THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HISTORIC FLOWER GARDENS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Garden History Society

THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HISTORIC FLOWER GARDENS OF THETWENTIETH CENTURYAuthor(s): JOHN SALESSource: Garden History, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Winter 2009), pp. 218-225Published by: The Garden History SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27821597 .

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NOTES & QUERIES

THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HISTORIC FLOWER

GARDENS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Gardens have been and remain one of the greatest cultural and artistic contributions of the British to Western civilization. The widespread and

sophisticated appreciation of gardens, especially flower gardens of the twentieth century, is

demonstrated by the millions of visitors who pay to see those open to the public. However, because

they are composed of both fixed architectural and

changing biological elements and are subject to the

vagaries of site, climate, pathogens and accidents, their conservation is often misunderstood. The

principles governing the conservation of the built elements of historic gardens are bound to follow those of historic buildings. They are widely understood but clearly have limited application where living plants are concerned. This paper discusses the principles, strategies and practices involved in the management of historic flower gardens and proposes guidelines for their effective long-term conservation.

Gardens (and landscape parks) are places arranged and managed for production, effect and

enjoyment incorporating site, land form, plants, animals, artefacts and water. Conservation is defined by English Heritage as:

the process of managing change to a

significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values,

while recognising opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations.1

While a garden that is being managed consistently with skill, foresight, imagination and artistry is easily recognizable, it is less easy to analyse

what makes it unique and how it may continue to relate to the place and its former owners, i.e. its heritage values. In recent years a number of historic flower gardens have been restored or

recreated using available evidence from the past, experience demonstrating that every garden needs constant care and a long-term plan if it is to survive. Each of them demands clear principles and strategies for their conservation, based upon an analysis of their special significance and

heritage value.

APPROACH

A sound approach has been to examine best

practice and to draw out principles and

strategies learned through the experience of

expert practitioners who have been recognizably successful in conserving and managing significant flower gardens that have enjoyed continuity in

upkeep and development since they were first made. It has been said that every flower garden dies with its creator and that any attempt at retaining the qualities of the original and continuing to

garden in a similar style is futile. But clearly most

people consider the attempt worthwhile and it is undeniable that gardens such as Sissinghurst

Castle where the essence of the originator's creation is perpetuated have continued to have as

great, if not greater, influence since the owners' death than before (Figure 1). They also continue to provide a huge amount of interest, inspiration and enjoyment for millions of visitors.

The aim, therefore, has been to formulate, for important twentieth-century flower gardens, principles and strategies that ensure that each

garden retains its significance in relation to its

history, the distinctiveness of the place, and the values and gardening style of the person(s) for whom it was created, i.e. the qualities that made the garden worthy of preservation. In order to do

this, these principles and strategies need to allow and encourage the highest standards of creative flower gardening, i.e. the vitality that is essential to flower gardens at their best.

UNDERSTANDING FLOWER GARDENS

Almost all flower gardens consist of a semi

permanent structure of land form, buildings, water, and so on, often incorporating pre

existing elements, together with a community of plants arranged and sustained for effect and

involving all the senses. Constant change and

development -

short-, medium- and long-term - is therefore fundamental to gardens and most marked in flower gardens because of the diversity and dynamism of their plants. Within their

semi-permanent structure they change quickly because each consists of a unique community of

interdependent life cycles - a specially contrived,

man-made ecosystem. Managing this constant

change with an ideal in mind is the essence of flower gardening.

In many ways flower gardens have a life of their own through their plants interacting with

site, climate, diseases, pests and accidents, and



HISTORIC FLOWER GARDENS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 219

Figure 1. Sissinghurst Castle, Kent: The Cottage Garden. Over more than forty years since Vita Sackville-West died, each element of the garden has been consistently cultivated, reworked, and enriched, in

pursuit of a separate artistic, historic and horticultural ideal, as part of a coherent vision for the whole garden. All photos: author

with one another. But change and renewal have also to be consistently anticipated, provoked, manipulated and controlled by gardeners. It is the nature, degree and intensity of this necessarily constant intervention, including the special skills and techniques of the place, that constitutes a

particular garden style. Furthermore, it is the cumulative impact of a series of actions, decisions and judgements, large and small, that constitute the artistry of flower gardening. Although an

ephemeral art form, flower gardening at its best is

analogous with the work of artist craftsmen, like

potters and silversmiths, as well as comparable in some ways to the performing arts such as music

and dramatic art.

