 35 weeks = 140 class hours Grade 3: 5 class hours x 26 weeks = 130 class hours totaling 427 class hours Grade 1 has no descriptions for teaching aims and demands. Grade 2 and Grade 3 share one set

Grade 1: 4 class hours x 36 weeks = 144 class hours Grade 2: 4 class hours x 36 weeks = 144 class hours Grade 3: 4 class hours x 27 weeks = 108 class hours totalling 396 class hours The course has two modules: 1) Compulsory module: 10 credits, 5 graded components (1-5), each grade taking 36 class hours, with which




of aims and demands in general; distinctions are made on some aspects in listening, speaking, reading and writing for the two grades.

students meet the course demands for senior secondary school. While or after students accomplish this module, they can take courses in the elective module. 2) Elective module: a. Compulsory: 6 graded components (6-11, based on the compulsory module) b. Elective courses: e.g. Basic Business English, English Literature. Senior secondary school English is graded with a four-band system (Band 6-9, developed from Band 1-5 for primary school and junior secondary school English). Components 1-5 meet the criteria for Band 7; components 6-8 are for Band 8 and components 9-11 for Band 9. Students can take the test for each band progressively during their senior secondary school years.

Teaching Aims and Demands

The teaching aims and demands are set for linguistic skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and linguistic knowledge: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. The demands for skills are, for example, ‘students can understand classroom English and the explanation of new language points with language learned, can understand the main idea of the text told by the teacher using language learned, can do question and answer on the text, can retell the story orally or in writing’. The knowledge part is focused on the learning and mastery of language points, for example, to learn grammar, ‘students learn word class, verb tense, sentence structures. Subject clause and non-definite attributive clauses are for understanding.’

The new curriculum sets aims and demands in five areas: 1) linguistic skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing 2) linguistic knowledge: pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, functional notions and topics 3) learning strategies: cognitive, monitoring, communicative and resource strategies; 4) affect; and 5) cultural awareness. Each component has detailed description for different bands. The aims of linguistic skills are set in terms of language use. For example, ‘Students can understand the speaker’s intention according to intonation and stress, can understand the talk on a familiar topic, can provide information, express general views and carry out tasks cooperatively.’ Grammar learning relates form with function and communication. For




example, ‘students know language forms and their functions in real communication, understand and master the ways to describe people and objects, to describe the beginning and development of events.’

Implement-ation Guidelines

The guidelines for teaching are: following the nature of English teaching, incorporating moral education in language teaching; developing students’ communicative competence with English; conducting comprehensive training for listening, speaking, reading and writing, emphasizing reading ability; incorporating cultural elements in language teaching; teacher playing the role of a guide and motivating students in active learning; organizing extra-curricula activities; making use of teaching aids and electronic teaching modes, creating an English learning environment. Assessment is mainly summative.

The guidelines for teaching are: focusing on all learners and helping them lay a solid foundation for lifelong development; attending students’ affect and creating a pleasant, democratic and harmonious learning atmosphere; reinforcing the guidance for students’ learning strategies and helping them develop autonomous learning ability; utilizing modern educational technology and enriching the resources for students’ English learning and use; improving teachers’ professional expertise.’ The guidelines for assessment are: Students can benefit from the assessment; The assessment methods should be various and flexible; The assessment should be mainly formative; Summative assessment should test students’ language use ability. For the development of curriculum resource, the utility and exploration of modern technology is emphasized. For textbook use, teachers are recommended to use textbooks creatively and flexibly. Model teaching plans and assessment measures are provided for teachers’ reference.



Documents

The English Language Curriculum for Senior Secondary School in China: Its Evolution from 1949