Teaching for MeaningfulLearning in SocialStudies

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Read the following sample passage, which is similar to those found in some fifth-grade social studies textbooks.

Several important explorers were sent by different countries in Europe tofind a route to the Far East that was shorter than sailing from Europearound Africa. They came to the New World, even though they were tryingto find the Far East. Some of these explorers were Christopher Columbus,John Cabot, Ferdinand Magellan, and Jacques Cartier.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus was the first of these explorers to try tofind a route to the Far East by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean fromEurope. Instead of finding the Far East, he explored the Caribbean and thecoasts of Central and South America. Five years after Columbus's first voy-age to the New World, John Cabot sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean,but farther north than Columbus. He explored parts of eastern Canada,thinking he was in Asia. He tried again on another voyage and ended up inGreenland. Later, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan sailed across the AtlanticOcean, heading west and south with five ships, and was able to sail all theway around South America to the Pacific Ocean. He crossed the Pacific andlanded in the Philippines, where he died. But one of his ships got back toits home port in Spain, managing to go all around the world. In the mid-1500s Jacques Cartier left France to find China by traveling northwestacross the Atlantic Ocean. He explored the St. Lawrence River, but did notget to the Far East.

Respond to the following questions.

1. What is the main idea ofthis passage?2. Does this passage provide conditions that encourage student thinking in so-

cial studies? Why or why not?3. What additions can you suggest that might motivate students to use higher-

order thinking skills and understand the concept more meaningfully?

Your response to questions 2 and 3 should include a consideration· of furtherconcerns. The goal of a social studies lesson on the efforts of Europeans to find ashorter route to the Far East involves several ideas. One is that resources thatwere much desired and expensive in Europe, such as spices, were to be found inabundance in the Far East. Another is that through lots of experimentation andtesting, Europeans had developed sailing ships that could manage a long and dif- .ficult journey.

AB we consider this passage and any other topic we plan to teach, it is impor-tant to consider some questions: How can teachers help students learn importantsocial studies content so that it is meaningful to them? What social studies teach-ing procedures are based on an understanding of how students learn? How wouldyou begin the lesson? What would you do next? How would you end the lesson? Theplanning, design, and implementation of your social studies lessons should demon-strate answers to these basic concerns and questions.

Teachers strive to increase meaningful learning in social studies and to help stu-dents correct their alternative conceptions about the social world. This chapter fo-cuses on how teachers plan lessons facilitating students' meaningful learning ofsocial studies, developing an awareness, appreciation for, and ability to make deci-sions and participate successfully in everyday life (National Council for the SocialStudies, 1994b).

Teaching social studies effectively requires teachers to help students know, forthemselves; how to obtain information and use it to make decisions supporting ademocratic society. How do students begin to learn about their social world in ameaningful way? How can teachers create conditions that help students learn pow-erful social studies content so that it will be meaningful to them? How can teach-ers structure social studies lessons to apply what is known about how studentslearn? These questions form the focus of this chapter.

As you read and respond to this chapter, you will be provided with a flexiblestructure for developing lessons. The same lesson structure can be applied tolearning all levels and types of social studies information and inquiry skills and todeveloping attitudes, values, and morals.

1. Explain the importance of understanding students' prior knowledge aboutthe social studies content and skills to be taught.

2. Describe the effect of prior knowledge on learning new social studies knowl-edge.

3. Explain how rote memory learning of social studies differs from meaningfulsocial studies learning.

4. Describe how students begin to understand social studies content, skills, atti-tudes, and dispositions.

5. Describe a planning strategy that can be used to facilitate meaningful socialstudies learning.

6. Select activities for the various phases of a powerful social studies lesson.7. Describe the essential parts of each phase of the learning cycle.8. Explain why each phase of the learning cycle lesson must be included for

successful student learning.9. Construct appropriate activities for each phase of the learning cycle lesson.

How Is Social Studies Best Taughtin Today's Classrooms?

Social studies educators have long advocated that students must form meaning intheir own minds by their own active efforts (Fraenkel, 1977; Saunders, 1992; Taba,1967). Meaning cannot be pushed or poured into the mind by someone else. Themeaning of cooperation with others, the process of identifying types of govern-ments, the understanding of why citizens should vote, are examples of the range ofsocial studies knowledge for which students must develop their own conception. Todo so, students must work with so~ial studies ideas until these ideas mean some-thing to them. Teachers facilitate meaningful learning by planning and using so-cial studies experiences that engage students in working through social studiesideas in their own minds.

Development: Applying What We Know aboutMeaningful Learning to Social Studies Curriculum

When confronted with a new idea in social studies, a student generally respondsin a learning sequence that begins with recalling prior knowledge of a seeminglyrelated idea or skill. Then, the student makes observations of the context in whichthe problem is set. Next, the student attempts to solve the problem. Most of theseearly actions result in confusion and even failure at understanding the new idea.However, if the teacher has set up conditions that enable the student work towardunderstanding, the sequence of activities in the lesson will help the student solvethe problem and generate the satisfaction that comes with solving a problem.

Meaningful social studies learning is an active construction process. It creates a net-work of experiences, ideas, and relationships that educators call knowledge. Figure2.1 illustrates the experiences students have as they construct their knowledge,skills, and attitudes in social studies. Starting with the earliest experiences in life,

socialstudiesidea

tthat is combined

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with new

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Leading to changesin the old idea

Creating opportunities forincorporating more experienceswith the social studies idea

I Experience -I-I Experience

-\,1 Experience

Experience

Leading to a more complete,accurate social studies idea

FIGURE 2.1------------------Knowledge Network of Experiences and Ideas leading to a Person's Current Social Studies Idea

we begin building ever more complex networks of social studies knowledge.Meaningful social studies learning is a process of integrating and building varioussocial studies ideas by adding, modifying, and connecting relationships betweenideas. Making relationships also includes the abilities to explain, predict, and applysocial studies information to many events (National Council for the Social Studies,19948:). Learn'ing SOClat S\unl~1; Th.'B'a~\~~~\\'J\.~'l,~~~%~~<i <i~~~\\.<il;l,<m..the Qriorknowledge the learner brings to a situation, whether the learner's attention is fo-cused on the ideas being presented, and the mental and physical actions oflearnersas they interact with events, people, and objects during instruction. The followingare conditions teachers put into place to facilitate learning in social studies:

• Concepts (e.g., change and continuity)• Generalizations (e.g., predicting relationships between the amount of diver-

sity in a society and the degree of potential conflicts that might be foundamong its people)

• Higher-level thinking skills (e.g., social studies inquiry skills, such as classi-fying different political positions, and higher skills, such as critical thinking,decision making, and problem solving)

• Attitudes and dispositions about the social world (e.g., willingness to suspendjudgment until a sufficient amount of evidence is available to form a reason-able conclusion)

Using Behavioral Learning Theory in Social Studies InstructionTeaching for active learning differs from traditional and behavioral orientations tosocial studies teaching. Traditional teaching views knowledge as transmitted bythe teacher or textbook. When the teacher asks questions or gives an assignment,it is primarily to find out whether students have received the message. Such tra-ditional social studies teaching is viewed as transmission and begins with theteacher or textbook presenting summarized information the student is expected to"recite" at a later time. Sometimes, this telling is followed by a highly teacher-guided activity designed to show the "truth" of the information. Telling studentsthat cities are often located on rivers or asking them to repeat the definition of acity are examples of the traditional transmission view of instruction.

The transmission view of the social studies curriculum is focused on a list ofitems to be transmitted, a catalog offacts. Traditional teaching uses strategies thatenhance memorization and recall. Students often enjoy memorizing facts theyview as useful. The issue is whether the goal of the social studies curriculum iscommitting to memory a list of facts or whether it is meaningful learning that en-ables individuals to personally explain relationships and decide how to be involvedwith social events in ways that are consistent with their values and those of theirculture. A traditional program centered on memorizing facts does not encouragestudents to find meaning in what they are learning, nor does it help them makeand test their decisions.

Memorization is useful for recalling facts such as that 50 states make upthe United States or that the name of one type of government is monarchy. Butif students do not understand the meaning of those facts, they cannot connectthem to form a bigger idea. Teaching social studies in this way fails to makeconnections with what a student already knows about the world. Direct teach-ing narrows learning objectives and limits social studies learning to the partic-ular solution explained. When direct instruction dominates lessons, teachers oftenfind it necessary to devote much attention to motivating and disciplining stu-dents because students can become bored and distracted rather than engaged insocial studies learning.

Teaching for meaningful learning does not replace all traditional strategies.Traditional social studies methods and behavioral teaching methods are appropri-ate for encouraging the recall and comprehension of information and the initial

teaching of skills, that is, spelling social studies words, identifying names of pres-idents, citing an example of a propaganda technique in a commercial, learning tomeasure distance on a map, or recording data from a survey on a chart or graph.Traditional teaching is sometimes appropriate, but it deserves a small portion ofstudents' and teachers' time and efforts.

An Effective Strategy to Assist Studentsin Conceptual Change

Social studies knowledge begins when the learner actively works with eventsfound in everyday life, both in and out of a classroom. It is saved in the learner'smind as a new construction made from sensory information obtained in the worldand reconstructions of prior knowledge. For meaningful learning to occur in school,classroom experiences must first be perceived by students. Then, students men-tally reconstruct the perception in their minds. This representation is transformedby each student to fit his or her own prior knowledge. Figure 2.2 illustrates themental processes involved in meaningful learning.

Conceptual change occurs when students change their concepts. This is noteasy to do. Students form their existing ideas from the experiences they have had.

Student perceivesstimulus that hasbeen encountered

I Application

I Application I Application

Lr-------Student explores the

stimulus and the resourcesfrom which it comes

Student expands the meaning ofthe learning experience by applyingwhat has been learned elsewhere

L.--Student examines

and gathers evidencefrom the resources

.-----JStudent hasexperienced

meaningful learning

Lr-------JStudent organizesevidence and interprets

it so it has meaning

FIGURE 2.2.---------------.-The Processof Meaningful Learning during a Social Studies Lesson

These ideas make sense to them. They do not give up their ideas without beingconvinced that the new idea is better and more useful in their lives. So teachers in-volve students' in meaningful social studies activities that foster conceptualchange. They plan lessons that

• Motivate students to recall related prior knowledge• Connect the new social studies idea to students' prior knowledge• Allow students to compare and confront their prior knowledge with the new

social studies idea• Encourage students to use metacognition, to think about their own thinking

(Costa, 2002; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993)

Go to the Mount Vernon website (www.mountvernon.org).Click the MountVernon virtual tour and complete the online tour. Return to the homepage. Click"Dig Into George!" and then select "Biography." As you read the biography, considerthe pictures used. Do the pictures convey a sense of George Washington's world atthe time of his presidency and the 10 to 20 years following it?

The learning sequence represented in the lesson on scale uses a research-basedteaching strategy called the learning cycle that is effective in planning social stud-ies lessons that promote conceptual change and increase students' powerful andmeaningful learning (Sunal, Sunal, & Haas, 1996; Sunal & Sunal, 1999). Thelearning-cycle approach is designed to sequence the key elements, or conditions,implied by constructivist learning theory so that all students:

• Become aware of their prior knowledge• Compare a new social studies idea to their prior knowledge• Confront their prior knowledge as they encounter a new social studies idea• Resolve their confrontation by constructing their "new" social studies idea• Connect the new social studies idea to what they already know• Apply and transfer the new social studies idea in novel situations (see Table

2.1 on page 37) (Appleton & Asoko, 1996)

Because the learning cycle incorporates these constructivist elements, it is bet-ter able to foster meaningful learning in social studies than are traditional teachingapproaches. The carefully selected active experiences of the exploratory introduc-tion phase ofthe learning cycle enable students to become more aware oftheir ownreasoning. As this occurs, they recognize shortcomings in their prior knowledge.During the lesson development phase ofthe learning cycle, students are engaged inexperiences that enable them to search more effectively for new patterns in their

Grade Level: Fourth or FifthNCSSStandards: People, Places, and Environment

This learning cycle on scale is an example of a lesson plan promoting meaningful learn-ing by students by incorporating strategies for conceptual change.

Materials: For each group, provide two objects that are the sameexcept for size(e.g., two blocks of wood with onelarger than a half sheet of paper and one smaller) and three half-sheets of drawing paper per student.

1. Students identifyreducing the scaleof two objects asa means by whichboth can be drawnon paper that istoo small to drawboth at full scale.

1. Placestudents in small groups. Havea group materi-als manager get drawing paper and two objects thatare the same except for size.Givestudents the task ofdrawing the smaller object on the half sheet ofpaper. Then, ask students to draw the bigger object.

2. Discussthe problems that arose. Ask, "Is there anyway you can think of to draw both of these on justone half sheet of paper?" Discuss.

3. Ask students to tryout their ideas on another sheetof paper. Discussresults of their efforts.

1. Reviewfinal drawingsto determine whetherthey (a) reduced bothobjects to a smallersize in their drawingsand (b) used the samescalefor both objects,using a checklist toidentify successfulstudents in each task.

Materials: Provide pairs with 5 to 7 sheets of graph paper, plain paper, wood block or other square object(6 x 6 inches), scissors,and glue

1. Students defi ne scaleasa ratio whereone square repre-sentsmore squares(e.g.,1 to 5).

1. Usecommon classroom materials, such as pencilsand books, to discuss differences in size as a com-mon aspect found among many ordinary objects.

2. Refer back to the exploratory introduction problem,reviewing solutions tried.

3. Assign pairs. Give each pair a sheet of graph paperand a wood block. Ask the pair to position the woodblock so its sides are on lines. Have the studentsdraw the outline of the block, count the squareswithin it, and write down the number found. Havethem cut out the square outlined and glue it to apiece of paper.

1. On a checklist,record whether stu-dents produced ascaled drawing of anobject that is largerthan their sheet ofgraph paper andidentified the scaleused.

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continued' '. ;' . , . .. .

2. Students draw thesame object in twodifferent scales.

4. Have the students cut a square from the graphpaper that is three rows by three rows and glue iton to a sheet of paper next to the six by sixsquare. Have students cut out a one-half by one-half row square and glue it near the other twosquares. Talk about whether this activity suggestsideas for how they can draw something large ontoa smaller piece of paper.

5. On a sheet of graph paper, ask each pair to draw ascaled drawing of a desktop or of a book that is largerthan the graph paper. Work with students to establisha scale, such as1 square = 5 inches, of the item.Encourage pairs to usedifferent scalesas long astheyare successfulat the task. Have pairs identify theirscale on the drawing.

6. Discussscaled down drawings and write scalesusedon the board.

7. Give each student a sticky note. Have each draw iton graph paper to size, then reduce the scale inanother drawing, and label the scale for eachdrawing.

8. Closure. Define scale, as used here, asa ratio so thatone square represents more squares (e.g., 1 to 5).Discussthe different scalesused in class,emphasizingthat the same object can be drawn with differentscales.

2. On a checklist,record whether stu-dents used two dif-ferent scales todraw an object andlabeled the scale foreach drawing.

Materials: Provide each pair with a yardstick and two sheets of graph paper; for each student provide graphpaper and pencils

1. Students draw aroom at home toscaIe and accu-rately identify thescale used.

1. Have one pair measure the classroom's length andanother pair measure its width using a yardstick.Write the measurements on the board. Ask the stu-dent pairs to draw it to scale on graph paper and toindicate the scale used. Discusstheir choices anddrawings.

, continued,I

2. Ask students to measure a room at home, draw it toscale, and identify the scale used.

3. Discuss drawings of a room at home and the scaleused.

4. Lesson summary. Ask students to briefly describetheir activities and what they think was the mainidea of the learning cycle.

1. Use a checkl ist torecord whether stu-dents accurately in-d icated the seaIeused on a drawingmade of a room athome.

Have each student draw a scaled plan of another room in the school (e.g., library, cafeteria) using length andwidth measurements for the room and a door into the room, which you provide. Ask them to indicate the lo-cation of the door to the room and identify the scale used. Consider whether (1) the scale used was appropri-ate, (2) the scale was used consistently in the drawing, (3) the door was in the correct location, and (4) the doorwas drawn to scale.

experiences. They reconstruct their prior knowledge into these new patterns, whichrepresent concepts, generalizations, inquiry skills, attitudes, values, or dispositions.As this reconstruction occurs, students practice with the new pattern to better un-derstand its characteristics and use. This practice stabilizes this new thought pat-tern in their mind so that it can be accessed from long-term memory when needed.

M~~!~~_~_f.~Y:~!'..~_~!:.~__~~~~~~t!~~Geography in Literature

Many children's books have connections to geographyand can be used to expand on lessons teaching geo-graphic concepts and related skills. Teachers who lookfor geographical elements in a children's literature se-lection often are able to identify one or two elementsthat are important to the story. Bringing such ele-ments to children's attention helps them expand theirunderstanding of these elements. For very young chil-dren, oral literature in the form of nursery rhymesoften has geographical elements. "Mary had a littlelamb," "Jack and Jill went up the hill," and "Hickorydickory dock," for example, incorporate basic spatialdirections such as "up" and movement. Some of themany books that have geographical elements includePeter's Place by Sally Grindley and Michael Foreman;

Billy Goats Gruff, Three Little Pigs, and Goldilocks andthe Three Bears, all by Fran Hunia; Little Red RidingHood by Tony Ross; Hansel and Gretel by JoanCameron; The Enormous Crocodile by Roald Dahl;Have You Seen Stanley? by Pat Edwards; 1'1/Take you toMrs. Cole by Nigel Gray and Michael Foreman; MySchool by Sumiko; On the Way Home by Jill Murphy;The joggers by Pat Edwards; Can't Catch Me by JohnPrater; The Power of One: Daisy Bates and the LittleRock Nine by Dennis Brindell Fradin and Judith BloomFradin; Escapefrom Saigon: Howa Vietnam WarOrphan Became an American Boy by Andrea Warren;Grandma Moses by Alexandra Wallner; Private Peacefulby Michael Morpurgo; and Remember: ThejourneyofSchool Integration by Toni Morrison.

Consider the learning cycle lesson plan on scale. Respond to the following questions. If possi-ble, discuss you r responseswith a peer.

1. How does the task in the exploratory introduction present students with a chal-lenge?

2. How does the key question used by the teacher in the exploratory introduction en-gage students' prior knowledge? Around which concept is this lesson focused?

3. How does the teacher help students develop the concept of scale as a ratio throughthe lesson development activities? How do these activities help students recognizescale as a ratio?

4. On what two components of the concept of scale does the teacher bring closure,after students have had time to further develop their concept of scale in the middleportion of this lesson7

5. How does the teacher work with expanding students' use of scale during the expan-sion? What procedures in the plan indicate that the teacher first involves all the stu-dents in a carefully guided practice activity with the concept? What proceduresdescribe an individual activity with the concept? What benefit might there be to thestudents when they are first involved in a carefully guided practice activity then inan individual practice activity?

TABLE 2.1----------------The Learning Cycle Strategy Helps Students Reconstruct Their Prior Knowledge

• Become aware• Compare social studies ideas

• Exploratory introduction learning expe-riences enable students to reveal andconfront their own representation of asocial studies idea, attitude, disposi-tion, or inquiry skill.

• Lesson development learning experi-ences explain an alternative, new so-cial studies idea, attitude, disposition,or inquiry skill.

• Expansion learning experiences enablestudents to apply and transfer the newidea, attitude, disposition, or inquiryskill, extending the range of applicabil-ity and helping to make it permanent.

• Confront prior knowledge• Resolveconfrontations• Connect new social studies idea

• Apply what they learn• Transfer to new settings

During the expansion phase of the learning cycle, students apply the new thoughtpattern to solving related problems. Students are asked to transfer the new thoughtpattern to contexts different from that in which it was originally learned. The orderof phases used in the learning cycle addresses the conditions needed to help stu-dents modify or discard prior knowledge, promoting conceptual change.

Teaching is a process of continuous decision making that involves planning,implementation, and evaluation. If teachers base their decisions on an under-standing of how students learn social studies effectively, they can increase theirability to develop social studies lessons that work. Figure 2.3 (on page 38) outlinesthe components of each of the three phases of the learning cycle lesson. The crite-ria for making planning decisions vary with each phase of the learning cycle. Whenplanning each phase of the learning cycle, teachers should ask themselves ques-tions derived from constructivist learning theory to ensure they are addressingeach element important to that phase (see Figure 2.4 on page 39). These questionsdemonstrate that the learning cycle process is not a blueprint or cookbook thatteachers follow, but rather a set of decision points using important criteria thathelp teachers address important conditions for students' meaningful learning ofpowerful social studies.

Exploratory introduction: Social studies learning experiences are designed toencourage students to

• Recall and relate prior knowledge to the new idea by focusing attention, making ob-servations, and collecting data

• Respond to a "key" open question, involving students in trying out the new socialstudies idea

• Make public their prior knowledge related to the new social studies idea• Confront their prior knowledge with the new social studies idea

Lesson development: Social studies learning experiences are designed to encourage stu-dents to

• Discussthe results of the exploratory introduction activity, providing connections tothe new social studies idea that is the focus of the lesson

• Explain the new idea, describe it in context, how to use it, when to use it, the purposefor which it is used, and/or how to know when it is used appropriately

• Practice clear examples or model the new idea• Practice activities for the new idea in interesting examples, not repetitive practice• Provide closure for the new idea, describing the steps necessaryto use it appropriately

Expansion: Social studies learning experiences are designed to encourage students to

• Apply the new idea in several new and relevant contexts• Transfer the new social studies idea to real-world events• Provide a learning summary of the development of the new social studies idea in the

completed lesson

FIGURE 2.3_~_------ ----- ----

learning CycleFormat

The learning cycle sequences its three phases beginning with the exploratoryintroduction, working through development, and ending with expansion. Eachphase has a different purpose, and, therefore, requires different student andteacher actions and interactions. All three phases need to be completed in a lessonbefore a single idea can be meaningfully learned. If one phase of the learning cyclesocial studies lesson is inadequate or missing, or if the sequence of phases ischanged, significant loss in achievement ofthe new social studies idea is expected.

Teachers make a number of decisions when planning a lesson, such as what socialstudies content to include, what new social studies skill the lesson will teach, andwhat previously learned skill and information will be reviewed. Teachers consultnational standards and state guidelines for suggestions for appropriate topics andskills. These are weighed against students' experiences. Objectives are developedthat incorporate the guidelines and students' past experiences. The entire lessonusually has a primary objective and a number of secondary objectives. A teacher

The following questions are designed to help adapt social studies instruction to assiststudent learning in a social studies lesson.

Exploratory Introduction

• What activities will enable my students to become aware of and make public theirprior knowledge and reasoning about the new social studies idea in a safe environ-ment?

• What activities will provide my students with the opportunity to tryout their priorknowledge in the new setting?

• What activities will enable my students to compare their prior knowledge to the newsocial studies idea and recognize shortcomings in their prior knowledge?

Lesson Development

• What activities will provide my students with a clear explanation and sufficient prac-tice examples or model to allow them to connect the new social studies idea to whatthey already knew7

• What activities will enable my students to construct their own "new" social studiesknowledge based on the new idea and to search more effectively for the new patternsin their environment?

Expansion

• What activities will enable my students to apply the new social studies knowledge inrelevant contexts?

• What activities will help my students develop successful procedures for making deci-sions and solving problems while transferring the new social studies idea to other andnovel settings, especially in settings more relevant to students' personal needs?

FIGURE 2.4~-.~~~_~_--_. -----Brief Outline of Questions for learning Cycle Planning Decisions

also may want to use a particular activity or set of resources. These can assist inlesson planning, because it is often possible to write a lesson objective that com-bines the content and skills required for use of the desired activity or material.

After identifying the lesson's objectives, the teacher begins planning the les-son, starting with the first phase, the exploratory introduction. The teacher's roleduring the exploratory introduction involves confronting students' thinking, rais-ing questions, and facilitating students' exploration. The students' role involvescontrolling much of their own leaming behavior through exploring, observing,recording, and testing prior knowledge (see Table 2.2 on page 40).

TABLE 2.2---------------.Consistent and Inconsistent Exploratory Introduction Activities

Createsinterest in topicGeneratescuriosityRaisesquestionsElicits responsesthat uncover what

the students know or think aboutthe concept/topic

Encouragesstudents to work togetherwithout direct instruction from theteacher

Observesand listens to students asthey interact

Asks probing questions to redirects\",M\\\c,' i\\'.j~s\i~o\i~\\s,'N\\~\\ \\~C-

essaryProvides time for students to solve

problemsActs as a consultant to students

Respond with interest to the stimuluscrcres-cfc?rP, dxYr<!; c?r c?rcfd?cc"

Ask questions, such as "Why did thishappen" or "What do I alreadyknow about this?"

Show interest in the topicThink freely, but about the topicTest new predictions and hypothesesForm new predictions and hypothesesTry alternatives and discuss them

with othersRecord observations and ideasSuspend judgment

Explains conceptsProvides definitions and answersStatesconclusionsLecturesProvides answersTells or explains how to work

through the problemProvides closureTells the students that they are in-

correctGives information or facts that solve

the problem\...~o<iss\",<i~\\\ss\~~-\:w-s\~~t~ a s~-

lution

Ask for the "rioh·- a.5>rNf'r c".?c> ';PC'?? -af y c=".

Insist on answers or explanationsSeekone solutionLet others do the thinking and ex-

ploringWork quietly with little or no inter-

action with others (only appro-priate when exploring ideas orfeelings)

"Play around" indiscriminately withno goal in mind

Stop with one solution

During the exploratory introduction, students get involved with a social stud-ies idea that is new to them. They do this by engaging in an open-ended activitythat makes their prior knowledge public and enables the teacher to diagnose theirexisting ideas. Finally, the activity begins to relate their prior knowledge to thenew social studies idea. The three questions in Figure 2.4 guide the teacher's deCi-sions in selecting instructional activities for this exploratory phase ofthe lesson. Byanswering the questions, the teacher identifies several open-ended activities thatpromote a safe environment in which students control the direction of their re-sponses and specific responses are not expected. The activities are focused witha carefully planned open-ended key question or two. The key question (see thescale learning cycle) enables students to understand the topic or direction of thelesson. During the exploratory introduction activities, the teacher uses cooperativelearning groups and pairs to encourage social interaction as students work withmaterials and share ideas. Students interact as they collect and organize data,select resources, discuss their tasks and observations, and argue the evidence theyhave at hand. To accomplish all this, the teacher must allow sufficient time. Ifenough time is not provided, students will not be able to relate their prior knowl-edge to the new knowledge.

Many types of activities work well during the exploratory introduction phase,including student observation and exploratory introduction of an event, problemsolving, a discovery field trip, an inductive demonstration, a task for which deci-sions are to be made, drawings and discussions of students' understanding of a con-cept, and question-and-answer discussions about evidence observed in smallgroups. Chapter 7 describes several of these types of activities in depth.

During the lesson development phase of the learning cycle, the teacher providesmore guidance than was provided in the exploratory introduction phase (see Table2.3). During the lesson development phase, the teacher's role is to provide an ex-planation for the key idea or skill, to interact with students, to promote studentpractice of the idea, and to provide closure on the key idea or skill. The students'role is to construct, question, and practice the alternative explanations.

In the development phase, the teacher explains and provides examples andnonexamples of the key social studies idea or skill. The teacher guides students inreconstructing their prior knowledge. Although the teacher is a stronger guide inthis phase of the lesson, a variety of instructional strategies can be used. Theteacher may have students use a WebQuest, listen to a short lecture, watch anddiscuss a video, read a textbook, or participate in a simulation. When students giveevidence of having reconstructed their prior knowledge, the teacher brings thisphase of the lesson to a close by clearly defining and describing the idea or skill,often involving the students in arriving at a consensus statement that defines thenew idea. The two questions in Figure 2.4 for the development phase guide theteacher's decisions in selecting instructional activities for this phase of the lesson.

TABLE 2.3----------------The learning Cycle: Consistent and Inconsistent Actions during the lesson Development Phase

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--~----~----------,--------_._.~-~--_._---=-._---'--~-----~--~-=--._-_._-_._----_._~-----_...•..__.----~~--~~~--_. -~-~~---~---------------Teacher'sActions Encouragesstudents to explain Accepts explanations that have no

ideas in their own words justificationAsksfor justification, evidence, and Neglects to solicit students' explana-

clarification for statements tionsProvides definitions, explanations, Introduces unrelated concepts or

and new labels skillsHelps students link previous experi-

encesto social studies learning

Explain possible solutions or an-swers to others

Listen critically to others' explana-tions

Question others' explanationsListen to and try to comprehend ex·

planations offered by the teacherRefer to previous activitiesExamine maps, charts, pictures, and

narrative data resourcesSupport explanations with data

Proposeexplanations from "thin air"with no relationship to previousexperiences

Bring up irrelevant experiences andexamples

Accept explanations without justifica-tion

Do not attend to other plausible ex-planations

The teacher recognizes that the development phase continues the develo_ment of the new social studies idea or skill through directed reflection and d.:3~--=sian, following up on the activities in the exploratory introduction phase. 1.:'---~exploratory phase's activities challenged students' prior knowledge by co =-~it or by puzzling the students, the development phase's activities communica-- =-formation about the new idea to help students resolve the confrontation or

To resolve the confrontation, the students will work through a variety _~-tivities, investigating all of the important aspects, ranges, contexts, andthe new social studies idea or skilL Such activities are sequenced in {) a ~-= -ture that organizes data related to the new social studies idea or skill = ---~the students see how the various components fit together. Students nclear examples of what the new social studies ideas or skills represent. A:: - _students' practice of an idea or skill is guided or modeled by the teach€!: --::--=:enables them to receive feedback. Without such guidance, the students ma. :- - -tice errors creating alternative conceptions that require a great amoun o:--=-to unlearn. One or more examples demonstrating the idea or skill are prE-

at this point in the lesson. Sometimes this consists of demonstrating a socialstudies idea or skill through guided practice, analogies, or working models. Italso can involve taking the students through a step-by-step process. The moreways in which an idea or skill is modeled for students, the more meaningful itwill be to them.

The development activities, as noted previously, are varied. The focus is onproviding more than one form of explanation, giving clear examples, using mod-eling, and checking for understanding. Using several activities enables studentsto question, tryout, and practice the new social studies idea. Because most stu-dents have limited short-term memories, the teacher provides important infor-mation as concretely as possible. When more concrete materials or visuals, suchas hands-on materials, pictures, graphs, demonstrations, and modeling, accom-pany verbal explanations, more information can be stored efficiently. The use ofconcrete materials facilitates meaningful learning and long-term memory stor-age. After students have worked with an activity aimed at providing an expla-nation of the new social studies idea or skill, they need to practice using it inconcrete activities similar to the situations just experienced in the explanationactivity. Throughout this phase of the learning cycle, the teacher is a guide whohelps students accommodate their thinking to new social studies ideas orskills, restoring the equilibrium lost during the Exploratory Introductionwhen their prior knowledge was confronted (Martin, Sexton, Wagner, & Gerlovich,1994).

Key terms should be provided and defined during the discussion, following upon activities carried out during the development phase. When terms are defined atthe beginning of the phase, before students have worked with examples and ex-planations, they will have little meaning.

Some students will discover the new social studies idea during the exploratoryintroduction phase and some will develop it during the development phase's activ-ities. Still others may not be clear about the new social studies idea even afterworking with development activities. It is important to make certain that all stu-dents have closure, a clear description of the idea or skill with which they havebeen working that they will apply in the last part of the lesson, the expansion.Closure can occur by providing a brief clear description, demonstration, or model-ing of the main social studies idea or skill orally, and in writing, at the end of thedevelopment phase. The closure states or shows clearly and concisely the main ob-jective of the lesson. Alternatively, students state the main idea of the lesson orally,write the idea on the board, or demonstrate the skill.

Following the development, or explanation, phase of the lesson, the teacher helpsstudents apply and transfer the new social studies idea or skill to different sit-uations. This is the purpose of the expansion phase of the learning cycle. During

the expansion phase of the learning cycle, the teacher provides less guidancethan during the development phase (see Table 2.4). The teacher's role in the ex-pansion is to provide for, and encourage, students' application and transfer ofthe social studies concept or skill. The students' role is to attempt to applyand transfer their newly reconstructed idea or skill in new situations and con-texts where it has not been previously used and to make connections to real-world experiences.

Practice and application during the expansion phase helps students retrieyethe social studies idea from memory. Providing additional experiences that helpstudents transfer the new idea to other settings and contexts is necessary, be-cause transfer does not automatically occur. Two questions (see Figure 2.4) guidethe teacher's decisions in selecting instructional activities for this final phase 0

the lesson.During the expansion phase, the teacher helps students broaden the range of

application of a new idea or skill. The teacher asks the students to differentiate thenew idea from other related ideas. The teacher asks the students to describe noonly the solution, but also the process used to find a solution and to relate priorknowledge to the new idea or skill learned.

Have you ever thought you understood an idea, but later found that yodidn't really understand it, or were no longer able to remember it when needed?It is likely that either you did not construct a meaningful understanding of theidea or that you did construct it, but then had little or no practice in applyingit. As a result, the idea was poorly, if at all, connected to your prior knowledgeand to the knowledge structure in your mind. Sufficient application and tr "-fer experiences with a new idea and skill enable us to connect it to a relevan-knowledge structure and to access it from our long-term memory. Expansion ex-periences are spaced out over time so the idea or skill is used in situations sim-ilar to, but different from, those experienced in the exploratory introduction anadevelopment phases of the learning cycle. Students begin using and applying thenew social studies skill or idea in settings similar to those experienced in thelesson. Then, they are ready to transfer it to different situations. This step ofteis omitted because students have given some evidence of learning the new idee.or skill earlier in the lesson. Although students seem to have reconstructed theirprior knowledge, they need experience in using the social studies idea in a ne"context over a period of time before the new thought can be stabilized in E

long-term memory (Perkins & Salomon, 1991; Baker & Piburn, 1997).Many types of experiences enable students to apply and transfer a new s

cial studies idea or skill. These include reflecting on hands-on activities, takingfield trips, problem solving, decision making, interviewing or surveying other", ,.dents, drawing events, playing a part in a simulation, playing a game whereidea is needed to arrive at a successful conclusion, creating a analogy or mod~of the new idea and describing how it works, using the Internet to fmd app':-cations of the new idea, completing paper-and-pencil exercises, and engaging :r

TABLE 2.4...- .._---------The learning Cycle: Consistent and Inconsistent Actions during the Expansion Phase

~ mn~'H~~ __'. -= ~_~~~~ :.•.'__.'~_:~:.~_~~.~~

Expectsstudents to use previously learnedformal labels, definitions, and explana-tions

Encouragesstudents to apply or extend con-cepts and skills in new situations

Reminds students of alternative explanationsRefersstudents to existing data and evidence

and asks: "What do you already know?"and "Why do you think ... ?" (strategiesfrom the previous stage also apply here)

looks for evidence that students havechanged their prior knowledge

Asksopen-ended questions, such as "Why doyou think ... ?" "What evidence do youhave?" "What do you think about ... ?"and "How would you explain .. , ?"

Apply newly learned labels, definitions, expla-nations, skills in similar situations

Use previously learned information to askquestions, propose solutions, or make de-cisions

Draw reasonable conclusions from evidenceRecord observations and explanations when

perform ing activitiesCheck for understanding among peersDemonstrate an understanding or knowledge

of the concept or skillAsk related questions that encourage future

investigations

Provides defi nitive answersTells students that they are in-

correctlecturesleads students step-by-step to a

solutionExplains how to work through

the problem

"Play around" with no goal inmind

Ignore previous information orevidence

Draw conclusions from "thinair"

Usethose labels provided bythe teacher in discussionsonly

question-and-answer discussions in small groups (see Chapter 7 for a discussionof instructional strategies).

When sufficient practice and application experiences have occurred, it is importantto involve students in generating a brief chronological summary of the learningcycle. A summary is aimed at consolidating the lesson's experiences into a related