Arguably the vital thing about flower

gardens is that although the design and quality of the structure and setting may be important, it is the plants that determine the outcome and the value of the garden

- their selection, arrangement, cultivation, renewal, continuity of display and so on. The management of these elements is what

distinguishes the great from the ordinary and the

inspiring from the predictable.

ORIGIN AND STATUS

Significant historic flower gardens of the twentieth

century have been created and developed in a

variety of ways affecting their conservation.

Firstly, they may have been designed on paper and planted anew according to a preconceived concept, e.g. Hestercombe (Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens), Barrington Court (Jekyll and Messrs Forbes and Tate, architects for Colonel

Lyle), and Castle Drogo (George Dillistone and

Lutyens) (Plate X). Secondly, they may have been

superimposed, often piecemeal and without a

preconceived plan, over the structure of a pre

existing historic garden layout, usually retaining elements of the older planting such as at Powis

Castle, Knightshayes Court, and Great Dixter

(Figure 2 and Plate XI). Thirdly, they may have been created over a lifetime, piecemeal where there was no garden, without a preconceived

master plan, according to the owners' developing concept and resources as at Sissinghurst and

Hidcote (Figure 3). Fourthly, they may remain as private gardens in the hands of the family that created them, usually developing gradually



220 GARDEN HISTORY 37:2

Figure 2. Great Dixter, East Sussex: within and around Sir Edwin Lutyens's formal structure~of enclosed spaces and terraces, the garden has been continually developed over the past forty years or so by Christopher Lloyd as a series of

extemporary changes, inevitably becoming the consummate

expression of his artistic and horticultural ideals. Although Fergus Garrett is the supreme exponent of this style, continuity is a great challenge

through a series of extemporary changes, continuing to be conserved and renewed in a

similar tradition as at Kiftsgate, Sezincote, and

Sleightholmdale (Figure 4). Whatever their origin, flower gardens of

the twentieth century were made according to

the wishes of a single individual or more often two or even three working closely together. Any attempt at retaining the distinctiveness of such

gardens depends very largely on understanding the character of the garden's creator(s)

- their

philosophy, taste, motives, interests, gardening style, prejudices, constraints, ideas; together with the people who may have been a strong influence on them, such as Norah Lindsay at Hidcote or

Fergus Garrett at Great Dixter. A flower garden that remains within the ownership of the person or the family that made and developed it over a

period is on the whole more likely to retain its distinctiveness because those who inherit the

garden, while adapting it to their needs, taste and

resources, are likely to understand the gardening

style of their predecessors.2 And, regardless of their origins, all gardens will have continued to

develop and respond to changing circumstances -

financial, access, ownership, function - and to

adapt to maturity, climate, staffing and methods of upkeep. The aim should be to minimize the

impact of these often cyclical changes on the

significant qualities of the place.

CONSERVATION

Because of inevitable development and change, whatever its origins the only practicable way of

guiding a garden's long-term conservation is by reference to a clear philosophy for it as a whole and a well-described ideal for each part. It is

unlikely that these ideals, even if consistently pursued, would ever be completely met, but they should remain as aspirations and a framework to guide present and future decision-making and

management.




