The Coal Handbook: Towards Cleaner Production || Advances in coal mining technology

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

193

7 Advances in coal mining technology

L. LIEN , United Finance and Management Services, USA

DOI : 10.1533/9780857097309.2.193

Abstract : This chapter reviews methods of coal extraction, with a focus on advances in technology. The two main methods of coal mining – underground and surface mining – are fi rst described. The following sections cover advances in coal mining machinery and systems, with extensive discussion of the role of robotics and automation. Advances in coal mining operational and information systems are then addressed, followed by some examples of robotics and automation in particular mines worldwide. The chapter concludes with an overview of likely future trends, such as improved safety, productivity and industry consolidation.

Key words : coal extraction, mining transformation, surface coal mining equipment, underground coal mining equipment, automation in mining, mines using automation, advanced communication in mines.

7.1 Introduction

According to the World Coal Association, annual worldwide production

of coal in 2011 was 6637 million tonnes (Mt) of hard coal and 1041 Mt of

brown coal/lignite. * Coal is used as fuel in industries such as steel production

and cement manufacture, and is the primary fuel for electricity generation

worldwide (coal-fi red power plants currently produce 41% of global elec-

tricity). At present extraction rates, coal will continue to be a major source

of energy for the next century and, since 2000, global coal consumption has

grown faster than any other fuel, with the fi ve largest coal users – China,

USA, India, Russia and Japan – accounting for 77% of total global coal use

(EIA, 2012; World Coal Association, 2012).

The extraction of coal in the mining industry is in transformation, and

will change as the entire mining industry changes. The industry is becoming

more automated, more productive and safer, with better communications,

* Mention of particular companies and their products is made for illustration pur-poses only and does not imply endorsement by the author, editor or publisher. Readers are encouraged to consider the chapter as a starting point and use other resources to complete their exploration of the subject.

194 The coal handbook


fewer directly engaged miners, and more streamlined management struc-

tures. Mines are also becoming larger. The transformation began in the mid

1990s, and over the next 10 years will duplicate the transformation that has

taken place in the engineering business. During the last 30 years, the number

of engineering staff required has reduced considerably due to the increased

use of powerful computers and computerized control systems in the work-

place. Factors precipitating the changes in the mining industry include:

increased liabilities and costs of environmental concerns; safety issues and

government regulations; less available coal and more diffi cult deposits; the

advent of automated systems, including measurement and controls systems;

introduction of more productive and economical robotic equipment; and

the increasing size, capacity and sophistication of new and bigger coal min-

ing and related excavation and haulage equipment (Lien, 2011).

It is expected that annual production in the mining industry will increase

due to increased productivity and the use of larger and more produc-

tive equipment, coupled with more comprehensive geological and engi-

neering planning and more accurate measurement of productivity, costs

and environmental characteristics. Engineering has and will continue to

become more specifi c, accurate, precise and expensive and measurement

of progress, production, costs, and productivity more thorough and timely.

Quality assurance is also now a key focus area as capacities expand and

sampling and analysis become challenged by the larger scale of operation.

7.1 Mining is transitioning over time, progressing to more and more

automation. (Courtesy of Canadian Institute of Mining.)

Advances in coal mining technology 195


As transformation accelerates, smaller, less safe and high cost mines will be

closed, while coal mined via surface mining will become even more predom-

inant in the industry.

Some evidence for this transformation in the mining industry, particularly

coal extraction, comes from research showing that the needed working popu-

lation in this industry is shrinking or remaining stable, even though the indus-

try is expanding (Lien, 2009). While much of the research was done for the

industry in the United States, this is believed to be an emerging global trend.

Granted certain areas of the world are experiencing diffi culty in recruiting

skilled personnel, however, the manning structure of mining is changing dra-

matically. Just as it happened in the engineering and manufacturing indus-

tries in the 1980s and 1990s, it seems that the mining industry is changing, in

that a lot more work is now being done by a lot fewer people.

The dramatic increase in the application of robotics and automation is par-

ticularly worthy of note. Efforts in this area began in the mid 1990s; however,

uptake was neither immediate nor trouble-free. In 2001, a senior researcher

working at the experimental mine of the University of Queensland, Australia,

commented: ‘The success of automation applications in the mining industry

has traditionally not been good’ (Lever, 2001). In his opinion, the benefi ts of

automation at that time had been overstated and oversold as defi nitive solu-

tions for increasing safety and productivity. But many of the applications had

been introduced prematurely and without appropriate fi eld testing to ensure

they would work under the rigors of the mining physical environment. More

importantly, the culture of the mine was not ready for what was required to

make an automated system work (Fig. 7.1).

Undergroundmining methods

Original landsurface

Dragline removingmountain top

Surface miningmethods

Draglinein pit

Rock spoil

Coal beds

Bulldozer alongcontour bench

Augermining

Pillars

Rockspoil

Drift mine

Coal beds

Slope mine

Shaft mine

Coa

l el

evat

or

Min

ers’

elev

ator

7.2 Coal extraction takes many different forms for both underground

and surface.



This chapter opens with an overview of coal mining methods, cover-

ing both underground and surface mining. The following sections review

advances in coal mining technologies, with focus on automation and robot-

ics. Further sections review the importance of operational and information

systems and then address and give examples of robotics and automation

in particular mines worldwide. The chapter concludes with an overview of

likely future trends.

7.2 Coal extraction methods

Coal mining is generally classifi ed as either surface or opencast mining, and

underground or deep mining. Generally the type of coal mining selected is

determined by the geological characteristics of the proposed mine, the loca-

tion of the coal seam or seams, and the equipment available at the time the

mine is to begin operation. Most coal is currently mined with one or more

underground methods to access the coal, which had been required given the

machines available when the mining was started. However, with the intro-

duction of larger and more productive machines, surface mining is rapidly

becoming the preferred method for both productivity and safety (Fig. 7.2).

7.2.1 Underground mining

Underground mining in turn is classifi ed according to how access to the coal

is accomplished. Thus, an underground mine can be a ‘drift’ mine, where

access is bored horizontally from the surface to the deposit, such as the side

of a mountain; a ‘slope’ mine where the shaft angles downward, usually fol-

lowing the downward slope of the deposit; and where a shaft is sunk ver-

tically from the surface to the level or levels underground where the coal

seam(s) can be accessed.

