THE DISTRIBUTION OF TAMO CAVE ART SITES IN JAMAICA Lesley-Gail Atkinson

Abstract From prehistory to present, man has been fascinated with caves. In many societies caves have been associated

with mythological and religious connotations as well as traditional folklore. In Pre-Columbian Jamaica, the Tainos utilised caves for many functions such as shelter, burials, religious shrines, and safe repositories. At Present, 11 per cent of the 1073 known caves and shafts are Taino sites. The majority of these cave sites were burials, with 32 per cent being Cave Art sites. This paper is a preliminary attempt at synthesising previous Cave Art research, attempting to illustrate the influence of the natural and cultural landscape in site determination.

Abstrait De la préhistoire au présent, l'homme a été fasciné avec des cavernes. Dans beaucoup de sociétés des cavernes

ont été associées aux connotations mythological et religieuses aussi bien que le folklore traditionnel. Dans Pre-Columbian Jamaïque, le Tainos a utilisé des cavernes pour beaucoup de fonctions telles que l'abri, les enterrements, les shrines religieux, et les dépôts sûrs. Jamaïque, 11 pour cent des 1073 cavernes et axes connus sont des sites de Taino. La majorité de ces sites de caverne étaient des enterrements, avec 32 pour cent étant des sites d'art de caverne. Cet article est une tentative préliminaire de recherche précédente d'art de caverne de synthésisation, essayant d'illustrer l'influence de l'horizontal normal et culturel dans la détermination de site.

Resumen De prehistoria al presente, han fascinado al hombre con las cuevas. En muchas sociedades las cuevas se han

asociado a connotaciones mitológicas y religiosas así como folklore tradicional En Pre-Columbian Jamaica, el Tainos utilizó las cuevas para muchas funciones tales como abrigo, entierros, santuarios religiosos, y depósitos seguros. En Jamaica, 11 por ciento de las 1073 cuevas y ejes sabidos son sitios de Taino. La mayoría de estos sitios de la cueva era entierros, con 32 por ciento siendo sitios del arte de la cueva. Este papel es una tentativa preliminar en la investigación anterior del arte de la cueva de la sintetización, procurando ilustrar la influencia del paisaje natural y cultural en la determinación del sitio.

Introduction From prehistory to present, man has been fascinated with caves. In many societies caves have been

associated with mythological and religious connotations as well as traditional folklore. In Pre-Columbian Jamaica, the Tainos utilised caves for many functions such as shelter, burials, religious shrines, and safe repositories. At present, 11 per cent of the 1073 known caves and shafts are Taino sites. The majority of these cave sites were burials, with 32 per cent being Cave Art sites (see figure 1).

No community was ever totally isolated from others and human settlements are never scattered either regularly or haphazardly over the landscape (Scarre 1999). People deliberately chose to occupy areas

300

that have some advantage. Site determination is dependent on the nature of the environment and the

proximity of other related sites. This paper is a preliminary attempt at synthesising previous Cave Art

research, attempting to illustrate the influence of the natural and cultural landscape in site determina­

tion. The Natural landscape in this context encompasses the Elevation, the types of Caves and

Topography preferred by the Tainos. The Cultural Landscape has been defined as areas modified by

the Tainos for specific needs such as occupational and burial locations. As such the Taino settlement

and Burial distribution will be reviewed in relation to Taino Cave Art sites.

Cave art in Jamaica consists mainly of Pictographs and Petroglyphs, however, Petroglyph sites pre­

dominate. Pictographs are pictorial signs or symbols found on the walls of the caves. While,

Petroglyphs are carvings, which are done in situ on a rock outcrop or large boulder (Lee 1974). In the

past century, knowledge of Jamaican Cave Art has been derived from the works of J.E. Duerden (1897),

Philip Sherlock (1939), Robert Howard (1950), and James Lee (1974), in addition to contributions from

George Aarons (1981), Karl Watson (1988) and Alan Fincham (1997 & 1998). Jamaica's Taino culture is

one of the least studied areas in the Caribbean. The Archaeological investigation of Cave Art sites on

the island has consisted primarily of Mappings, Surface collections but rarely excavations. Thus a

comprehensive perspective of Taino Cave dwelling and art have yet to be ascertained.