Figure 3. Hidcote Manor, Gloucestershire: created over thirty years from 1907 by Lawrence

Johnston with help from Norah Lindsay, The National Trust acquired the garden in 1948

following war-time decline, and had to learn about conserving historic flower gardens. The

garden's renewal after 1955 has followed this steep learning curve, much helped in recent years

by new funding, undreamed of even twenty years ago. Nevertheless, over sixty years the garden has consistently provided inspiration and a high standard by which subsequent endeavours in

garden and plant conservation could be compared

Where original planting plans exist they will provide a valuable reference for adjustment, reworking and renewal, but gardens cannot

be preserved to a fixed blueprint. Instead, the

plans need to be carefully analyzed to establish the full aesthetic, horticultural and design intentions of each border or area, including such elements as period of display, colour scheme,

fragrance, textural effects, balance of evergreens to deciduous, plant associations and seasonal

infilling. In this way the perceived ideal for each area would be established. Beginning by planting as near as possible to the original scheme, the border would then follow an extended period of

cyclical development -

adjustment, enrichment and renewal - in pursuit of the perceived ideal before total renovation and a return to the

original plan. In this way the historical integrity of the garden and its links with the designer and former owner would be protected while the

gardener would be free to practise the highest standards of flower gardening.

Where there had been no original formal

plan, or the original plan had disappeared, the

process should nevertheless be similar. From all available evidence, including recent practice, an

ideal should be established for each border or

area, setting out in detail the style of upkeep and the overall effect to be sought. This character

description should set out the horticultural and aesthetic intention and the special qualities of

each area in sophisticated detail and would seek to promote constant development to this end rather than to inhibit change. It is the nature of

change that matters not change itself. The best flower gardens do not consist of a series of static

tableaux, like flower show gardens, but rather a

unified design of original and imaginative plant combinations, each a different dynamic process.

To retain this desirable freshness and

dynamism, flower borders require upkeep, adjustment and reworking at appropriate intervals

arising from critical observation and horticultural

necessity. It goes without saying that conservation includes frequent detailed upkeep to deal with

daily and weekly development and the annual cultural requirements of plants. However, every

repeated task has a cumulative effect as well as an immediate impact. Taking each area in turn,

cyclical reworking and renewal are also essential to keep the garden lively and interesting, and to retain a balance of freshness and maturity.

In flower gardening change should always be reversible except where plants have become unavailable or impossible to replace because of the effect of ineradicable diseases, or pests, or

climate change. Change should be recorded in an

appropriate way and at appropriate intervals to

provide a visual record and a running catalogue of

plant content and arrangement. However valuable it is, realistically this process is expensive and detailed recording should not be at the expense




Figure 4. Kiftsgate Court, Gloucestershire: given an enlightened and informed approach and sufficient resources, nothing is better than a flower garden being conserved as a going concern

by subsequent generations of the family that made it, following their inherited attitudes and traditions. Nevertheless, at least an outline plan of the garden's long-term conservation is highly desirable setting out its significant qualities, characteristics, and values, and how they may be

sustained

of conservation and upkeep, which must always have priority.

PLANTS

A flower garden's character and distinctiveness is to a large degree defined by the spectrum of its plant collection, which is in turn related to its topographical features and range of habitats.

As far as is practicable a garden's inherited stock of plants should be conserved, catalogued, and researched as to their origins and special characteristics. Priority should be given to

conserving rare and unique plant material, especially original introductions from the wild. A

range of species and cultivars should be identified and listed as iconic to the garden, i.e. those that would always feature prominently, while others

may be looked upon as secondary, cyclical or even ephemeral.

While the policy should differ according to the origins of the garden, in no circumstance should the acquisition of new plants or the elimination of existing plants be ruled out. Even iconic plants can become unusable because of

pandemic pathogens or climate change and in some flower gardens the free flow of plants is

part of the essential character of the place. The policy for gardens which began as

finite schemes designed on paper should be more conservative than those developed in an

extemporary way, continually being altered over

their existence. For gardens originally designed on paper new introductions should be restricted to plants chosen as substitutes for those no

longer available or which are now impossible to

grow satisfactorily; plants chosen for positions made impossible for the original choice due to

shade, root competition, etc.; and cyclical and

ephemeral plants chosen to bolster the perceived ideal for the border or area. The policy for any