Underground mining usually falls into two operational categories: ‘room

and pillar’, in which rooms of the coal deposit are mined usually with ‘con-

tinuous miners’ leaving pillars or blocks of coal to support the roof; and

‘longwall’, in which the coal bed is blocked out into a panel and a ‘shearer’

machine cuts out the ‘face’ of the coal seam. As the face is mined, hydrau-

lic supports hold up the roof of the mine after the shearer advances. The

support is eventually moved forward towards the newly exposed coal face

allowing the roof to collapse in the so-called goaf void behind the working

face.

‘Room and pillar’ mining involves a sequence of activities that are per-

formed to fi rst enter and develop the mine and then progressively extract

the coal. The continuous miner extracts the coal as it moves forward, load-

ing it onto an attached ‘loader/shuttle car’, which in turn transfers the coal to



a conveyor system (Fig. 7.3). About every fi ve meters of advance, the miner

is retracted from the face and moved to another ‘room’. It is replaced by

a ‘rock-bolting’ machine that drills into the roof and sometimes the walls,

and places ‘bolts’ (often made from fi brous material) to secure and bond

Direction of mining

Roof support(roof bolter)

Coal extraction(conveyor belt)

Coal

Coalpillar

FeederLoading equipment

(shuttle car)

Coal cutting equipment(continuous miner)

7.4 Room and pillar method leaves blocks of coal to support the mine

that are later extracted in ‘retreat mining’ at the end of the mine’s life.

(Courtesy of EIA.)

7.3 Joy 12HM36 remote control continuous miner has substantially

increased the production capability of the miner, but also removes the

operator from the dangers of the coal face.



the strata to prevent caving. After bolting, the continuous miner re-enters

and again mines the face for another 5 m, and the process begins again.

Some continuous miners are fi tted with their own rock-bolters, but these

machines are used primarily for initial mine entry. As coal resource is mined

in this manner, about 40% of the available coal will have been extracted,

the remaining coal being contained in the pillars. Ultimately, as the coal

resource is mined out, ‘retreat mining’ is used to extract the ‘pillars’ of coal,

allowing the roof of the mine to cave (EIA, 1978) (Fig. 7.4).

‘Longwall’ mining allows for a greater percentage of coal extraction at the

‘face’ of a coal seam, which can be well over 200 m in width, to be progres-

sively cut out. This method was originally carried out by hand, but shear-

ers and conveyors are now used. The basic idea of this method of mining

was fi rst introduced in the late 1700s in England and named the ‘Shropshire

method’ after the mining county in which it was fi rst used. It gained popular-

ity in the late 1800s when it was found to be more economically and produc-

tively benefi cial to mining companies than conventional mining methods. Its

popularity remained in Europe and Asia to the present day, but not in the

United States. The ‘longwall’ method was able to extract a greater percent-

age of available coal, made mine ventilation somewhat easier, and required

fewer explosives to ‘break’ the coal. However, it was originally both very

labor and capital intensive activity compared to conventional mining. Most

importantly, it was best used in seams measuring higher than 4 m. Not until

Coal

Longwall shearercuts coal faceHydraulic roof supports

Collapsed roofmaterial

Pillars supportroof

Pillars supportroof

Direction of mining

Conveyorbelt

Crusher

7.5 Longwall method of mining extracts a greater percentage of

available coal and can be organized in an ‘advancing’ or ‘retreating’

manner. (Courtesy of EIA.)



the 1940s with the introduction of ‘plows’ that better deal with thin seams

of coal, and also in the 1960s with the introduction of ‘self-advancing’ roof

supports, did ‘longwall’ mining methods gain some popularity in the United

States. However, it never exceeded ‘room and pillar’ applications. As the

cost of labor increased in the United States, ‘longwall’ economic advantage

diminished. ‘Room and pillar’ methods became more mechanized, reducing

labor per tonne of coal mined. While ‘room and pillar’ mining enjoyed wide

application in the US which continues today, shearer-mined ‘longwall’ oper-

ations continued to develop and be applied in Europe, China and Japan.

‘Longwall’ has become highly mechanized, and much more economical

given the appropriate coal deposit (Fig. 7.5).

‘Longwall’ mining uses three basic system components: a cutting machine,

usually a drum shearer but occasionally a plow, which moves back and forth

across the coal face; an armored face conveyor (AFC), which moves the coal

to the belt conveyor in the gate road for removal from the mine; and move-

able roof supports that both support the roof behind the cutting machine

and conveyor and protect it and personnel from the caving roof behind the

face (Fig. 7.6). A ‘longwall’ mine requires signifi cant development before it

goes into production, often close to 1 year, yet it will result in the extraction

of 75–80% of available coal. Initially, the coal panel must be prepared. This is

done by using continuous miners to dig ‘entries’ or passages on three sides of

the panel, which is accomplished using a technique similar to that employed

for room and pillar mining. After the blocking of the longwall panel, it is

mined in either an ‘advancing’ or ‘retreating’ manner. ‘Retreating’ involves

the development of the so-called gate-roads from the point of entry into the

7.6 The moveable ‘roof support and shield’ signifi cantly advanced the

productivity of the longwall mining method, in addition to protecting

the miners.



block to the far end of the panel, and then mining proceeds back towards

the mine entrance. ‘Advancing’ begins at the entrance of the block and pro-

ceeds inward with the on-going development of the gate-roads. There are

advantages and disadvantages to both methods. Advancing produces more

coal from the onset, but introduces complications in continually advancing

and maintaining the passages for coal conveying, movement of personnel

and ventilation. Retreating pre-explores the block, helping to identify any

mining problems (faults, poor roof or gas) that might occur as the mining of

the panel progresses.

7.2.2 Surface mining

Surface mining is used when the economics of removal of ‘overburden’ to

access the coal deposit is viable. Generally, the coal must be fairly close to

the surface, but as machines increase their capacity to move material, ‘fairly

close’ is becoming deeper and deeper. There are also several categories of

surface mining depending on the mining area. The most common is ‘open

cut’, where the overburden is removed with ‘draglines’, large ‘electric shov-

els’ and ‘bucket wheel’ excavators, after it has been drilled and blasted (Fig.