Distribution of Cave Art Sites Jamaica, which has a land area of only 11,420 km , has a significant amount of caves and shafts dis­

tributed island-wide. Alan Fincham (1997) gives a distribution of recorded caves according to parish­

es (Appendix 1), which reveals that the highest concentrations of Caves are found in the parishes of

Manchester, Trelawny, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth and Clarendon.

All the extensive Cave systems, with the exception of Jackson's Bay Great Cave, Clarendon are relat­

ed to rivers. The high concentration of Caves in the noted parishes could be a result of the drainage

pattern of these parishes. Clarendon, St. Catherine and St. Elizabeth contain several rivers and

streams, while Manchester and Trelawny contain areas which are virtually devoid of surface run-off

(Clarke 1974), but contain many underground rivers, which contribute significantly to the develop­

ment of caves, and caverns.

It is interesting to note that the Parish Cave Art site distribution correlates with the parish distribution

of recorded caves, with the exception of Trelawny. The highest concentration of Cave Art sites is found

in the southern parishes of Clarendon, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth, and Manchester. There are about 38

known Cave Art sites in Jamaica: 33 Petroglyph sites (87%), 3 Pictograph sites (8%), and 2 sites with a

combination of both Petroglyphs and Pictographs (5%) (Appendix 2).

Clarendon has the most Cave art sites, while the eastern parishes Kingston, St. Andrew, and St.

Thomas, have no sites. Although the parish distribution of Cave Art sites provides interesting results,

these parish divisions did not exist during prehistoric occupations. Therefore, it is best to discern what

301

natural factors are similar in these parishes that could explain the present distribution pattern, such as

the role of elevation, type of cave and topography.

The Influence of t he Natural Landscape

Elevation

Seventy-nine per cent of the Cave Art sites have recorded elevations. Based on the data of the record­

ed elevations, Chesterfield, St. Ann has the highest elevation of 550 metres. The site with the lowest

elevations is Little Miller's Bay, Clarendon, having an elevation at Sea level (Appendix 3A & 3B). Fifty-

three per cent of the Cave Art elevations were located at an Altitude between zero to one hundred

metres; thus suggesting a preference for caves in lower altitudes. According to Fincham the zero to

100m categories is the most popular altitude for Jamaican Caves. Fincham states that the distribution

of caves in this altitude range is almost certainly a reflection of access and population distribution,

leading to a higher proportion of sites being identified in these areas (1997).

Taino Preference for Caves

After looking at the altitude of Caves preferred by the Tainos, it would be interesting to discover if

there was a specific type of Cave preferred. In reviewing the types of Caves it was revealed that thir­

ty-seven per cent of the Caves were not defined. However, of those Caves that were defined, ten types

of Caves were noted. These types were: Cave to Shaft, Complex Cave, Shaft to Pool, Cave with pool,

Fissure Cave, River Passage, Dry Passage, Shelter Cave, Complex Shaft and Chamber Cave (See

Figure 2).

The most popular Cave type was the Shelter Cave (21%). This type of Cave is a Chamber, open on one

side, or an overhang providing shelter from rain. Examples of Shelter Caves are the Pantrepant Caves,

and the Mountain River Cave. The Complex Cave (18%) was second in popularity, which is a cave

containing interconnected shafts, passages and chambers (Fincham 1997), such as Dryland, and the

Jackson Bay Caves. It is interesting to note that the Shelter and Complex types of Caves are not the

most common types of Caves found in the island. According to Fincham Shelter Caves consist of only

7 per cent of the total cave types, and Complex Caves fall into the broad area of other categories, which

take up 26 per cent of the total sites (1997). This evidence of preference could indicate a desire for cer­

tain caves as sites for the Petroglyphs and Pictographs rather than for other functions.

Topography Jamaica's topography is divided into three main areas: the interior mountain ranges, the limestone

hills and plateaus, and the interior valleys and coastal plains.

The Interior Mountain Range

The interior mountain range makes up the core of the island with the elevations exceeding 900 metres.

It encompasses the central and western interior, and the Blue Mountain Range which dominates the

eastern section of the island, with peaks exceeding 1800 metres (Clarke 1974).

302

The Limestone Hills and Plateaus

The limestone hills and plateaus range between 300m and 900m in elevation. The hills border the inte­

rior mountain ranges, and extend over much of central and western Jamaica. A characteristic of lime­

stone hills and plateaus is that rainwater disappears into the fissures, cavities and sinkholes of the

limestone and flow under-ground through subterranean limestone areas (Porter 1990).

The interior valleys and coastal plains

The interior valleys are basins or depressions, in which the surface is either level or gently undulat­

ing, and is covered by alluvium and/or clay. The flatter coastal plains are composed largely of thick

deposits of alluvial sand, silt, gravel and clay. They are well drained with a variety of seasonal streams

(Porter 1990).

By reviewing the elevation of the sites, and topographic maps a distribution pattern according to the

topography of the island was determined. This revealed that 60 per cent of the known Cave Art sites

was located in Interior Valleys & Coastal plains, while 29 per cent was found in Limestone Hills &

Plateaus and none in the Interior Mountain Range (see figure 3).

The Eastern parishes display a natural landscape that would be attractive for settlement; such as hav­

ing a mountainous interior, developed cave systems, and an abundance of streams and rivers.

However, the evidence of minimal Cave Art sites in these parishes also suggests minimal settlement.

Cave Art sites are not isolated sites, but generally associated with other sites such as Middens and

Burials.

The preference for the Interior Valley and Coastal plains could be a result of several factors including

greater accessibility, drainage pattern and vegetation. The vegetation within this topographic area

consisted of the Great Morass (St. Elizabeth), Herbaceous Swamp and Marsh Forest, Dry Limestone

Forest and Mangrove Woodlands. This variety of flora would have been attractive to the Tainos who

were dependent on the natural environment. The natural landscape, however, was not the only factor

contributing to this Cave Art distribution pattern - the density of associated sites must also be exam­

ined.

The Cultural Landscape

There are two known Jamaican prehistoric cultures, the Ostionoid commencing ca. AD. 650 and the

Meillacan ca. AD. 900-1500. Based on the archaeological data of known sites, one can deduce that the

Ostionoid group primarily settled along the southern coast of the island, concentrating in St.

Elizabeth, Manchester and Clarendon. Although the Ostionoids were dependent on the sea and its

resources, they also advanced into the interior valleys as seen in the parish of St. Ann. According to

Irving Rouse, the Ostionoid culture utilised caves for burial practices and these are associated with

Redware sites (1992). In addition, he states that artefacts and features associated with the Ostonian sub

series (AD 600-1200) are petaloid stone celts, zemi objects of stone, shell and clay, the introduction of

Petroglyphs and ball courts (Rouse 1992).

303

Burial caves make up the majority of Cave Sites, with the highest concentration of cave burials being

located in St. Elizabeth (22.5%) and Clarendon (21%), which are primarily parishes settled by the

Ostionoids.

The Meillacans also settled along the coast as seen with the Hellshire Hills and the Old Harbour Bay

sites in St. Catherine. However, the majority of the sites were further inland, generally situated upon

hills overlooking the environs, and within 9.6 km of a water source. The Meillacan also used caves as

burial sites as seen with the White Marl Burial Cave, St. Catherine. However, many of their burials are

found within Middens. The largest densities of Meillacan sites are located in the parishes of St. Ann

and St. Catherine.

There are about 428 Taino sites island-wide. This figure is a compilation of the sites inhabited by the

Ostionoids and the Meillacans. The Parishes with the largest site densities are St. Ann, Clarendon, St.

Elizabeth, and St. Catherine. The lowest amount of sites is found in the eastern parish of Portland with

only four known sites (Appendix 4).

What has been realised is that parishes with high site densities will not necessarily have high concen­

trations of Cave Art sites, as parishes such as St. Ann and St. Mary would have a far greater number

of sites. However, there does seem to be a relationship between the site density and Taino Cave Art

sites, as reflected in the parishes of Clarendon, St. Elizabeth and St. Catherine, where there is a high

site density and sites.

Cave Art is associated with the Ostionoid and the Meillacan cultures. The predominance of the

Petroglyph sites could suggest that the production of the Petroglyphs in the island commenced with

the Ostionoid period as Rouse inferred (1992). Duff House in St. Elizabeth, and Canoe Valley in

Manchester are located within prime Ostionoid areas and Ostionoid pottery sherds were recovered

from these sites.

The island's most prominent Pictograph site, the Mountain River Cave in St. Catherine is said to be

associated with the Meillacan site White Marl (Aarons 1982). According to George Aarons pottery

sherds of the Meillacan series were found near the site. Aarons also highlights the Two Sisters Cave

petroglyph site and its association with the Meillacan settlements in Hellshire Hills such as Half Moon

Bay and Rodney's House. There is also evidence of both cultures occupying sites, as illustrated at the

Warminister site, St. Elizabeth where pottery sherds from both the Ostionoid and Meillacan periods

were recovered.

However, it is difficult to deduce which sites are associated with specific periods because none of the

Cave art sites has been given absolute dates. Another method of ascertaining the date of these sites is

through artefacts association, but only 29 per cent of the sites have material remains. The Categories

of artefacts are primarily ceramics, bone and occasionally shell. In addition, what is recovered is a very

304

minimal amount, and this contributes to the problems in dating these sites. Additionally there is no

guarantee that the disposal of the object and the production of the cave art was the same time.

The Art and Craft of Petroglyphs and Pictographs

Jamaica truly has "Cave Art" as all the known Cave Art is found in Caves or in close proximity. The

island does not have 'rock art' in terms of petroglyphs on boulders in rivers etc., as seen in other

Caribbean isles. Petroglyphs and Pictographs are usually located at the entrance of Caves or at least

rock shelters (Lee 1974). The Majority of these Petroglyph sites consisted of only one Petroglyph. The

Canoe Valley site, which consists of three rock carving sites (Howard 1950) contained the largest num­

ber of Petroglyphs in the island with more than 35.

In creating Petroglyphs the artist used simple strokes to create human faces, to which the shape of the

rock gave a three-dimensional aspect. In Jamaica, Petroglyphs are primarily anthropomorphic in

design mainly carvings of human faces and figures (See Figure 4). However, Lee notes the presence of

geometric designs at Warminister, St. Elizabeth and Mountain River Cave, St. Catherine (1974), but

unfortunately, no sketches of these designs were ever recorded. In addition, at Farquhar's Beach,

Clarendon Basil Reid identified a petroglyph of a snake, which so far is the only zoomorphic example

on the island (personal communication).

There are very few pictograph sites on the island, and the number of pictographs per site ranged from

2 to 200 with the Mountain River Cave, St. Catherine having the greatest number of pictographs (see

figure 4).

Pictographs are drawn with a "paint" which could have been made from one or a combination of the

following materials: guano, guinep juice, mangrove extract, animal grease and natural pigments

which include yellow ochre, red ochre, manganese, iron oxide, and charcoal. The colours were then

grounded and mixed with resin, animal fat, or water and then applied by hand or with a stick.

The designs of the pictographs were far more diverse than the Petroglyph sites, consisting of anthro­

pomorphic, abstract, geometric and zoomorphic images. Since Mountain River Cave, and Potoo Hole,

Clarendon sites had the largest number of Pictographs; they were used to generate a representative

distribution of pictograph designs. This revealed that the majority of pictograph designs were anthro­

pomorphic and zoomorphic (Figure 5). Unfortunately, 26 per cent of these pictographs was indistinct;

thus the percentages would have been greater.

Conclusion

It is evident that the natural environment, landscape, cultural preference and the Taino ideology were

integral factors in the determination of the Cave Art sites. This is apparent in the preference for sites

located at altitudes between 0 and 100 metres above sea level. Additionally the Shelter and Complex

305

Caves were more commonly used. A pattern has emerged showing a preference for caves located in

the Interior Valleys and Coastal plains, with a high percentage being found in the southern parishes

of the island. There is an obvious relationship with the density of Taino settlements and the associat­

ed periods. These developing patterns can be seen as evidence of the Tainos selecting the location of

the Cave Art sites based on Natural and Cultural attributes, however with further research some of

these patterns may vary.

This paper, however, is just "scratching the surface," and it is hoped that it will encourage and pro­

mote Cave Art Archaeology in Jamaica. It is the first stage of a research project which aims at re-locat­

ing, investigating and analysing Cave Art sites and their material culture in the island. This project

hopes to recover artefacts and ecofacts, which can contribute to a chronology of these sites. This

chronology is required to determine the sites associated with the Ostionoid and Meillacan periods and

to distinguish factors. In addition, attempts are needed to explore the symbolic and interpretative

nature of these sites and their role in filling the gaps in Jamaican prehistory.

References

Aarons, G. A., 1983 The Archaeological Sites in the Hellshire Area. Jamaica Journal l(l):76-84.

Aarons, G. A., 1988 The Mountain River Cave. Jamaica Journal 21(3):19.

Aarons, G. A., 1994 The Tainos of Jamaica: The Aboukir Zemis. Jamaica Journal 25(2):11-17.

Atkinson, L., 2000 Taino Cave Art Sites in Jamaica. (Unpublished manuscript).

Clarke, C , 1974. Jamaica in Maps. Kingston: University of the West Indies.

Dams, L., 1980 Prehistoric Art. Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia, Vol. 4, New York: Lexicon

Publications.

Fincham, A. G., 1997. Jamaica Underground: The Caves, Sinkholes, and Underground Rivers of the

Island.2nd Edition. Kingston: The University Press.

Fincham, A. G. & A. M. Fincham, 1998. The Potoo Hole Pictographs: A Preliminary Report on

a new Amerindian Cave Site in Clarendon, Jamaica. Jamaica Journal 26(3):2-6.

Keegan, W., 2000 West Indian Archaeology 3: Ceramic Age. Journal of Archaeological Research

8(2):135-167.

Lee, J. W., 1974 Petroglyphs and Pictographs. Archaeology Jamaica (74 -4):l-4.

Lee, J. W., 1982 The Mountain River Cave, St. Catherine, Jamaica. Archaeology Jamaica

(82-2):10-13.

Loven, S., 1935. The Tainan Culture of the West Indies. Goteborg.

Nicholas, G., 1980 "Caves" Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia, Vol. 4, New York:

Lexicon Publications.

Porter, A., 1990. Jamaica: A Geological Portrait, Kingston: Institute of Jamaica Publications.

Sherlock, P., 1939. The Aborigines of Jamaica, Kingston: Institute of Jamaica.

Watson, K., 1988, Amerindian Cave Art: Mountain River Cave, St. Catherine. Jamaica Journal

21(2):13-18.

306

Distribution of the Functions of Cave Sites

1 25%

^¡||¡¡p 46%

H Cave Art

m Burial

E3 Cave Art & Burial

m Others

• Unknown

Figure It Distribution of the Functions of Cave Sites Source: Archaeology Jamaica (1965-85), Finchara (1997) & JNHT Files

Distribution According to the Types of Caves

^m 36.8/ ai 2" 6

W2-6

f. 2.6 2fi^r '-

pmmm^ i2_6 2.6 j 21

L5.2

a Cave to Shaft

m Complex Cave

S Shaft to Pool

El Cave with Pool

• Fissure Cave

H River Passage

m Dry Passage

a Shelter Cave

• Chamber Cave

B Complex Shaft

m Undefined

Figure 2: Distribution According to the Types of Caves Source: Archaeology Jamaica (1965-85), Fincham (1997), & JNHT Files

307

Distribution According to the

60%

Topography

m Intertor Mountain Range

M Limestone Hills & Plateaus

U interior Vaileys & Coastal Rains

m Unknown

Figure 3: Distribution According to Topography

Distribution of Petrogiyph Designs

23%

68%

m Anthromorphfo(A)

m Geometric(G)

(3 Zoomorphic(Z)

SA&G

• A&Z

sAl i

m Uheertain

Figure 4: Distribution of Petrogiyph Designs

308

Distribution of Pictograph Designs

B Anthromorphic

B Geometric

E3 Abstract

m Zoomorphic

• Indistinct

1,22%

Figure 5: Distribution of Pictograph Designs Source; Watson (1988), Hncham (1998)

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Distribution of Recorded Caves by Parish

PAMSB Clarendon HanoYer

Manchester Portland

St. Andrew St. Aim

St. Catherine St. Elizabeth

St. James , St. Mary St. Thomas Trekwny

Westmoreland Totals

CAVES 101 23 160 78 33 114 130 . 124 90 20 9

147 AÂ

1073

PER CENTAGE 9.4 2.1 14.9 7.3 3.1 10.6 12.1 11.6 8.4 1.9 0.8 13.7 4.1 100

Source: Alan Fmcham (1997)

26.42%

! » i 6 - 9 9 %

309

Appemüx 2; List of Jamaican Cave Art Sites

Parish Kingston & St.

Andrew St. Thomas

Portland St. Mary

St. Ann

Trekwny

St. James

Hanover Westmoreland

St. Elizabeth

Manchester

Clarendon

St. (Mierine

Totals

Petroglyph Sites

Dryland Man Cave Coventry

Chesterield Walkers Wood

Til ± j* xtr

rantrepant West Pantrepant East

Windsor Great Cave Kempshot

Overall Cave

Negri Cave New Mountain (Indian

Head Cave) Duff House Warminister Red Bank

Reynolds Bent Brie McPherson Norman Bernard

Canoe Valley Cuckold Point Cave

Little Bay Cave Gut River #1 Gut River #4

Jackson Bay Cave-1 Jackson Bay East Farquhar's Beach Little Miller's Bay

God's Well Junction #2 Taylor's Hut Cave-1

Worthy Park #2 Bymdloss Mountain Two Sisters Cave Half Moon Bay

33

Pietograph Sites

Adstock

-

Spot Valley

Potoo Hole

3

Both

Mountain River Cave

Worthy Park #1

2 Source: J-E- Dneriem (1897), ILR. Howard (1950)7Archaeology Jamaica (1965-85),

A. HBdiam (1977 & 1997), JNHT Flies.

310

Appendix 3: The Elevations of Cave Art Sites

Appendix 3 A: Elevations over 100m

Cave Art Elevations over 100m

600

m Chesterfield

s Kempshot

0 Dryland

e Worthy Park #1

• Coventry

a Worthy Park #2

m Red Bank

m Man Cave

• Canoe Valley

m Maintain Rver

m Byndloss Mountain

m Cverhill Cave

a Spot Valley

• Windsor

Appendix 3B: Elevations below 100m

Cave Art Site Elevations belown 100m

Metres

a Pantrepant

• Pantrepant #2 (Spring Cave)

• Indian Head Cave

m Duff House

m Negri! Cave

m Half Moon Bay

m Roteo Hole

B Cod's Wei Junction #2

• Fartjhmar's Beach

m Jackson Bay Cave #1

£3 Jackson Bay Cave 02

B T w o Sisters Cave

• CnekoB Point

• t i t le Bay Cave

m Taylor's Hot Cave-1

• Link MlSer's Bay

Source: Archaeology Jamaica (1965-85), Fincham (1997), JNHT Files

311

Appendix 4: Parish Distribution of Taino Sites

Parish Distr ibut ion of Taino Sites

80 111 ^MÍHM

Amount

m Kingston & St. Andrew

m St. Thomas

a Portland

• St. Mary

• St. A n n

m Trefaw ny

si St. James

s Hanover

• VAfestmorefand

m St. Hizabeth

Q Manchester

H Clarendon • St. Catherine

312