garden which has been designed and developed in an extemporary way should vary according to the special qualities and significance of the

place. The approach may also differ from one

part of the garden to another, the preservation of the distinctive historic character of the planting being the guiding imperative. In some places innovative and experimental planting schemes

may be distinctive historically; in other places it

may be historically appropriate for the feature to

change only in detail. For many flower gardens the continual

introduction of new or different plants has been an important element of their historic

significance. There may have been a flow of plant species collected from the wild; plants 'saved' from other gardens or given by gardening friends; and sometimes new introductions reflecting the

plant fashions of the time. For the preservation of distinctiveness it is essential that this flow should




continue, but stated policy needs to explain accurately the subtleties of plant selection in relation to conservation objectives. In some cases

the temporary or permanent reintroduction of lost plants, known to have been in the garden at some time, may be an important element of

plant policy. To help retain distinctiveness, it is

frequently useful in flower gardens to identify types of plants and even specific taxa that have no relevance to the design, character, and ethos of the place and therefore should be excluded. These will usually relate to the personal taste

and possibly unwitting prejudices of the former

owner(s).

STRUCTURE

To a greater or lesser extent a flower garden's spatial design is determined by its built elements -

walls, steps, buildings, ornaments, paths, etc. -

together with its site, land form and water. In historic gardens this fabric should be sustained

according to the now established precepts for

conserving historic artefacts - timely maintenance,

repair and possible replacement or addition. These elements may be more or less historically important in their own right. In gardens woody

plants almost always play an important role in

defining the overall structural design through their use as hedges, avenues, topiary and arbours as well as more informally in groups, as specimens and in borders. Frequently these plantings will be decorative as well as structural.

Although development and decay is slower than with herbaceous and border plants, a long term strategy is necessary for the conservation of structural plantings. This should involve a phased programme of hedge and topiary renovation; also shrub and tree pruning to regain their scale and a

balance of light and shade. This is also desirable to retain a measure of dynamism and maturity in the garden. In some cases, often at considerable

expense, it is appropriate to remove completely and replant formal avenues, groves and hedges, but as far as practicable it is right to retain as much as possible of the original planting, provided this does not jeopardize the significant

qualities of the feature or the garden as a whole. For biological reasons and because of the

desirability of continuity, it is rarely appropriate to aim to replace woody plants like-for-like

indefinitely on the same site. This is especially so

with informal plantations, where the exact site of each plant may not be significant and where there is a need to replant well before the original plant is lost. Instead, precise aims and ideals should be established for each area, based upon a full

analysis of significance, and a planned programme of regeneration and replanting established.

STAFFING AND MANAGEMENT

The most important single factor in the successful conservation of flower gardens is the calibre, sufficiency and continuity of the

garden staff, including its management. Funding

needs to be enough to employ continuously a core of skilled gardeners with sound judgement and observational ability. Basic horticultural

training alone is insufficient. The way to learn a distinctive style of gardening is to work in the garden alongside people with extensive

experience and understanding of that garden. The garden needs to be led dynamically by someone with a deep knowledge of the garden and its plants and a full understanding of the

values, character and approach of the person(s) who made it and subsequently developed it. The person in charge needs to possess qualities of imagination, foresight and creativity as well as an outstanding knowledge of plants and of

gardening skills relevant to the place. Succession to this key position should be pre-planned. Rates of remuneration for permanent staff at all levels should be sufficient to attract and retain people of high calibre, good training and previous experience.

To ensure continuity every major flower

garden should have a training scheme so as to

provide for future staffing and add to the pool of skilled gardeners nationally. As with plants, a flow of fresh people through the garden staff

invigorates the garden. If practicable, flower

gardens should recruit and deploy voluntary staff for a variety of important but not strictly essential

jobs and to make their own special contribution to the garden. Volunteers should not be used

generally in an attempt to replace permanent gardeners but they may well, through training and experience, aspire to become professionals. In some circumstances and with appropriate instruction and direction, volunteers can

successfully play a crucial role in the conservation of an historic flower garden.