7.7). The overburden is usually loaded into large trucks and removed to a

waste area in the mine. The coal is then ‘stripped,’ usually after blasting, using

hydraulic excavators or loaders, and removed from the mine using haulage

trucks or conveyors. Other types of surface mining include ‘mountain top

Reclamation

Levelling

Coal removal

Overburdenremoval

Draglineoperations

Topsoilremoval

7.7 This stylized drawing illustrates the uses of draglines as removers

of overburden, with shovels, and often excavators, loading coal into

trucks for transport.



removal’, which is an alternative to doing drift and/or slope mining. In some

cases the entire top of a mountain might be considered overburden and

often removed to be used to fi ll in depressions nearby. Other rarer surface

methods include ‘auger’ mining, where a trench is excavated and augers are

used to extract the coal, usually in a narrow (thinner) seam, and often from

‘high wall’ mining where thicker seams are sheared or excavated with spe-

cial machinery (Figs 7.8 and 7.9).

7.3 Advances in mining technology

Even though this chapter deals with coal extraction, it should be pointed

out that all types of mining, particularly surface mining, share many char-

acteristics, regardless of the mineral being extracted. All mines use heavy

equipment, measure productivity in terms of hours worked vs tonnes mined,

usually operate under the same safety regulations, and their workers often

have the same unions as representatives, and the same engineering, geo-

logical and metallurgical education at the same universities. In addition,

in recent years there has been a signifi cant consolidation of mining com-

panies, many of which are often engaged in mining not only coal but also

base metals and iron ore. Therefore, in this chapter, many of the examples

of new technologies, machinery enhancement, machinery enlargement and

effi ciency will be drawn from the mining of minerals other than coal, but

these technological improvements are currently being implemented in coal

operations, or will be in the near future.

The following sections review advances in mine equipment. One theme

that dominates is the increased uptake of robotics and automation.

Automation and robotics are making much headway in mining due to the

7.8 Operating bucketwheel excavator in the La Trobe Valley of New

South Wales, Australia.



rapidly advancing state of communications, comprising cable and wireless,

both within the mine, and between the mine and other entities. Two devel-

opments in particular in recent years have dovetailed to make automation

and tele-operation in mines more possible. The fi rst is the ability to con-

struct a robust communication backbone in the mine, capable of handling

data, voice, and video signals. The second is the development of ‘smart’ min-

ing equipment, outfi tted with onboard computers and a host of sensors.

Bandwidth may be a somewhat limited commodity in surface mines, but

the full radio frequency spectrum is available underground. International

real-time communication connecting the mine site, regardless of how remote

it is, to a centralized corporate offi ce, to customers, to vendors and service

providers is now a reality. With high-speed transmission, repeaters, and sat-

ellite interface, all forms of communication are available including data,

video, and voice. Several companies specialize in designing and installing

such communication systems and have proven system reliability, durability,

and effi ciency. These companies include: Spidersat Communications; Datasat

Communications; Maxwell Technology (MAXI-SAT); Pactel International;

and Infosat Communications (Fig. 7.10).

Not long ago, communication on the mine site, both surface and under-

ground, consisted solely of handheld radios and telephones. Today, the mine

equipment can actually be used as communication nodes, with the mine site

being transformed into a mesh communication system, rather than a point-

to-point system. Such a system allows the tracking of equipment and per-

sonnel via Wi-Fi, two-way voice with VoIP telephones, remote video, and

through-the-earth emergency communications (PED). The system enables

real-time vehicle diagnostics and payload data, automated traffi c control,

7.9 Cat 6060 Hydraulic excavator can be used to load coal or dig

overburden, depending on confi guration.



proximity detection, and remote centralized blast initiation. Several compa-

nies offer comprehensive communication systems, which have been installed

on several mine sites. The companies include: Cattron Group International

‘SIAMnet’; Becher Varis Mining Systems; Minecom Solutions; Mine Radio

Systems; GAI-Tronics; and Mine Site Technologies ‘ImPact’.

There is a rapid increase in tele-operation of both underground and surface

mining equipment consisting of new and automated drills, load-haul dumps

(LHD), driverless trains, trucks and other equipment. Sweden, Canada and

Australia seem to be in the forefront of this transition to automation. Inco

(Canada) has been involved for over 15 years, as have Kiruna Iron Ore mine

in Sweden and the Rio Tinto’s Pilbara mines in Western Australia.

7.3.1 Underground mining technology

Continuous miners, used primarily in ‘room and pillar’ mining and also to

prepare roadways in a ‘longwall’ systems, have incrementally improved over

the last 20 years (Fig. 7.11). But they are not advancing in automation as

Repeater

Maintenance

Main sentry box

Mine

Concentration plant

Main offices

CorporationLima

Satellite link

7.10 Remoteness of mining operations is no longer a barrier to

communications, with the availability of satellites and repeaters.



quickly as longwall equipment, with the exception that they are more often

remotely controlled by an operator, rather than by an operator sitting on the

machine. The Australian Coal Association Research Program (ACARP),

via a project being conducted by the CSIRO Mining Technology Group, is

carrying out some of the most advanced research in this area. The goal is to

deliver ‘self-steering’ capability that will enable continuous miners to main-

tain 3D position, azimuth, horizon, and grade control within a variable seam.

Technology currently under test includes the means to accurately determine

both the location and orientation of a continuous miner in real-time using a

combination of a navigation-grade inertial navigation unit, Doppler radar,

and optical fl ow technologies (Reid, 2011).

It is the view of Joy Mining Machinery (Schaeffer, 2008) that progress in

‘longwall’ mining will occur from today to the future as follows. First, the

introduction of advanced automation to optimize the cutting cycle will lead

to higher production. This will progress to one worker per coal face to min-

imize people on the face, and tele-remote operation of all machinery at the

face will follow. Finally, the ultimate implementation of a workerless face,

with all people out of harm’s way, will come about. In addition to shearers,

roof supports, and conveyors, the ‘longwall’ of the future will employ fi ber

optics, Wi-Fi and broadband, enabling fully automated shearer and roof sup-

ports, through cameras on the shearer, and remote monitoring of operation

and control of operation. The results will be higher productivity, zero require-

ment for personnel on the face, and automatic face alignment (Fig. 7.12).

In all underground mining, particularly of coal, critical to both safety and

productivity is supporting and securing the roof and sidewalls of a room in

‘room and pillar’, or roadway in ‘longwall’. This is done with rock-bolting, and

the technology has improved both in the design of support systems, avail-

able bolt and mesh materials, and the machinery to perform the work. Mine

Master and JH Fletcher Mining Equipment have made signifi cant advances

7.11 Joy combination miner and rockbolter for mine entry and

development.



to improve both the speed and fl exibility of this machinery. However, bolt-

ing is still a bottleneck in production, in that the present commercial method

cannot keep up with the speed and distance a new continuous miner or

longwall shearer can travel. Some single production longwall units can oper-

ate at rates of almost 10 Mt/a.

New ‘smart’ LHDs and drills used in underground mining might be out-

fi tted with as many as 150 sensors of one type or another. These include sen-

sors to measure hydraulic or engine pressure, air pressure sensors on tires,

and accelerometers to sense rocks lying in the vehicle’s path. Additionally,

they may have stereo vision for a three-dimensional view of the mining area

and the machine itself (DeGaspari, 2003).

7.3.2 Surface mining technology

Draglines, bucketwheel excavators, and electric shovels are the largest and

most expensive equipment on a surface mine, and are used primarily to remove

overburden. In some cases, particularly in large lignite (soft coal) mines, buck-

etwheel excavators and electric shovels not only remove overburden but are

also used to mine the coal. However, hydraulic shovels and loaders are the

most common machines used for actual coal extraction (Figs 7.13 and 7.14).

They allow for more accurate control by the operator to avoid contamination

with other material during loading. Shovels and other loading equipment are

usually sized to the haulage truck in a designed ‘Truck/Shovel’ system.

7.12 Giant Joy Longwall shear with hydraulic chocks and conveyor.



The geology, mine design, size, and characteristics of the coal deposit will

determine what equipment will be purchased and applied. It may be a sin-

gle (rarely), or multiple face operation where overburden is removed by

shovels, and coal is mined by large loaders or hydraulic excavators. At each

face several machines support the main digging machines to clean up, clear

areas, level loading areas, and perform other activities to achieve the great-

est effi ciency of the large machine. Such equipment includes dozers, smaller

loaders, graders, fuel trucks, maintenance trucks, water trucks, drills, person-

nel transport trucks, and other miscellaneous machinery.

All equipment have local operators and/or operating crews, which are

assisted by sophisticated controls that are designed by the equipment

manufacturers, engineering fi rms, or control system suppliers. Even smaller

7.13 P&H 2800 series rope shovel, a very common workhorse machine

removing overburden and mining coal throughout the world. (Now

owned by Joy Global Inc.; courtesy of Nick Hillier.)

7.14 Bucyrus Dragline removing overburden at a mine in Queensland,

Australia. (Now owned by Caterpillar.)



equipment is very large, handles large capacities of material, is very robust,

and is critical to the effi cient operation of the mine. Over the last twenty

years, signifi cant improvements have been made in motors, power source,

gear arrangements, maintenance monitoring controls, maintenance schedul-

ing, operational availability, and capacity through increased bucket size on

the loading machines and operating cycles. Additionally, the equipment is

outfi tted with GPS systems, load monitoring systems, programmed loading

and swing systems, and accident avoidance systems. There has been research

to fully automate loading machines, with some success at the research and

test level. However, to a mine, the availability and productivity of the load-

ing machines is often regarded as being much more important than the cost

of labor to operate them. To that extent, most operation automation has so

far only been used to increase the effi ciency of operator performance, and

not to eliminate the need for operators. The only exception is the applica-

tion of remote control and automation to drills, haul trucks, and other mate-

rial transport such as conveyors and trains.

In recent years, new types of equipment and machinery have been intro-

duced to the surface mining. The Wirtgen surface miner can effectively mine

softer material, particularly coal not needing blasting. It uses a cutting drum

driven by its engine to cut into the seam, remove the coal, and convey it to

either a truck or transport conveyor for haulage. This machine is also used

underground to increase the size of roadways (dinting machine) (Wirtgen,

2008) (Fig. 7.15).

After the overburden and or coal have been extracted, it must be trans-

ported. Today, the most common method is trucks. These can range widely

in size, with 90–220 tonnes capacity not being unusual. Some mines use

smaller trucks, in the 18–70 tonnes range, and a few use larger trucks up to

7.15 Wirtgen surface miner is gaining popularity as an extractor of coal

with minimum contamination.



365 tonnes. Generally, for a new mining venture, the shovel capacity and

truck size are coordinated, so that a shovel can load a truck in 4–5 passes.

It is important to note that a truck fl eet needs haul roads, fueling stations,

lubrication, and tire repair facilities, and all the associated equipment to

provide this infrastructure.

Over the last 50 years mining equipment has substantially increased in its

capacity to load and haul material. Examples are the capacity development

of P&H Shovel, and the similar expansion of truck capacities. In 1960, a

P&H Rope Shovel had the bucket loading capacity of 12 tonnes. In 1967, it

increased to 15. 1969 saw the introduction of the 2800 with a capacity of 25

tonnes and the ability to effi ciently load 90 tonne trucks, such as the Cat 777,

which was used in both mining and construction. This capacity increased to

36 tonnes in 1975, and in 1991 the capacity was doubled to 75 tonnes with

the introduction of the 4100, which with the model 4100XPB handles 90+

tonnes. As the capacities of shovels increased, so too has the haulage capac-

ity of trucks, with the introduction of the 380–400 tonne trucks by manufac-

turers such as Komatsu, Caterpillar and Liebherr.

Another innovation in this area is the increasing use of in-pit crushing

(IPC) and conveying of overburden, and avoiding the use of truck haulage.

Mining companies have been fi nding signifi cant productivity and economic

advantages to using such a system, including: reduced vehicle costs for such

as fuel, tires, and maintenance; more cost effectiveness on longer hauls; less

personnel and more safety potential; and 24 hour operation (Fig. 7.17). It

also has some disadvantages, including more complexity in mine planning,

higher initial capital cost, need for longer life mines for payback, and need

for redundancy against possible failure (Kung, 2008).

