The development and use of culturally appropriate curriculum for American Indian students

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The development and use of culturally appropriatecurriculum for American Indian studentsRobin A. Butterfield aa Teacher orientation specialist of the Research and Development Program for IndianEducation , Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory , Portland, OregonPublished online: 02 Nov 2009.

To cite this article: Robin A. Butterfield (1983) The development and use of culturally appropriate curriculum for AmericanIndian students, Peabody Journal of Education, 61:1, 49-66, DOI: 10.1080/01619568309538427

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The Development and Useof Culturally Appropriate Curriculumfor American Indian Students

Robin A. Butterfield

We are Indian people. No one knows how many winters we have been here.We as a people have been coming to be on this ground for a long time, just aseach child is coming to be on this ground each day.

Before, the way of being people was different. At that time the way theground moved was different. Now how we are people has changed. The waythe ground moves has changed.

But the fire has not changed. The flames still burn bright and hot and steady.The smoke still rises and the smell of pine or oak or maple lingers on. Gaze intothe fire for it is constant. Gaze into the fire and feel the warmth. Gaze into thefire and rekindle your spirit and listen to the ways of the old.

The ways of the old people are in their stories. The ways of the old peoplelinger in the shadow of a flame, in the smoke of the old camp fires. Around oldfires were told some good stories. Maybe the fires were roaring as an old personwas telling a story. Maybe some children were gazing quietly into the storythat the old person was telling. These stories remind us how much we havechanged and how much we have lost.

But we are building fires again. We are telling these stories again. We arethinking good thoughts and building good hearts in our children. When liferests in the mean winter, when white days are short, dried berries come back tolife from boiling water. That is the time the people tell stories and eat the berrypudding. That is the time to think and to listen to the old ones and rekindle one'sspirit, gazing into the fire. Indian stories give us pleasure and power andpeace, and they strengthen our hearts and give us a place on this ground tocontinue becoming who we are at our very best.

ROBIN A. BUTTERFIELD is teacher orientation specialist of the Research and Development Programfor Indian Education, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Portland, Oregon.

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PEABODY JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONThe Transcultural Education of American Indian and Alaska Native Children

Like the heat of the fire our stories warm us.Like the usefulness of the fire our stories help us; teach us.Like the beauty of the fire our stories give us pleasure.Like the ashes of fire our stories rest in our memory andstir our thoughts, thoughts from the shadow of a flame.

Robin A. ButterfieldHenry Real Bird

These stanzas epitomize the efforts of Indian people to be responsive tothe need for culturally appropriate curriculum in schools educating In-dian students. Within each tribe, Indian parents and grandparents rely onthe old ways to preserve and pass on cultural heritage. It has been knownfor many years that Indian children, separated from their family's influ-ence and understanding for a few hours of the school day, suffer withfeelings of alienation and strangeness and do not do well in the class-room. Whether the teacher be Indian or non-Indian, the effect is often thesame—failure in the classroom.

Though there are many socio-cultural factors that have contributed tothe failure of Indian students in school, the focus of this article is thosefactors relating to a need for the development and use of a culturallyappropriate curriculum. The nature and importance of such curriculumdevelopment are discussed, along with future ramifications of the use ofthe suggested curriculum.

The Ways of the Old People Are in Their Stories

Most educators think of curriculum solely in terms of materials. Accord-ing to the American Heritage Dictionary, curriculum pertains to all thecourses of study offered by an educational institution, or, more specifi-cally, a particular course of study, often in a special field. But a course ofstudy implies more than what is taught. How the content will be pre-sented to whom is just as important. Curriculum, therefore, encompassesall three instructional elements: the materials, the instructional tech-niques, and the learner characteristics.

Culturally appropriate curriculum for Indians, in order to reflect thecultures of Indian students and their communities, must also take intoconsideration all three instructional elements. In this context, materialsmust be authentic, relevant, compatible, complete, and neutral in con-tent. This means that the portrayal of a particular culture is accurate, fair,and thorough. It also means that the manner in which the cultural mate-rial is presented remains consistent with the overall instructionalframework and relevant to the goals of instruction.

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The Development and Use of Culturally Appropriate Curriculum

To be culturally appropriate, instructional techniques or methods shouldconsider the sensitivity, empathy, relevance, and effectiveness withwhich a lesson is taught. This means that teachers understand the cultureof their students and their underlying value systems. Further, it requiresthat the learning environment be organized in a fashion most appropriatefor the unique characteristics of the students.

The learner characteristics simply dictate that the techniques and cul-tural appropriateness of the content differ for the learner population to beserved. Culturally appropriate instructional resources include those de-signed to meet the specific educational and culturally-related academicneeds of Indian students and those designed to enhance cultural under-standing and appreciation among Indian and non-Indian students.

The determination of exactly what will be taught and who determines itis often problematic. This issue is clarified later in considering develop-mental issues.

Around Old Fires Were Told Some Good Stories

More than 1.4 million Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts live within theUnited States and represent 481 identifiable tribal groups, with vast lin-guistic, cultural, social, political, and economic differences. Legally, theyrepresent over 280 organized political entities or tribes. Geographically,50 to 60% of all Indian people live outside reservations, many of themin rural settlements or in small towns near reservations. Approximately30% of all Indian people reside in large urban centers. Whether living inurban, rural, or reservation communities, many Indian people are at thelower end of the economic scale (Antell, 1980).

As detailed in many local, regional, and national reports (e.g., Ameri-can Indian Policy Review Commission, 1976; U.S. Senate, 1969), Indianscontinue to lag behind non-Indians in formal educational attainment,with slightly more than 33% having only an elementary education, orless. As Indian students advance through the educational process, par-ticularly around third or fourth grade, they tend to fall behind non-Indianstudents in achievement and become progressively less interested inschool and school activities. Many elementary school Indian studentsbecome quiet, withdrawn, and do not participate verbally in classroomactivities.

Drop-out rates in high school and junior high are extremely high.Nearly one-half of all reservation Indians have only an elementary educa-tion, or less, and only one-fourth have managed to graduate from highschool. Only 3.5% of all Indian men and 2.5% of all Indian women havefour years or more of college (Antell, 1980). It is not surprising, then, thateducators of Indian students see a lack of positive self-image in thesestudents.

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PEABODY JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONThe Transcultuml Education of American Indian and Alaska Native Children

Because of many socio-cultural factors, Indian children have not faredwell in school. Many researchers and commentators have identified In-dian language issues, poor teacher preparation, lack of Indian rolemodels, culturally-biased tests, lack of parental involvement, and lowexpectations of Indian children held by school staff as possible contribut-ing factors for Indian student failure in school. Most significant andperhaps most blatant has been the lack of curriculum that accuratelyreflects the experiential linguistic and cultural background of the Indianstudent.

The standard dominant societal curriculum is based upon a set of val-ues that runs counter to many of the values operating in an Indian com-munity. In schools where individualism, acquisitiveness, and mercan-tilism prevail, there is little understanding for values that emphasize con-cern for the group, generosity, and disdain for material possessions. "It isdifficult for Indian children to learn and to sort out simultaneously twodifferent value systems, especially when school curricula, media, andteacher behaviors and attitudes usually give positive valences to thedominant culture's value system" (Locke, Pfeiffer, Ridley, Simon, &Whiteman, 1977, p. 91).

One of the cardinal principals of education is to base instruction on anassessment of where the student is developmentally. Yet, Indian stu-dents are expected to learn about something with which they have little orno experience.

Since the 1969 United States Senate Subcommittee on Indian Educationpublished its results, Indian Education: A National Tragedy—A NationalChallenge (U.S. Senate, 1969), most of the over 280 diverse tribal groups inthe United States have attempted or completed some kind of curriculareffort. Hoping to rekindle the spirit, values, and knowledge of traditionaland contemporary Indian life, Indian educators have been trying to inte-grate those cultural elements into the school setting.

A culturally appropriate curriculum is critically important, for it will (a)strengthen self-concept for Indian students by giving credence to theirculture in the daily activities of the classroom, (b) increase student motiva-tion to succeed in school and help keep Indian students in school bymaking the school experience a more relevant and meaningful place to be,and (c) help teachers and all students, Indian and non-Indian alike, ac-quire knowledge of human and cultural diversity, develop respect andappreciation for human and cultural diversity, and identify empatheti-cally with people from other groups and cultures.

All societies have drawn on the experiences and material contributionsof other peoples, incorporating diverse cultural strands into their ownsocial world. Frequently, these contributions have not been attributed to

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their origins. Only as people recognize their indebtedness to other cul-tures' ideas and products can the quality of human interaction be im-proved.

But the Fire Has Not Changed

Based on the multicultural premise that all people must be accordedrespect regardless of their social, ethnic, cultural, and religious back-ground (Gold, 1977), Indian curriculum efforts flourished during the1970s, Public acceptance and financial support created the JohnsonO'Malley programs, Ethnic Heritage grants, Title IV of the Indian Educa-tion Act programs, and, to some extent during the late 1970s, Title VII ofthe Bilingual Education Act.

Programs such as United Indians of All Tribes Foundation (Seattle,Washington), The Little Red School House (Minneapolis, Minnesota),Awkwesasne Notes (Rooseltown, New York), United Tribes EducationalTechnical Center (Bismark, North Dakota), Native American MaterialsDevelopment Center (Albuquerque, New Mexico), Shenandoah FilmProductions (Arcata, California), The Indian Reading and Language De-velopment Program (Portland, Oregon), and numerous state depart-ments of education (Oklahoma, Wisconsin, California, and Washingtonto name only a few) have produced newspapers, teachers' manuals, post-ers, films, booklets and texts, tapes, puzzles, games, and other manipula-tives all designed to reflect accurately and sensitively the customs, beliefs,and traditions of the diverse Indian communities throughout the UnitedStates.

Gaze into the Fire and Rekindle Your Spiritand Listen to the Ways of the Old:The Allocation of Responsibilities

The development of a culturally appropriate curriculum for Indian stu-dents involves more than going into an Indian community with taperecorders to interview a few elders. The acquisition of content material isjust the beginning of a long and tedious process involving continuousinteraction between the educational and Indian communities.

Many facets of the curriculum development process can be grouped fordiscussion purposes according to who should have primary responsibil-ity and control. Both the Indian community and the educational commu-nity must share in these considerations. Although the entire process re-quires extensive communication and cooperation between both com-munities, it is often best to establish early the strengths and weaknesses ofeach and the ultimate responsibilities of both.

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Indian Community Responsibilities

Responsibilities of the Indian community in curriculum developmentinclude:

Awareness. Before a curriculum development project begins, the Indiancommunity must be well informed. All groups should be surveyed todetermine exactly what the curricular needs are. Public support dependson what the Indian community feels will take place, on what will berequired of community members, and on what will be their ultimatebenefits once the project has been completed. At least one key communitymember must advocate and widely promote the need for and value ofsuch an effort.

Support. Individuals and groups need to assume responsibility early inthe project for collecting and validating cultural information. It must beunderstood by everyone involved that community input and the ultimatevalidation of cultural material is critical to developing materials that areauthentic and responsive to the specific needs of the students in thatcommunity.

The Indian community itself must identify its cultural experts. Re-spected elders or individuals who have a great deal of cultural knowledgeshould be given the task of authenticating cultural content. Too often"professionals" (curriculum specialists, anthropologists, or individualsfrom outside the community, usually non-Indians) assume control ofvalidating materials according to standards set by school and dominantnon-Indian society. As a result, these standards usually corrupt the con-tent in an attempt to make it conform to some predetermined academicmold. Although it is important to make sure the materials are suitable forclassroom use, the accuracy of information should be determined by In-dian people.

In many instances, cultural information can be shared only at certaintimes of the year or under certain circumstances. For example, a story wastraditionally told when it was appropriate, when a child needed a lesson,not because it was reading time (Tafoya, 1982). Navajo "Coyote" storiescan be told only during the winter months. Many traditional religiouspractices contain privileged knowledge that very few people are allowedto know. Only Indian people can determine whether or not certainknowledge is appropriate to share.

Planning. It becomes most critical during the initial planning for thedevelopment of culturally appropriate curriculum to establish firmly aphilosophical base and then determine what areas of the total schoolcurriculum must reflect it. Some important decisions may include thefollowing:

Determine whether culturally appropriate materials will be used as

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the core curriculum or whether they will supplement existing texts andother resources. This will influence how such materials are organizedand used.

Determine the ultimate goals for using the materials. Many culturallyappropriate materials are created to teach all students, Indian or non-Indian, a little about Indian people in general, whereas other materialsare designed to teach the basic skills of reading, writing, or mathemat-ics, using cultural content. It is often desirable to combine both goals.

Identify one grade level, one subject area, or even one classroom forbeginning use of the materials as they are produced.

Remember that materials must assist students in meeting district andbuilding goals.Once a philosophy and goals are in place, a process needs to be estab-

lished. Table 1 presents an example of how a tribe might proceed.Content. Developers of culturally appropriate curriculum for Indians

need to be cautious when presenting cultural information. Too often theemphasis has been on historical information only, and the materials tendto glorify the past. History contributes to an understanding of the modernIndian, but too often even well-meaning teachers never update theirinformation. Indians are not seen as contemporary human beings byteachers or even by the Indian students themselves. An awareness oftribal history may help identify the Indian student's membership in agroup, but it will not necessarily explain the values and behavior of eachindividual student in a modern context. This is an area where Indian

(1)Agreementfrom Tribe

(4)Tribe with EldersApprove EditingChanges

(7)TeacherOrientation

(10)SummativeEvaluation

Table 1Process of Curriculum Development

(2)Local Planningto Determine whowill do what

_(5)Layout andPaste up

(8)FormativeEvaluation

(11)TribalApproval

(3)Collection and Editingof Materials

(6)PrototypesPrinted

(9)Revision ofMaterials

(12)Publish

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students need much assistance, since many think they are only Indian if,for example, they are like Sitting Bull.

Individual Indian people may participate in the first salmon ceremony(on the Northwest coast) one day, and attend the university the next.There is a need to show real life examples in which the Indian student cansee that these activities are not necessarily contradictory. Cultural valuescan meld together in a clear, rich, multi-faceted kind of existence in whichstudents can play the White Man's game and the Indian's game, withoutcontradiction, and quite successfully (Walker, 1980).

Stereotyping. Indian people themselves must make sure that astereotyped "traditional" Indian image is not the only model presented tostudents.

The ultimate ugliness of stereotyping is that it bypasses humanity. Neither thenoble red man nor the savage Indian myth says much about Indians as humanbeings, people who are capable of 'the good, the bad and the ugly.' People whocan laugh, cry, hate and love. People who have dreams, aspirations, and hopes.People, like the rest of humanity, who are facing and adapting to change.(LaRoque, 1975, p. 43).

Indians often surround cultural knowledge in a cloak of mystery; theidea of many deep, dark cultural secrets is pervasive. It is true that certainknowledge, specifically related to traditional religious beliefs, isprivileged information. Knowing how to tan a hide or to do a rounddance, however, is common knowledge in many tribes. Along with thiscomes the assumption that there is only one way to do things whether it isputting up a teepee, sewing a moccasin, or telling a story—when in realitymany paths can lead to the same end, some more direct and preferablethan others.

Oral tradition is a prime example of flexibility in presenting culturalinformation. Indian stories are not memorized and told verbatim. Thebeauty of a story is created as each storyteller embellishes it according topersonal style, much the same way a good joke teller does. The basicdetails and ultimate message remain, but the flow of the story varies tosuit the occasion. That is why many tribes tell similar versions of the samestory with no one story being more accurate than another.

All of the issues mentioned thus far concerning community involve-ment in the curriculum development process have often created problemsfor either the Indian community or the school staff when implementingthe curriculum. Subsequent to development, issues pertaining to pub-lishing and disseminating the curriculum must also be considered.

Funding. Most current funding for Indian alternative programs, curricu-lar options, and schools comes from dwindling federal government

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sources (e.g., the Office of Indian Education, the Bureau of Indian Affairs,and Bilingual Education). The Ethnic Heritage Programs of the early 1970sprovided considerable support for the development of materials for allethnic groups. Rarely has a state (e.g., Alaska for the Athabascan Indians)ever funded such an effort. Some of the most successful auricular effortshave resulted from several tribal groups pooling their resources.

Copyright/ownership. Because most funding for curricular efforts comesfrom federal government sources, the right to copyright is waived. Sincefederal money is used, the materials are considered part of the publicdomain. One noteworthy exception, however, has been the Indian Read-ing Series: Stories and Legends of the Northwest. This program, funded by agrant from the National Institute of Education, annually coordinated thecurricular efforts of 17 tribal groups over the four-state area of Oregon,Washington, Idaho, and Montana. Copyright for the stories was securedin the names of the participating tribes.

The ownership of certain information also must be considered. Somefamilies, or even individuals, on the Northwest coast, for example, actu-ally own certain stories or information. Without their approval, thesematerials may not be used. In recent years, Indian people have becomereluctant to share cultural information because of previous exploitation.Outsiders have often collected information, rarely giving credit to thesources, and published the information at a personal profit.

Marketing. Ironically, the market for Indian materials is quite small,while the need in Indian communities is great. Consequently, there existsa high demand from a small population. The highly specific curriculumthat describes one or two tribal groups reaches a smaller market than doesmore generalized material. Often the materials that discuss Indian peoplein terms of large geographic areas (e.g., the Southwest, the Plains, theWoodland tribes) are the materials most often chosen by those few con-scientious teachers concerned with multicultural education.

Because something appears in print does not mean that someonesomewhere profits, especially when the printed materials are educa-tional. The publishing costs are staggering. It is a fallacy to believe thatmillions are to be made with the highly specific curriculum materialsneeded to upgrade Indian education.

Finally, in order to increase the size of the market, Indian curriculumdevelopers have concentrated on supplemental materials, which aremore adaptable and have a broader appeal and acceptability. Unfortu-nately, supplemental materials convey a subtle message to Indianstudents—that they too are only a vestige. Just as Indian culture cannottruly become a part of the core curriculum of schools, education cannotbecome a meaningful part of what being an Indian involves. Attending

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school and being an Indian person are seen as incompatible, like trying tomix oil and water.

Quality. It is important to present Indian culture in a format similar toother educational materials. First-rate materials exemplify pride andshow Indian students that their culture is the equal of any other. Toooften, locally developed materials must be cheaply dittoed to cut costs. Itis worth the extra expense of original copies to reassure students of theirworth. Second-rate materials indicate to students that they are also sec-ond rate.

The appearance of materials conveys messages to teachers as well. Theprofessional look of Indian materials suggests to them that time, plan-ning, and coordination have taken place. Furthermore, if the materialscontain teaching guides and additional "how to" information, they willbe used, especially since material from a different culture is difficult topresent without background information. The more teaching aids andsuggestions that are provided for the teacher, the more acceptable thematerials will be.

Teachers are busy people. When materials require a lot of extra re-search, teachers will often not use them. Teacher inservice will help thereluctant teacher get started, but many Indian community notions arebest when built into the materials themselves.

Educational Community Responsibility

The educational community's sensitive involvement in the develop-ment of culturally appropriate curriculum for Indians can ensure that theefforts of the Indian community will not be wasted.

Integration. School staff members should carefully determine how cul-tural information can integrate with the core curriculum. The educationalcommunity has tended to ignore the obvious, however, since much In-dian cultural content is already integrated, having been borrowed by thedominant society. Core curricular areas with samples of correspondingIndian cultural content topics are listed below:

Government—The United States representative form of government isbased on the Iroquois Confederacy.

History—Nearly all New World discoveries and explorations werebased on knowledge gained from Indian people.

Health—The "heathen" practice of bathing regularly was a practiceadopted from Indians.

Geography—Indian words for places can be seen everywhere (e.g.,Seattle, Oklahoma, Alabama, Chicago).

Literature—Many beautiful stories and legends told by all tribes werehanded down and are now part of the literature.

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Science—Quinine and other natural medicines had their origins in In-dian culture.

Agriculture—Nearly 80 % of all types of plants eaten in the world todaywere cultivated by Indians (e.g., corn, beans, potatoes, squash).

These are only a few examples of contributions by the Indian people.An inservice for teachers should occur on a regular basis to inform andupdate teachers on how to integrate materials into the core curriculumand on what techniques are effective with Indian students.

Feedback. The educational community can provide vital feedback onhow well materials are received by students, how dearly they are pre-sented, how appropriate they are for each grade level, how well they fitwith the instructional goals and objectives, what kinds of activities areappropriate, what additional information is needed, how long each pre-sentation will take, and much more. It is strongly recommended that thecurriculum be pilot-tested and revised (if needed) regularly.

Instructional techniques. At some point in the development process, theeducational community should attempt to incorporate the most effectivetechniques (for teacher use) for Indian students. Provisions should bemade for physical movement, alternative activity choices, student-directed activities based on experiential learning, and an emphasis onvisual and oral activities—all of which have been proven effective accord-ing to current research in Indian education. The curriculum shouldstrongly encourage small group work to help build peer support and tohelp provide a nonthreatening forum to improve student behavior.

We Are Building Fires Again

Massive bibliographic efforts by such programs as Project Media, Re-search and Development Program for Indian Education, Ohoyo ResourceCenter, numerous Title IV Indian Education programs nationwide, andstate departments of public instruction, specifically in states with sizeableIndian populations, have revealed that there is an abundance of materialsthat may be used for instructional purposes. The mere existence of mate-rials, however, has not guaranteed their usefulness or eliminated thefailure and alienation that Indian students are experiencing in school.

The most important consideration when examining culturally appro-priate curriculum for Indians involves how the curriculum is used oncedeveloped. It is not enough to bring resources into a school system; it ismore important to get the school system to use effectively whatever re-sources are available. The discussion of the use of culturally appropriatecurriculum concentrates on some of the most common implementationproblems observed in the education of Indian students.

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Integrating Culture

School districts educating Indian students have made minimal com-mitments to integrating Indian culture into the core curriculum. Mostoften a district will purchase a few Indian books or materials (too oftenstored in an office and rarely used), will set up a beading class (as part ofTitle IV Indian Education grant), or will offer an Indian class on a pull out,part-time, or extra-curricular basis. The Indian culture that surrounds theschool does not become an integral part of basic skill instruction for allstudents.

The assumption is often made that "culture" will only fit into the socialstudies curriculum, when in fact reading, writing, science, art, drama,physical education, and mathematics are also likely candidates. An inte-grated curriculum'says to students that "Indianness" relates to knowinghow to read, write, and do math problems. It is not just something to talkabout for 40 minutes during social studies class or for projects once a yearat Thanksgiving.

The amount of time (or lack of it) devoted to acknowledging the worthof another culture delivers powerful messages to students.

What better or faster medium is there than the school to display genuine apprecia-tion of the Indian heritage? It is in school that the larger world begins to take onsome meaning for most children. It is in school where negative attitudes towardNative people (which do not arise solely out of the school exerience) can beredirected. Since a people cannot exist on an island, it is not enough for Nativepeople to feel good about themselves. (La Roque, 1975, p. 23).

The school has a responsibility to saturate the entire school day and allcontent areas with references to a student's culture.

Content and Process

Some general guidelines for presenting culturally appropriate Indiancontent include:

Emphasizing contemporary issues rather than historical facts.

Focusing on the tribal group nearest the school. (An understanding ofthe local Indian community will give a better perspective on generali-zations made about Indians regionally and nationally. If many tribesare represented in one classroom, it is better to begin with the tribeclosest to the school community, of which one Indian student is amember, than to begin talking about Indians in generalizations as ifthey fit into one homogeneous group. The diversity of tribal groupsshould be emphasized whenever possible.)

Attempting to deal with real life, sometimes controversial issues. (It ismore valuable for students to discuss fishing rights issues, trust re-

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sponsibility, drug and alcohol abuse, and health issues than toexamine artifacts or visit a museum. Invite Indian and non-Indianpeople into the classroom to present all sides of an issue.)

Concentrating more on the processes of Indian life rather than theproducts. (When children are given end products without having ex-perienced the process, they cannot totally internalize all of theperiphery information and skills.)

Regarding the last point, La Roque (1975) has contended that:

A problem directly related to the confusion of the native past and present is themisguided emphasis upon visible material. Undoubtedly, an exhibition of glisten-ing quills, glossy beads, colorful feathers and beautiful Native costumes is appeal-ing and exciting to children. One can certainly understand why teachers havebeen prone to teach "Indian culture" in such a limited fashion. But this selectivetreatment of "culture" negates a wealth of intangibles that are a vital and integralpart of any culture. It is neither fair nor intellectually honest to fragment anyone'sheritage or culture into unrecognizable bits and pieces. We must seek to bewholistic in our teaching.

And Tafoya (1983, p . 46) said:

All the elements of traditional life contributed in making a complete Indian in theold days. The rituals of fasting, spirit quests, give-aways, and feasts all taughtthings that cannot simply be summed up and poured into a child's ear the wayconventional education pours in arithmetic. They are all processes of learning.The skills learned in beadwork, tanning hides, and traditional fishing all teachpatience as well as physical coordination. They developed a special relationshipbetween the student and instructor. They taught appreciation for the materials,and developed an understanding of man's dependence on nature. To teach a childthe relationship between human and forest, carver and wood, human and water,human and fish, is what is important, and not testing a child on knowing whatkind of wood was used or how long canoes were. Beadwork, weaving, andbasketmaking all teach a way of seeing the world in a different way, of being ableto visualize what does not yet exist, learning to see how patterns can be made ortaken away to build something that can be recognized or understood.

Like the Usefulness of the Fire Our Stories Help Us; Teach Us

To exemplify clearly the benefits of a culturally appropriate curriculumto students and the Indian and school community, a single program isexamined, one that has existed for years and has documented its results.The Pacific Northwest Indian Reading and Language Development Pro-gram (IRLDP), in operation since 1972, produced several comprehensivereports on the effects of its massive supplementary effort. The major fociof the IRLDP 1976-1977 evaluation were student outcomes (language pro-duction, classroom participation, and attitudes toward reading), and the

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impact on the home (parents' evaluation of materials, home learningsituations, etc.).

Although not a beginning reading text, the IRLDP provides supple-mentary materials to increase Indian students' ability and motivation toread. The expected student outcomes for the IRLDP might generally bedescribed as an overall improvement in students' attitudes toward lan-guage arts. Such an improvement might manifest itself in the followingways: (a) children would be willing to display verbal communication; (b)children would participate in the classroom at a high rate; and (c) chil-dren's attitudes toward reading would improve.

The use of standardized achievement tests for assessment was consid-ered but rejected, partially because the curriculum was supplementary innature and only required 20 minutes of classroom use per day. Consider-ing that commercial language arts curricula were used for up to two hoursper day in many schools, it was felt that any change detected on a stand-ardized test would probably be a function of the particular commercialcurriculum being used in the test school.

Finally, the IRLDP activities did not require students to memorize anyspecific vocabulary words or perform any specific language "skill" (e.g.,proper work pronunciation, proper sentence structure). Having rejectedspecific skill development and standardized testing, the IRLDP staff wasfaced with developing an evaluation plan and instruments to match thecurriculum objectives.

A sample of 12 first-grade classes, 12 second-grade classes, and 12third-grade classes in Oregon, Idaho, Washington, and Montana wereselected to field test the curriculum. Indian students in all three groupswere tested near the beginning of the school year and posttested in Aprilon instruments designed to measure their language production andfluency. All third-grade students were pre- and posttested on an "at-titude toward reading scale." In addition, all students were observedperiodically to assess their interest in the IRLDP program materials andactivities.

In summary, some interesting and positive data were generated. First,second, and third grade Indian students in classes using IRLDP cur-riculum showed excellent gains in oral language production and complex-ity. When compared with their control group counterparts on the posttest(Retell a Story) they consistently produced longer stories with more dif-ficult words. Even more dramatic, perhaps, was the analysis of the rela-tively nonverbal children. Those identified as low responders all madegains over the year, but the children using the IRLDP curriculum hadmuch higher posttest scores than children in the control group (114.5 vs.88.2 total words).

Another positive indicator of program benefits was classroom partici-

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pation: more children took part in the IRLDP activities (86.5%) than theirregular reading/language arts activities (76.9%). This was a confirmationof a high level of interest, which was sustained by students over the entireyear.

A major goal of the IRLDP curriculum was to foster positive attitudestoward reading activities: children who enjoy reading will read more, andthis in turn will enhance their reading skill development. Studentsthroughout all six levels of the IRLDP have had very positive attitudestoward the materials but have not equated them with their formal readinginstruction. "Oh, I like these stories," said one Indian boy, "but this isn'treading." The evaluation was unable to document the impact of theIRLDP intermediate materials on this area until later. Student and teacherinterviews revealed that students were reading more than they had priorto IRLDP use.

At the end of the school year, 160 parents of participating students wereinterviewed to obtain their evaluation of the IRLDP materials their chil-dren brought home and to document the learning activities that IRLDPbooks generated among family members. The assessment of the pro-gram's impact on the home also had some positive findings. Parentsoverwhelmingly found the IRLDP books useful (94%) and worthwhile(87.5%). They reported more family involvement in school-related andother language activities with IRLDP materials than with other bookstheir children brought home.

Finally, over the 10 years of IRLDP curriculum development, teachersand school staff have consistently voiced opinions that the materials andsubsequent teacher manuals have contributed significantly to their un-derstanding of and appreciation for their Indian students. They have alsonoticed positive attitudes on the part of non-Indian students towardsIndian culture and students.

Although this is only one of many successful Indian curriculum pro-grams, it is apparent that the benefits are many for community, students,and teachers. The message of the IRLDP for the community was dear:The school values your contribution; by sending your children to a schoolusing these materials you are not cutting them off from your own valuesand culture. For Indian children the message was slightly different:Learning to read is not just associated with school; it has something to dowith those traditional values your parents and grandparents talk about.Reading can deal with topics of interest to you. For the teacher, too, therewas a similar message: Reading is a method to relate all of us to ourculture, and while its main emphasis is on the Western culture associatedwith modern life, it can help all groups to find out about their heritage.

Thus, although the IRLDP did not use the native language, it was ableto have the effect of introducing values of the home into the school. It

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reduced an otherwise inevitable conflict: where previously school andreading were seen as alien to and working against traditional home val-ues, now they shared with parents and tribe in the maintenance of thistraditional culture.

In general, the impact of culturally appropriate curriculum can be sig-nificant in terms of promoting high student interest, greater participation,and, to some extent, academic gains. The documentation of resultingacademic achievement has been skimpy at best and in need of seriousresearch. Usually on the fringe of basic educational programs, culturallyappropriate curriculum has not been adequately assessed in terms ofacademic achievement.

Achievement gains are dependent upon teacher and school commit-ment. The curriculum has made it easier for the educational staff to be-come knowledgeable about and sensitive to the Indian students in theclassrooms, but if teachers are not willing to use a culturally appropriatecurriculum and use it regularly, the results are negligible.

Finally, culturally appropriate curriculum has generated considerablesupport from Indian parents and their community. The schooling of In-dian students has become a more meaningful experience, helping tribesactualize self-determination. Where previously schools were seen as aliento and working against traditional and home values, now they share withparents and tribe in the maintenance of that traditional culture.

These Stories Give Us a Place on This Ground toContinue Becoming Who We Are

Much progress has been made with the development and use of cultur-ally appropriate curriculum. Some significant gains have been made:

There is an abundance of curriculum that has been produced under thecontrol of Indian people, most of it dealing with the social studiescontent area.

Indian communities nationwide have participated more actively in thetotal schooling process, particularly in making decisions about whattheir students should be learning in school. Parents are more informedand cooperative and are feeling a greater sense of pride in schoolseducating Indian students.

The expertise of Indian people as curriculum developers has beenupgraded and refined.

There is an increased awareness of and sensitivity to the Indian stu-dents and community on the part of school staff. Many educators areattempting to use culturally appropriate curriculum and research toimprove the total school experience for the Indian student.

Yet, with all that has been accomplished, we are still faced with the

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staggering statistics mentioned earlier. The positive gains of a few, how-ever, can become examples of a successful beginning point for manyothers, educators and Indian community alike. Some possible focalpoints for future action are listed below.

1. Plans for future culturally appropriate curriculum developmentshould:

Concentrate on the production of materials that will affect the entirecurriculum (not just social studies)—materials that are basic skillsoriented, contain locally specific cultural content information and pro-vide a realistic balance between historical and contemporary informa-tion.Encourage the development of curriculum by jointly applying for theavailable resources. The collaboration of many diverse tribal groupsmay secure resources that individual tribes are not able to acquirealone.

2. Plans for future culturally appropriate curriculum use should include:A reliable system for disseminating materials. Materials must be re-moved from library shelves and placed in the hands of teachers andstudents who will use them.Identification of access points in the school district curriculum so thatexisting Indian curriculum may be integrated throughout the basicskills areas.

Teacher training on a regular basis so that teachers are sensitive to andknowledgeable about the concerns and lifestyle of Indian people.Teachers need continued help with teaching techniques that have beenproven effective with Indian students.

Additional research that specifically focuses on effects on the academicachievement of Indian students.

America's many heritages reflect customs, beliefs, and traditions fromall parts of the world. It is ironic that so much has been written, said, andportrayed relative to those heritages brought here by immigrants and solittle information shared concerning those indigenous to this land, theAmerican Indians. Schools have an obligation to all students to becomemore sensitive to society's indebtedness to Indian people for their valu-able contributions to contemporary America.

Indian people continue in the painful process of developing their iden-tity. They are experiencing new emotions, gaining new insights, andfacing new challenges as their self-awareness grows. It is up to schools touse the thinking and talents of Indian people whenever and whereverpossible in the classroom. All students, Indian and non-Indian, will bene-fit.

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REFERENCES

American Indian Policy Review Commission. (1976). Report on Indian education.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Antell, L. (1980). Indian education, problems in need of resolution. Denver: Educa-tion Commission of the States.

Locke, P. A., Pfeiffer, A. B., Ridlier, J. B., Simon, S. M., & Whiteman, H. (1977).American Indians. In M. J. Gold, C. A. Grant, & H. N. Rivlin (Eds.), Inpraise of diversity: A resource book for multicultural education. Washington,DC: Teacher Corps and the Association of Teacher Education.

Tafoya, T. (1982). Native bilingual education: Oral tradition and the teacher. Thedirections of Indian and Native education: Culture, content, and container.Bilingual Resources, 4, Nos. 2-3.

United States Senate. (1969). Indian education: A national tragedy-A national chal-lenge. Senate Report, 91st Congress, 1st Session. Committee on Labor andPublic Welfare, Special Subcommittee on Indian Education.

Walker, D. (1982). An analysis of the Indian reading series from an anthopologicaland cultural perspective. In The reading series: An examination of its bases ineducation and their implications for the future. Portland OR: Northwest Re-gional Educational Laboratory.

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Documents

The development and use of culturally appropriate curriculum for American Indian students