POLICY AND STRATEGIC PLANNING

Statement of significance

Long-term conservation policy and priority should be based on a carefully considered statement of the full significance of the garden set out as far as possible in order of precedence, beginning with the most important. Significance in a flower

garden would refer to its origin, creator(s) and what it is that makes the place unique

- its design, planting, style of upkeep, staffing, and special characteristics and traditions. Significance is not

confined to objects and design or related entirely to history; it can include aesthetics, social, educational, recreational, cultural, architectural, horticultural, biological and environmental elements. It is likely to involve processes of

development, production and decay, systems of

upkeep and renewal, and skills vital to the place. It should also include important but less tangible qualities of character and ethos; also values, meaning and potential.

Effective conservation relies upon a full and effective assessment of these elements of

significance, followed by an accurate analysis of their relative importance to one to another and to gardens generally. It is neither possible nor




desirable to preserve everything and it is essential to establish an order of precedence, especially

where resources are limited or where major adaptation is envisaged.

The statement of significance should be assembled principally through the joint efforts of those who know the garden best, i.e. those who have managed and maintained it for some time, preferably if possible consulting its maker(s), either directly or through his/her recorded views. It is valuable also to involve someone who has a broader perspective of flower gardens. This should be someone who is able to make expert and informed comparisons with other gardens, so as

better to understand the defining characteristics of the garden in question. The views of the non

expert visitor can also be valuable and there may be a need to consult specialists in one or more narrow fields of significance. The statement of

significance should be reviewed periodically.

Conservation and management principles

Both strategic and routine management should be guided by principles of conservation for the

property as a whole and for each part of it, expressed as concisely as possible. These principles should arise logically from the statement of

significance, stating clearly the fundamental

policies and assumptions governing all decisions -

management priority, planting style, standard of upkeep, nature conservation, etc., as well as restoration, renewal, adaptation, access, education, repair of the fabric, interpretation, enterprises, staffing, training and other matters of general concern.

These principles need to take into account the realities and constraints arising out of changed circumstances such as different ownership, change of use, reduced resources, planning constraints, current legislation and altered surroundings. Again these principles need to be set out in order of precedence as far as possible, bearing in mind that some are likely to be interdependent with others. A good set of conservation and

management principles should be capable of

contributing to every important management decision as well as guiding conservation priority.

Conservation management plan The principal purpose of the conservation

management plan is to establish an achievable vision for the place as a whole and for each identifiable part of it. This is best formulated

through considerations of historic precedent, perceived ideal (aesthetic, horticultural, environmental, etc.), constraints of all kinds

(resources, skills, climate, etc.), opportunities (adaptations, enrichment, etc.) and proposals (for the whole and for each character area concerned). Covering the entire garden, this vision should indicate a clear basis for conservation and renewal and provide an explanation for actions, vital for any record or archive.

Proposals need to be rated for priority and

given an order of precedence flowing from the

statement of significance and the management

principles. Proposals should, if necessary, be

phased to take account of the realities of staffing, likely resources and other practical considerations.

They should not usually be written as single events but should instead be couched in terms

that imply timelessness (i.e. long-term strategies and repeated cycles of work and renewal). They should be reviewed periodically.

Continuing management and conservation

In gardens, consistent renewal is a legitimate part of conservation and this may involve some small scale restoration as well as replanting and repair of the fabric. But the need for comprehensive restoration results from discontinuity of

management and failure to conserve the

significant qualities of the place. Stability in

management, administration and funding are

vital for long-term conservation and every effort should be made to secure an assured income stream. Gardens being at least seventy per cent

dependent on labour, the extent to which ideals established in the conservation management plan can be achieved and sustained will be directly dependent on future income.

Where the preferred option of continuing, enlightened, private ownership and funding is no

longer possible, ownership and management by a

charitable trust or by the state may become viable

options. In any event, a conservation management plan is desirable, but in the case of new ownership it is vital so as to prevent erosion or even total loss of the garden's significant qualities and values.