7.16 Cat 797 mechanical drive haul truck has a capacity of 400 tonnes,

as do trucks from Kamatsu (960E electric drive) and Liebherr

(T282 electric drive).



7.3.3 Specifi c examples of developments in metalliferous or hard-rock mining applicable to coal mining

As mentioned earlier, many of the new developments in metalliferous or

hard-rock mining should soon qualify for application to coal mining. Atlas

Copco has been in the forefront in the development and deployment of

the automation technology that exists today in many mines. It has devel-

oped production grade computerized control and guidance systems on large

underground drill rigs for remote control, and satellite hole navigation sys-

tems for surface crawler rigs. It has advanced automatic bit changers, auto-

matic tunnel profi ling systems, and measurement while drilling that provides

for the logging of rock strata characteristics using the rock drill as a sensor

(DeGaspari, 2003) (Fig. 7.18).

Caterpillar is in the process of automating its largest hauling trucks, but it

is not the fi rst on this track and may be playing catch up with Japan-based

Komatsu, which already runs automated trucks at the Gaby mine in Chile,

and at Rio Tinto in the Pilbara, Western Australia. Somewhat more infor-

mation is being presented by the Caterpillar organization in describing its

new equipment. The newly introduced trucks will be equipped with numer-

ous high-tech gadgets and software to keep them on the road. GPS receiv-

ers continuously monitor the location and direction of the trucks. Laser

range fi nders sweep the road in front of the trucks to identify large objects.

Video equipment determines whether an object is a hazard or not. The

information runs through a computer program that tells the robotic driver

how to avoid the obstacle. The software to run the trucks is adapted from

7.17 IPC and conveyor transport of both overburden and coal is

gaining in usage, as the cost of truck transport, including fuel and tires,

becomes increasingly expensive.



Carnegie Mellon University work done for DARPA (Defense Advanced

Research Projects Agency). The University participated in a competi-

tion that required unmanned vehicles equipped with sensors and artifi cial

intelligence systems to navigate through an urban environment fi lled with

obstacles (June, 2008).

7.4 Systems and information

Essential to the transformation of mining in the last 10–20 years has been

the introduction of methods to monitor, control, and enhance all operations

with the introduction of systems to accurately plan and record the results of

activity.

7.4.1 Operational systems

Data generation, planning, measuring, monitoring, execution, and data col-

lection are the backbone of managing the modern mining operation. The

amount of data is enormous and growing. Data manipulation and reporting

has matured signifi cantly over the last 25 years. Some mining companies

have developed their own proprietary systems. But with the maturation of

the industry in this area, information systems that organize planning infor-

mation and effectively present result against a plan have also been developed

by smaller consulting organizations. An example of such is the ‘Minesight’

program developed by Mintec of Phoenix AZ, which is a fully integrated

information system. Other vendors of similar software that not only offer

fully integrated systems but also provide individual ‘plug and play modules’

7.18 Remote control drills, both on the surface and underground, allow

for personnel to operate machinery away from the work area.



or ‘solutions’ include Gemcom Software International (Surpac), Runge Ltd.

(Xpac), Maptek Ltd. (Vulcan), and Ventyx (Minescape), to name the most

commonly used.

To take one example, Mintec’s Minesight system provides several functions

including geomodeling, mine design, long-term and short-term planning,

and also has a production reporting system. Following is a short descrip-

tion of each function. Geomodeling has the complete functionality to build

and manage 3D block, stratigraphic, and surface models. Drillhole, blast-

hole, and other sample data are stored and the system provides for fi ltering,

importing, exporting, formatting, reporting, and editing. There is seamless

movement of information from the beginning stages of exploration to grade

control as the mine approaches exhaustion. The Design Function provides

CAD-based design with all the interactive tools needed to create and man-

age an operation (Fig. 7.19). Tools for blast pattern design, end-of-period

maps, economic and ultimate pit shells, life-of-mine and phase scheduling,

road/ramp design, and complete dump, spoil, and dyke design give open

pit engineers comprehensive tools for surface operations. Since these sys-

tems provide extensive underground layout and design tools, drift and stope

design is simple to perform while maintaining extensive functionality.

The Long Term Planning Function allows engineering to create, manage,

and analyze the unique scenarios and ever-changing possibilities of a mine

plan from exploration to feasibility analysis. It allows for the plan to incorpo-

rate equipment requirements, dump location, multiple stockpiles, and quality,

quantity, and ratio constraints (Fig. 7.20). The Short Term Planning Function

includes cut design and reserve calculations combined with powerful tools

for scheduling, optimization, equipment planning, and haulage. Interactive

planning and haulage tools, powered by a centralized planning database, are

available for on-the-fl y reserve calculations while creating material/routing

reports, route profi les, and cycle time fi les. The Production Function facilitates

drill and blast design, day-to-day grade control, in-mine production manage-

ment, and reconciliation of production data. It leverages the versatile power

of a centralized planning database, tying back into geomodeling, design and

7.19 Pit design using ‘Minesight’.



planning functions. To run this complex program system requires only the

computation power typically associated with a home computer. Such would

include Microsoft XP, Vista or 7 operating system, a dual-core processor, 3

GB of RAM and a 300 GB hard-disk (Fig. 7.21).

7.4.2 Maintenance and inventory control systems

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, consultants introduced early paper and

pencil, and later computerized, maintenance systems to mining companies.

Mincom Pty Ltd. (now owned by ABB and known as Ventyx) fi rst developed

a mini-computer based maintenance system (Fig. 7.22). Today, its Ellipse

7.20 Long-term production planning using ‘Minesight’.

7.21 HP Desktop computer used today for engineering, CAD, PDM,

PLM, and 3D modeling.



Application is one of the pre-eminent maintenance and inventory control

systems available. This system provides a good example of the maintenance

management software that is available and exists in many of the larger mines

around the world. It incorporates a comprehensive asset (equipment) data

base, equipment operational data, preventive maintenance information and

check points, repair and maintenance schedules and procedures, workforce

planning, inventory control including supply chain management, and fi nan-

cial data collection and control (Fig. 7.22). It is comprehensive and can be

implemented in a modular ‘plug and play’ manner.

As capital equipment becomes larger, it becomes more expensive. With

the addition of automation, robotics, remote operation, etc., both main-

tenance, and inventory control of spares and replacement components

becomes critical. Mines will require maximum utilization of capital equip-

ment, with availability exceeding 90%. Not only will maintenance have to

be predictive and scheduled, but the right parts, at the right price, and at the

right time will be essential to maintain cost control. In addition, the needs

of the customers, namely the buyer and shipper of coal, will have to be inte-

grated into the planning system. The correct amount of product, at the right

time, at the right specifi cation will determine both customer satisfaction and

also maximum revenue.

Cost reduction will be achieved through a more effi cient management of

the mine, its assets, and its product. Modern mine management will adopt

7.22 Maintenance planning and execution in a well-planned and

controlled manner is absolutely critical to the successful operation of

mines that are becoming more capital intensive.



practices and procedures known collectively as a ‘Demand Driven Supply

Chain’ (IBM Global Services, 2009). It will be instrumented using sensors,

actuators, radio frequency identifi cation (RFID), and smart devices to

automate transactions such as inventory location, replenishment detection,

transportation location, and bottleneck identifi cation. It will support real-

time data collection and transparency from mining of raw material (coal), to

shipper and customer delivery (Fig. 7.23).

It will be interconnected by optimized information fl ows, intercompany

integration of information across the network, collaborative decision mak-

ing through decision support and business intelligence – starting with the

customer. And it will integrate corporate-level risk-management programs

for integrated fi nancial controls with operational performance monitoring

and measurement. Finally, it will be intelligent with network planning, exe-

cution and decision analysis using data collected from operations to build

intelligent models to predict product quality and quantity problems before

they occur. With advanced communication, the company will create models

to predict equipment failure, triggering preventive maintenance orders to

prevent unplanned shutdowns. The individual mine and the company will

use simulation models to evaluate trade-offs of cost, time, quality, service,

fuel, and other variables against the criteria of profi tability and customer

satisfaction.

7.5 Automation in practice

Before identifying some mines that are actively introducing automation,

consideration should be given to how best to implement automation in the

mining industry. According to Mottola and Holmes (2009):

Automation should not be viewed as a solution in itself, and failures have

occurred due to limited preparation of the employees and community, as well

7.23 RFID tags can be as small as a pin-head, yet can contain kilobytes

of information and can track people, equipment, inventory, machines,

and product.



as a lack of management commitment to the long-term implementation cycle.

By its very nature, automation means a fundamental change in how the over-

all mining process will operate. As such, the change is dramatic and can be

traumatic.

In 1998, INCO’s Sudbury LHD and Drilling Automation program was with-

drawn because of insuffi cient teamwork across the organization, between

internal research and development groups with divergent philosophies, and

a lack of support from head offi ce. Studies are now being done to ensure

the success of autonomous mining by focusing on the integration of people,

technology and process

Hugh Durrant-Whyte, the Director of the Australian Centre for Field

Robotics at the University of Sydney and a leader in the development of

robotics for mining, believes that the industry should concentrate not just

on how to automate individual trucks or drills, but on how to automate the

entire mine. This will involve change in the way mining business models are

developed, and information systems with automated equipment will achieve

the goals of the model. In other words, a culture of automation is required.

He considers that systems in which unmanned trucks communicate not only

with a control room but with each other and, together with a controller,

decide which haul road to take, will be the way of the future. Additionally,

there will be automated drill rigs sending drilling rate data directly to the

mine database and then out to the 3D models used by robotic shovels for

grade control (DeGaspari, 2003).

It is clear that the skill and training needs of coal miners, technicians and

engineers are changing. As the industry undergoes what appears to be a sys-

temic change, its needs for trained and experienced personnel will increase,

but probably neither in the traditional skills nor in the same numbers that

have served the mining industry in the past. Universities and other training

institutions may struggle to meet the skill needs of the new coal mine.

7.5.1 Examples of mines using automation

Cliffs Natural Resources, Pinnacle Mine in West Virginia, in 2010, installed

a Bucyrus International modern automated longwall plow system. The plow

does not require operators to be located at the production face, resulting in

a much higher level of operator safety (Fig. 7.24).

Zhungeer Coal Mine, in Inner Mongolia China, is a lignite mine pro-

ducing some 7 million tonnes of per year, with a work force of 1900. Since

1995, the mine has been using continuous mining technology (bucketwheel

excavators, conveyor belts and spreaders) for the removal of an up to 100

m thick top soil layer. The author was part of the original foreign national

team to perform a feasibility study for the Zhungeer complex in 1982.



Advancement in operator training, equipment modifi cation, and supervi-

sor training have increased productivity by 50%. The mine has two pits, and

uses both draglines and bucketwheels to produce almost 10 million tonnes

annually (Fig. 7.25).

In 2005 the DeBeers Finsch Mine (a diamond mine in South Africa),

installed seven Toro 5OD (T50D) automated driverless dump trucks and

one Toro 007 semi-automatic LHD to transport ore to an underground

crusher. Since its installation, the trucks have successfully navigated the

haulage loop without any failures. The trucks operate at 25 km/h (about

16 mph), which is faster than a manually-operated truck (Fig. 7.26). With no

time lost for driver change-over at shift, the system allows Finsch to move

about 16 000 tonnes per day (tpd) of ore, compared to about 15 000 tpd for

7.24 New Bucyrus Plow at Cliffs allows for effi cient thin seam mining.

(Bucyrus in now owned by Caterpillar.)

7.25 Zhungeer Mine located in Inner Mongolia, China.



manual operation. The economic value of the system is also improved due

to reduced truck maintenance costs since the equipment is more consis-

tently used and better managed under computer control. Accidents due to

human error and poor-driving habits have been eliminated (Kral, 2008).

The Zhangji Mine, a coal operation located in China, has installed auto-

mation equipment to decrease environmental accidents and maximize

environmental management. The production and environmental monitor-

ing information is collected synchronously and incorporated into produc-

tion statistics and environmental management systems. The mine uses an

Ethernet network for its system that conducts real-time monitoring, trans-

mitting relevant data to a server, and then seamlessly uploading it to the

management system. This provides the mine with integrated information to

ensure that no environmental hazards arise as a result of the operation. The

centralized monitoring network collects all environmental information on

gases, ventilation, temperature, and other factors to ensure safety of person-

nel (Moxa Products, 2008) (Fig. 7.27).

In 2006, the Andina Mine, a large underground copper mine in Chile,

began to integrate about 15 different automation systems that monitor

and control equipment. This included fans, compressors, chutes, electric

machines, and dust suppressors, as well as large systems and networks for

water, air, ventilation, vibration measurement and analysis, traffi c lights,

and closed-circuit TV. The data are gathered by an isolated automation sys-

tem, and operated from a control room forty kilometers from the mine.

The idea is to make quantifi able improvements in such key performance

indicators as availability, reliability, energy effi ciency, safety, and security

(ABB, 2006).

Sandvik Mining and Construction markets a system that allows remote

operation and supervision of an automated underground loader or truck

7.26 Finsch Diamond Mine in South Africa has over fi ve years’

experimenting with automation under its belt.



fl eet from a surface control room for underground mining. The auton-

omous fl eet is operated in an area that is isolated from personnel and

other equipment, greatly enhancing underground mine safety. Driving

(tramming) and dumping are fully automated, while bucket loading is per-

formed using tele-remote operation. A single system operator is able to

manage the operation of multiple automated machines. From a single sta-

tion, the system operator is able to plan and monitor production, operate

machines tele-remotely, and view machine operation information such as

alarms, measurements, gear selection, engine RPM, and tramming speed.

Operators can monitor and operate the barrier system, control and super-

vise a fl eet of equipment, and generate production and condition moni-

toring reports. Sandvik underground loaders and trucks can be fi tted with

the AutoMine onboard package. It includes a navigation system that con-

tinuously determines the location of the machine within the underground

mine environment, and controls the autonomous tramming and dumping

operations. The navigation system uses laser scanners to scan tunnel wall

profi les to verify machine position. An onboard video system provides the

high-quality video necessary for tele-remote operation. Wireless Local

Ethernet

Control room

To another token ring

CC-Link

Device

CC-Link Optic fiberTwisted pairFieldbus

Device

PLC in maintransportation system

Substation PLC

PLC in main area

Backup transportationsystem

Hydraulic pressurestation PLC

HMI

MELSECNET/H(token ring)

Fast ethernet redundant ringby ED6008-MM-SC

7.27 Zhangji Mine layout to monitor environmental variables to

increase safety and manage environmental risks.



Area Network (WLAN) provides the radio link between the machine and

the communication system installed in the autonomous production area.

Rio Tinto recently introduced Komatsu’s FrontRunner Autonomous

Haulage System to its iron ore mines in the Pilbara, Western Australia. The

company has also commenced trials with driverless locomotives, 5–290

tonne trucks and at least one automated drill rig, all controlled from Perth,

1300 km away. All truck navigation at the mine is remotely controlled. Rio

is also experimenting with driverless iron ore trains that currently haul ore

to ports as far as 450 km away. The trains are generally 2.4 km in length, and

constitute one of the fi rst driverless heavy-haul train systems in the world

(Moore, 2009) (Fig. 7.28).

Since December 2008, Rio Tinto has been operating automation technol-

ogies at a test site called ‘A-Pit’, where its robotic trucks with artifi cial intel-

ligence ‘learn’ the layout of the mine and use sensors to detect and avoid

obstacles. The shift to automation is not without its challenges, foremost

among which is securing vast satellite networks against cyber-attacks. In

the cyclone-prone and brutally hot Pilbara (temperatures up to over 50 ° C),

the ‘A-Pit’ trial was completed in 2011. Its fi ndings will form the basis for an

operations-wide rollout of remote and driverless technologies. According

to the company, in the future humans will no longer need to be hands-on

as all the equipment will be autonomous – able to make decisions on what

7.28 Rio Tinto remote loading and haulage at ‘A’ Pit in the Pilbara,

Western Australia.



to do based on their environment and interaction with other machines.

Operators will oversee the equipment from the remote operations center

(Trounson, 2008).

Most major equipment suppliers are participating in the changing mar-

ketplace, and rapidly offering various degrees of automation built within

their newer equipment, and adaptable to equipment already in the fi eld.

Some that are rapidly being introduced to both surface and underground

mines include: Caterpillar’s ‘Minestar’ and MINEGEM Systems; Atlas

Copco’s ‘Scooptram’ Automation System; Komatsu’s Autonomous Haulage

System (AHS), ‘FrontRunner’; Leica Geosystems ‘Jigsaw 360’ with DrillNav,

DigNav, etc.; Sandvik ‘Automine’; Bucyrus Programmable Mining Control

(PMC) and underground coal controllers. In addition, ‘after-market’ vendors

are beginning to offer automation and adaptations to equipment to improve

both productivity and safety. As with all new technology, the buyer would be

wise to introduce change incrementally, in tandem with assessing how the

technology is affecting the organization. Also, it is best to use only technol-

ogy that has been proven in the ‘real’ fi eld and working environment.

7.6 Future trends and conclusions

The mining industry is transforming and becoming safer for workers, more

productive and effi cient, and re-structuring both how it operates within its

organizations. Application of this transformation is readily apparent in the

coal industry, as automation expands, mines increase in size, and organiza-

tions consolidate.

7.6.1 Safety

Productivity, cost, and safety are the themes associated with automation.

Safety is still very much an issue in mining, especially safety in coal mines.

It is almost impossible to obtain accurate statistic on either accidents or

deaths due to mining. Mine operators and government authorities at the

local and national level do not always divulge such information. Therefore,

all one can do is review available news reports and other sources of infor-

mation. These seem to put the number of deaths annually as exceeding

8000, and there could be substantially more, especially if injury-related

deaths are included. It has been estimated that close to 70% of such deaths

occur in the coal mining industry. During the last decade, China has aver-

aged over 4000 deaths per year. Russia is second to China. South Africa

is averaging close to 200 deaths per year. Canada and the United States

have approximately 70 deaths per year. Chile averages 34, and Australia

has 13 deaths per year. These statistics are for all forms of mining, but



most are related to coal mining. Although these numbers are high, they

are dwarfed by the loss of life that has occurred in the mining industry in

previous decades (MacNiell, 2008). Many experts in the industry believe

that removing people from the coal face underground will improve safety,

as will remotely controlling or increasing automation to assist operators in

a surface mining situation.

7.6.2 Productivity

According to John Steele, Colorado School of Mines, (quoted in DeGaspari,

2003), overall mining automation could result in signifi cant cost savings. For

example, travel time to and from underground to the surface can take hours,

reducing productive work by as much as 50% in a typical 8- or 12-h shift.

Automation and particularly remote operation of mining equipment from

the surface could double productivity. There are also additional benefi ts if

workers can be removed from the underground mine. Such benefi ts might

include the elimination of large, power-hungry fans that control the fl ow of

air, if miners were no longer underground.

7.6.3 Consolidation and fi nancing

Mineral exploration and mine development have been traditionally funded

during the last two centuries in a very familiar manner – mainly either

equity fi nancing or debt fi nancing, and usually a combination of both. In

the early stages it takes the form of private placement, issuance of stock,

selling of bonds and, if the enterprise is moderately successful, some sort of

initial public offering on a stock exchange. Most in the industry are familiar

with the penny stocks, and their use to fund early stage drilling programs.

‘On exchange’ fi nancing requires reporting standards, such as resource and

reserve estimates and approved accounting documentation, which ‘off-

exchange’ transactions do not require. But ‘off-exchange’ transactions are

not easy, and often one is dealing with more sophisticated investors in such

arrangements as private placements, venture capital, joint ventures, and

royalty-based fi nancing.

The coal mining industry is consolidating to increase productivity, improve

safety records, and reduce costs. The Chinese government has urged greater

effort to consolidate coal mines to reduce the number of outdated small

mines. The aim is for the output of large mines, with production capaci-

ties of over 50 million tonnes, to account for 65% of the country’s total

(Anon, 2010). Another example of consolidation is US company Peabody’s

acquisition of MacArthur Coal in Australia. Indian companies are buying

coal mines in Indonesia. National companies in both India and China are



searching for coal mines in the US. Ambre Energy from Australia has pur-

chased the controlling interests in at least three large open pit mines in the

western United States. Arch Coal, the second largest coal company in the

US, recently purchased International Coal Group (ICG), which operated

several mines in the Appalachia mining district in the eastern US. More

recently, Glencore-Xstrata has announced the merger that will form the sec-

ond largest mining company on the planet.

The OEM or equipment manufacturers are also consolidating and com-

bining. Caterpillar purchased Bucyrus International, manufacturer of shov-

els and draglines. Prior to this, Caterpillar had purchased Terex Mining

Trucks. Joy Mining Machinery acquired P&H, a manufacturer of shovels and

draglines, and recently purchased China’s International Mining Machinery

Holdings Ltd. Even service companies are getting into the acquisition busi-

ness, such as ABB Engineering acquisition of Mincom, a maintenance sys-

tem provider, and several smaller engineering companies.

The mine of the future, including coal mines, will require an even larger

capital investment than that has been experienced in the past. In the 1990s a

$500 million capitalization was considered major. Today, a commercial mine

will require in excess of a billion dollars, as well as the reserves and manage-

ment talent to warrant such a project. Mining is familiar with major invest-

ment and with fi nancing from New York, London and other money centers.

In the last 20 years, national governments have become major players in

the fi nancing of developments. At one time their contribution was in kind,

such as the land, infrastructure, personnel, and permitting. Today, they often

pro-offer some cash contribution to the enterprise, often borrowed from

an international fi nancing entity. However, the country’s ownership of the

mine industrial complex is much greater, and often includes an equity posi-

tion in the mining company sponsoring the development. Other fi nancial

players are becoming more important (Eggert, 2010).

Coal mine fi nancing is a long-term proposition, with major capital costs

but with 20–50 years of operation and continuing return on investment.

However, that return is signifi cantly lower than that available from the min-

ing operations of other metals. Most mines are fi nanced through a combi-

nation of internal fi nancing, bank loans, hedge fund investment, and stock

offerings. Given that the price is stable and much coal is sold under long-

term contracts, the investment is secure and the margins acceptable to long-

term safety-seeking investors.

7.6.4 Conclusion

The coal mining industry is experiencing a transition toward being much

more automated, system and machinery driven, in order to achieve effi ciency,



cost, safety, and environmental goals. The transition will accelerate as new

technology becomes proven, practical, and more economic. The resulting

changes will affect not only the skills, but also the numbers employed in

mining. Many older, and most smaller, mining operations will experience

incremental changes as they modernize equipment and upgrade informa-

tion systems that better accumulate, consolidate, and analyze data. These

changes will increase productivity and reduce costs, but marginally affect

how the mine is operated and the number of people.

However, new and large mining developments, where major depos-

its are being exploited over the decades, will look entirely different from

what has existed in the past. Geology through production will be fully inte-

grated from planning through the operating phases over the life of the mine.

Equipment and methods will be automated to an observable extent, rely-

ing less and less on human intervention and operators, particularly at the

individual equipment level. How, when, and who performs maintenance

will change dramatically, with much more plug and play of wear parts to

be replaced on a schedule, automatic and timely lubrication and fueling of

vehicles, and greater use of equipment manufacture specialists and consul-

tants. Engineering and operational planning will be even more thorough

and specifi c, and be used not only to design the mine and develop the metal-

lurgical processes, but also to detail the comprehensive information system,

off-mine location of facilities, and infrastructure.

The mining of large coal deposits will transition toward an even more

sophisticated enterprise. There will be an impact on the ‘culture’ of the indus-

try as the workforce becomes more technical and less manual in nature, the

population becomes smaller, and management and technical staff become

more centralized, having responsibilities for several mining operations

rather than one. The economic success of the mining facility will increas-

ingly rely on the fully integrated planning and control of mining, processing,

storing, and transporting of fi nished product to market. Additionally, many

responsible for activities on the property will physically be removed, and

exercise their responsibilities through electronic communication and feed-

back mechanisms connected directly to the machinery and the systems that

control them. The industry can expect that the measured productivity of an

individual, as measured by tonnes mined per unit of time, to increase by

between 100% and 600% in the next 10 years.

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The Coal Handbook: Towards Cleaner Production || Advances in coal mining technology