Change of ownership almost always involves

change of use as well as different priorities and levels of funding. Inevitable adaptation to new uses including extensive opening to visitors and institutional or commercial use of buildings have

potentially huge impacts, involving losses and sometimes gains. In such cases it is impossible to retain all the former characteristics of the

place and it is essential that there should be an

adequate statement of significance which sets out these significant features, qualities and values in order of perceived precedence so that priority can be clearly understood.

Even comparatively enlightened new

ownership can lead to a gradual erosion of character and loss of significant values due to

unsympathetic commercial activities, unrestricted

access, unsuitable events, unrestrained car

parking, increased noise, inappropriate smells, overcrowding, too many signs, creeping corporate identity, health and safety issues, etc. Perhaps the

most important responsibility of management should be to minimize or eliminate these impacts

while retaining the viability of the place. An

adequate set of conservation and management principles should be capable of guiding all

important management decisions and dilemmas. Gardens are frequently extended and

adapted according to the needs of succeeding generations, thereby enriching the historic and horticultural value of the garden. This is




not appropriate for every historic garden and the management principles should set out a

reasoned policy towards expansion, based upon the significant qualities and values of the place and available resources. Gardens are constantly changing through maturity and development and

through the effect of a series of management decisions, both horticultural and administrative. It is highly desirable that such change should be

monitored and subject to constructive criticism

by an informed outsider with knowledge of the

place and a breadth of experience sufficient to

make informed judgements. Routine visits by an

expert consultant of this kind can be a valuable

complement to the expertise of owners and

property staff.

SUMMARY

For the successful conservation of historic

gardens, unbroken stability and continuity of

purpose are vital. For every garden a conservation/

management plan is essential, based upon the full significance of the place. Although there are superficial similarities in gardens in respect of structural plantings, there is an obvious fundamental difference between (dead) artefacts and living organisms. For their conservation,

plants and plant communities in gardens demand a different approach and different measures

compared with buildings, based upon their

special significance and their nature as contrived

ecosystems. Conserving historic flower gardens is at

least as much about renewal as repair; as much about adaptation as reconstruction; as much about judgement as technique; as much about

management as maintenance; as much about cultivation as stabilization; as much about

propagation as protection; as much about

dynamism as repetition; as much about aspiration as preservation; as much about observation as

archive; as much about systems as solutions; as much about process as product; as much about

performance as prescription; as much about

choreography as design; as much about people as

places; as much about pragmatism as principle; as much about style as structure; and as much about the future as the past.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper arose out of a conference on the

principles, strategies and practices involved in the effective long-term conservation and management of historic flower gardens held at Great Dixter, Sussex, on 3 September 2008, and supported by English Heritage, the Great Dixter Trust, and the Garden History Society. The conference focus was extant flower gardens of wide cultural

significance and great horticultural importance, principally of the twentieth century, but including those with earlier origins. However, it became

increasingly clear during the conference that the

principles apply equally to the conservation of all kinds of gardens, even landscape parks. The author acknowledges the contributions of the conference participants (Anne Chambers, Sarah

Cook, Alexis Datta, Sue Dickinson, John Ellis, Fergus Garrett, Peter Hall, Rosanna James, Sean

O'Gaoithin, Sophie Piebenga, Neil Porteous, Matthew Rees, Mick Thompson and Liz Whittle) to the conclusions and recommendations forming this paper.

JOHN SALES

Covertside, Perrotts Brook, Cirencester, Gloucestershire GL7 7BW, UK

REFERENCES 1 English Heritage, Conservation Principles,

Policies and Guidance for the Sustainable

Management of the Historic Environment

(London, 2008). 2 Nevertheless, if only for the sake of

posterity, it would be invaluable if garden owners were to record at least an abbreviated version of a conservation/management plan, especially with regard to significance, principles of management, and ideals for the garden as a whole and for each part of it.



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THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HISTORIC FLOWER GARDENS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY