Teaching English Language Learners: Strategies for Overcoming Barriers

This article was downloaded by: [Tufts University]On: 10 October 2014, At: 10:08Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

The Educational ForumPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utef20

Teaching English Language Learners:Strategies for Overcoming BarriersSara R. Helfrich b & Amy J. Bosh ba Department of School Psychology,Literacy, and Special Education ,Idaho State University , Pocatello, Idaho, USAb Department of Educational Foundations , Idaho State University ,Twin Falls, Idaho, USAPublished online: 17 Jun 2011.

To cite this article: Sara R. Helfrich & Amy J. Bosh (2011) Teaching English LanguageLearners: Strategies for Overcoming Barriers, The Educational Forum, 75:3, 260-270, DOI:10.1080/00131725.2011.578459

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2011.578459

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utef20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/00131725.2011.578459

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2011.578459

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

The Educational Forum, 75: 260–70, 2011Copyright © Kappa Delta PiISSN: 0013-1725 print/1938-8098 onlineDOI: 10.1080/00131725.2011.578459

Address correspondence to Sara R. Helfrich, The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education and Human Services, Teacher Education Department, Ohio University, McCracken Hall 321D, Athens, OH 45701–2979, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The number of English language learners (ELLs) in today’s classrooms is

increasing. In this article, the authors identify four perceived barriers be-

ginning and veteran teachers face in teaching literacy to ELLs: the lack of

understanding of the role of literacy in other cultures, the teacher’s inability

to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all learners, the devaluation

of peer interactions and collaborations in the process of learning a language,

and a lack of knowledge about using assessment measures with diverse stu-

dent populations. Through the review of research and the authors’ experienc-

es in the fi eld, strategies are offered to help teachers overcome these barriers

and become more effective teachers of ELLs.

Key words: diversity, emerging literacy, English as a second language, inclusive education,

reading.

The number of English language learners (ELLs) in today’s classrooms is rapidly increasing. The percentage of students whose fi rst language is not English, and the percentage of nonnative English speakers that teachers instruct on a daily basis, will continue to increase over time. Several researchers have gathered data regarding student populations and ELLs:

• According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (Klein et al. 2004), between 1979 and 1999, the number of school-aged students speaking a lan-guage other than English at home increased by 118 percent, from six million in 1979 to nearly 14 million in 1999. Spanish is the most frequently spoken

Teaching English Language Learners: Strategies for Overcoming BarriersSara R. HelfrichDepartment of School Psychology, Literacy, and Special Education, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho, USA

Amy J. BoshDepartment of Educational Foundations, Idaho State University, Twin Falls, Idaho, USA

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014

Teaching English Language Learners: Strategies for Overcoming Barriers

The Educational Forum • Volume 75 • 2011 • 261

language (71 percent), followed by Asian languages (11 percent), other non-European languages (10 percent), and other European languages (7 percent).

• A record 55 million students were enrolled in public and private elementary and secondary schools across the nation in Fall 2006; an 8 percent increase in this number is expected by the year 2018 (Hussar and Bailey 2009).

• According to Orfi eld and Yun (as cited in Cohen and Lotan 2004), the majority of kindergarten through Grade 12 (K–12) public school students in fi ve states, including California and Texas, are from minority backgrounds.

• Based on information obtained by Development Associates (see August, 2006), during the 2001 through 2002 school year, roughly 43 percent of all K–12 teach-ers in the United States reported working with ELLs—an increase of nearly 28 percent from just ten years earlier

Effort is made on many levels to educate diverse learners in the English language so that these students can achieve success in a manner that will afford them the same op-portunities as those students for whom English is their primary language. It is important for teachers to remember that a need for instruction in the English language is not an indicator that a student is incapable of acquiring the literacy skills that will allow him or her to succeed academically, or to achieve a level of educational success comparable to his or her native English-speaking peers. The role of the teacher in language acquisition for ELLs is an integral one. For new teachers, the task may seem intimidating; research conducted by Sara R. Helfrich (Helfrich and Bean 2011) indicates that beginning teachers do not perceive themselves as being adequately prepared to instruct ELLs in the area of literacy. Diverse learners may require somewhat differentiated methods of instruction and assessment; being able to meet this challenge without taking time from other learners or singling out ELLs is both a diffi cult task and a delicate balance. Regardless of the formal training teachers receive in the areas of literacy and multicultural education, there is no magic answer to the question of how to educate students as fully as possible, despite the initial diffi culties they may have in terms of English language acquisition. Effective, eq-uitable, and enthusiastic teachers seek to integrate ELLs as fully as possible (Banks 2004; Cohen and Lotan 2004). According to Banks (2004, 5), “an equity pedagogy exists when teachers use techniques and methods that facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, ethnic, and social-class groups.”

It is important to look at the concept of language learning from a whole-child perspec-tive; one that not only respects the expectations placed on educators, but also accounts for the needs and developmental levels of the individual student. Effective English lan-guage instruction should not remake the ELL into one of his or her native-language peers, linguistically or otherwise; rather, teachers should allow for ELLs to learn the English language while respecting and preserving their native language and attitude toward literacy—that is, teachers should strive for acculturation, rather than assimilation (Banks 1988). Phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fl uency, comprehension, oral and written expression, and the structure of reading and writing can be taught using methods that allow students to learn and demonstrate knowledge in a way that teachers can monitor and understand. This article addresses some of the perceived barriers faced by teachers of

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014

262 • The Educational Forum • Volume 75 • 2011

Helfrich and Bosh

ELLs by highlighting key factors and differences and by providing valuable and relevant strategies to help guide and educate teachers of these students.

The authors have derived, from work as teachers and from work with beginning teach-ers, four perceived barriers beginning teachers face when focusing their attention and instruc-tional energy on teaching ELLs in the area of literacy. Through the review of research and experiences in the fi eld, strategies to help beginning teachers—and, hopefully, all teachers—overcome these barriers and become more effective teachers of ELLs are offered.

Barrier #1Teachers may not understand the role of literacy development or the importance of

literacy and education in diverse cultures.

StrategiesTeachers should work to understand the role of literacy development in diverse cul-

tures and work toward the preservation of cultural values. Teachers should determine cultural priorities and acquire background knowledge to help support the inclusion of all students.

One of the most diffi cult obstacles in unlocking the English language for ELLs is the issue of their individual backgrounds and cultures (McLaughlin 1992). August and Calderón (2006) found that effective teachers have high expectations for ELLs, and they value cultural differences. It is important for teachers to learn the backgrounds of their students and the function of language and literacy in their native culture (Delpit 1995). For example, how prominently does language acquisition and expression fi gure into the cultural priorities of the student’s family?

In comparison to Anglo-American culture, some cultures place less importance on academic written and spoken language profi ciency. Some cultures have values more deeply rooted in family relationships and work outside the home that may place differ-ent amounts or types of importance on literacy. If a student is raised in a family whose agricultural background is the main source of income and employment, that student’s interest level in reading and writing may differ greatly from a student’s whose traditional culture places high expectations on being literate across many areas. The importance of language and literacy in the home must be taken into consideration when introducing these students into English language instruction. Teachers should incorporate English as much as possible to help students succeed in school, yet should also be conscientious of not downplaying the student’s cultural background. A student’s native language and cultural values should be preserved.

Respecting diversity is integral to bringing students of different cultures together. Teachers must understand who their students are not just as learners, but as people as well. Teachers must recognize differences between students’ culture and the culture of the school; without this, “teachers can easily misread students’ aptitudes, intent, or abilities” (Delpit 1995, 167). When teachers begin to understand students’ cultures, they will begin

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014



to see students’ potential; if teachers are to “successfully educate all [students, they] must remove the blinders built of stereotypes [and] ignorance … ” (182).

Efforts exist today to explore other cultures in the classroom. For example, many schools highlight and celebrate holidays or special events that pertain to a certain culture, such as Cinco de Mayo celebrations or a Native American ritual for a certain season or time of year. A day or a portion of it is dedicated to learning about that event’s signifi cance and historical purpose. Often, a celebration is held with traditional food, dress, or games. These events can be both fun and informational, and can highlight the students in the classroom that represent that culture in a way that gives them a positive spotlight and a platform to share what they know with others. This is important because in other areas, the student may be incorrectly perceived as being defi cient in some way due to language barriers. However, there is much more to a student’s cultural background than food or ethnic dress. Historical events, geographic factors, pastimes, and the affects of war or oppression are just a few of the important cultural aspects to consider. With investiga-tion into the culture—including that led by a student or students—such topics could be incorporated into everyday instruction. Teachers should take every opportunity to build connections between what is already familiar to students and what new information or skills are being taught (Walker-Dalhouse and Risko 2008). Learning gains relevance and retention and engagement are encouraged when that learning is applicable on a personal level (Bahruth and Steiner 1998).

A simple way in which teachers can incorporate and address various cultures in their classroom is through their selection of trade books. When establishing a classroom library, teachers can make the conscientious decision to include books that feature diverse charac-ters. When choosing books to read to or with students, “the messages that teachers promote through [the books they choose] … should convey [their] respect and acknowledgement of diverse cultures” (Hall 2008, 81). Manyak (2007, 198) affi rmed that instruction should not only be language-rich, but should be socio-culturally informed as well; this entails teachers “recognizing valuable cultural experiences and resources [students bring with them to class] and fi nding ways to incorporate them into classroom activities. [Connect-ing] literacy activities to [ELLs’] out-of-school lives can lead to meaningful, engaging, and sophisticated literate activities.”

Barrier #2Teachers may struggle to meet the literacy needs of all learners in their classroom,

especially those of ELLs.

StrategiesTeachers should work to engage ELLs in classroom instructional activities without

isolating them or taking instructional time away from other students. They should use explicit instruction, adapted patterns of speech, modeling, and real reading to convey meaning and increase ELLs’ comprehension.

In any grade level or classroom setting, new teachers are faced with the task of teach-ing skills based on their particular curriculum requirements and state standards. Given

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014


Helfrich and Bosh

the large amount of information to teach in a short period of time, this alone can be a diffi cult task; the issue of how to do it in a way that keeps students engaged and active in the learning process can make it even more diffi cult.

Here, the issue of student engagement takes on a more personal intent. Teachers that take the time to explore the backgrounds and interests of ELLs are able to ask thought-provoking questions or plan assignments around areas of interest to the student. This is effective in any classroom setting, but in the case of the ELL, it creates a critical connec-tion between the background knowledge they possess and the academic requirements of the classroom.

Making this connection is necessary for the academic success of all students; for ELLs, making this connection may be more diffi cult than for native English speakers. ELLs must not only acquire a new language successfully, they must also be able to use it functionally to demonstrate understanding and to develop their own critical thinking skills. The way in which they perform this task can differ signifi cantly from that of their non-ELL peers. As a result of their work with teaching diverse learners, The Education Alliance at Brown University (2006) noted that, in the beginning, it is from the use of oral language that ELLs gain the majority of their understanding. ELLs learn English primarily by listening to language in use around them, and using context to determine the meaning of the spoken words. From this research, we understand that, in the early stages of language acquisition, ELLs may spend more time listening without responding than speaking aloud or volunteering information spontaneously. Teachers should understand that, though a student may be quiet in class, he or she may be working hard to listen and make sense of what is being said; and because of this, the student may need more time to process information to answer a question or volunteer a response.

From this, teachers should be aware that they model good language use for students every time they use oral language. Using clear and concise speech can help ELLs decipher important parts of what is being said. Teachers can adapt their speaking in a way that helps those who struggle to keep up with meanings, without specifi cally singling students out or taking away instructional time from others. Methods for speech adaptation include paraphrasing and repeating words, sentences, and directions in different ways to allow every type of learner to succeed in comprehension. The use of hand gestures, pictures, and props may also help make meaning more clear (Teale 2009).

Shanahan and Beck (2006), through their analysis of research, concluded that ELLs often benefi t from the same types of instruction used with non-ELLs if minor adjustments are made. If working to build auditory discrimination skills, students may benefi t from increased attention to sounds that do not appear in their native language. Vocabulary ac-quisition may be easier if the words teachers introduce can be connected to the student’s native language. Additionally, Shanahan and Beck summarized that ELLs may benefi t when teachers allow more time for independent reading, read to students, and engage students in in-depth literature discussions. Additionally, instruction in both reading and writing should be explicit (Manyak 2007; Schulz 2009).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014



Barrier #3Teachers may not be aware of the value peers, including other ELLs, have in the

inclusion and education of ELLs.

StrategiesTeachers should not underestimate the role of peers in the inclusion and education of

ELLs. They should use partner-share, group activities, and peer tutoring, including other ELLs whose knowledge and use of the language is further progressed than others.

Including time for students to work collaboratively is important; the authors have seen that what students learn from their peers is as much, if not more, than what they learn from their teachers. However, teachers may be hesitant to include students with diverse language needs in group or partner activities because they feel these students may need more support than their peers can provide. While ELLs may benefi t from teacher-led pre-reading and specifi ed vocabulary instruction, these types of activities should be used in addition to, not in place of, peer-focused activities. If the classroom is viewed as a social system, in an equitable classroom, the teacher delegates authority to groups of students and holds them accountable for their learning; the students then work together to acquire knowledge (Cohen and Lotan 2004). Wong Fillmore (as cited in Cohen and Lotan 2004) reported that ELLs showed growth in the language of instruction when they had the opportunity to interact with native or native-like speakers and when they had ac-cess to a language-rich classroom environment. Teale (2009) also recommended extended language-rich interactions with peers.

Having students share their experiences with one another allows students to see other points of view—if only through discussion—and experience things they may not yet have had the chance to experience on their own. For example, when a student refl ects on a passage he or she has read, the student derives meaning not just from what was presented in the text, but also from his or her own similar life experiences. If there are 20 students in the classroom, there may be 20 different interpretations of the text because of the individual life experiences each student brings to the reading. ELLs are not an excep-tion; their experiences and contributions to the classroom are just as valuable as those of their native English-speaking peers.

One example that conveys the necessity and usefulness of such inclusive activities is taken from Sara R. Helfrich’s experience with a morning circle in a fi rst-grade classroom. At the start of each day, the teacher held a morning circle activity in which students read the day’s message, wrote the date, and counted how many days they had been in school, among other activities. At the end of each week, students were asked whether they had anything they would like to share with their peers, such as a family event, upcoming trip, or prized possession. A young boy from China, with no English language skills, had recently become a member of the class. For weeks, he watched and listened as the other students shared with the class during morning circle. One morning, he brought in a stuffed tiger to share with the class. He said a few comments about the tiger, all in Chinese, and then passed it around for everyone to see. Although he had not understood

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014


Helfrich and Bosh

the words his peers were saying when they presented their items, and the rest of the class was not able to understand him, sharing and learning about one another had taken place through this activity. This student was learning about his peers and about different cultures through this group experience, and the other students were learning about him and what he found to be important. He quickly became friends with other students in the class, and continued to take part in other group activities, even though he could not always verbally communicate with his peers. A large portion of his English vocabulary came from his interactions with his peers that year; and by the time he was in second grade, he was speaking English fl uently.

This example of morning circle time illustrates the importance of student interaction, and shows that it does not always need to occur in a formal, academically based manner to be effective. As students progress through school and enter into the upper elementary grade levels, however, the experiences they have with group work are focused more and more on academic tasks. After modeling the activity and assuring that students are profi cient at the task, thoughtfully pairing students for a comprehension activity, such as a “think–aloud,” allows native and nonnative English-speaking students to learn from each other and gain from their varying perspectives. Pairing two ELLs—one with advanced skills and one just beginning to gain familiarity with the English language—to read a selection of text benefi ts both students equally. The beginning speaker benefi ts from the advanced speakers’ experience, both with the language and the process of acquisition; the advanced speaker benefi ts from the opportunity to further practice his or her skills. The critical dynamic here is that both students are allowed to learn through self-expression and monitoring of the other. No instructional time is lost during exercises that are relevant, meaningful, and have their roots in critical thinking skills that are readily applicable.

Barrier #4Teachers may not feel confi dent using assessment and progress-monitoring tools

with ELLs.

StrategiesTeachers should not be hesitant to use assessment and progress-monitoring tools

with ELLs. They should use oral questioning and discussion, as well as various forms of adapted assessment, with ELLs.

To begin, a word of caution: Teachers should be careful when choosing assessments for use with ELLs, as it is possible that some may not be valid or reliable measures for use with these students. Some assessment measures may also be linguistically or cultur-ally biased, which could negatively affect the results (Kornhaber 2004; García, McKoon, and August 2006a). It is important that teachers discuss these concerns with specialists in their schools, such as the reading specialist or special education teacher; these individu-als may have more knowledge of specifi c assessment measures, and can help teachers select appropriate ones for use with ELLs in their classroom. These practitioners should always be consulted when a teacher has a concern about a student’s—ELL and non-ELL alike—possible eligibility for extended or special services.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014



Kornhaber (2004, 91) stated:

There are many purposes and forms of assessment. However, there should be just

one motivation: assessment should serve as a tool to enhance all students’ knowledge,

skills, and understanding so that they can function at the highest possible level in the

wider world. … However, from its inception, educational assessment has been inter-

twined with confl icting assumptions about the educability of people from different

social groups. [Educational] assessment has been widely used in ways that have steered

students toward differentiated levels of functioning, levels closely associated with dif-

ferences of race and class.

It is important that teachers do not use assessment outcomes to sort students based on such factors as race or ethnicity; rather, assessment results should drive instruction, helping to focus instruction on the individual needs of each student. Assessment should be ongoing and linked with instruction (Teale 2009), and should occur frequently to ensure that instruction is and remains effective and that students receive specifi c interventions as needed (Huebner 2009).

Teachers may use self-developed assessments, such as cloze procedures and curriculum-based measures, when assessing ELLs in the classroom. García, McKoon, and August (2006b), in their review of research on assessment, found that teacher-developed cloze procedures—where students are asked to supply missing words to complete sen-tences in a passage—and curriculum-based assessments that require students to orally read aloud a passage while the teacher scores miscues, were effective in helping teachers better understand students’ oral language profi ciency and fl uency, respectively.

ELLs can be offered the opportunity to verbalize answers to comprehension questions, rather than writing them down; this allows the teacher to assess comprehension at a more basic level, whereas a written answer may place undue attention on the student’s writing skills and not accurately refl ect what has been learned. When informal verbal assessment is used, it can be done so in a format in which many students are encouraged to speak aloud so that the ELL is not singled out. For further monitoring, one-on-one conversa-tions with the teacher should take place; this gives students individualized attention in a setting that does not present competition from classmates that may be more profi cient speakers of English.

Tompkins (2009, 60) described the Language Experience Approach (LEA)—in which students dictate words and sentences about a personal experience to the teacher, and he or she writes them down, modeling the correct use of written language—as “an effective way to help children emerge into reading because oral language is linked to written lan-guage.” This approach has been shown to be successful in working with students since the mid-20th century through the work of researchers such as Lamoreaux and Lee in the 1940s and Ashton-Warner in the 1960s. This strategy can be used to scaffold the learn-ing of ELLs by creating materials that they can read and are of high interest. One way in which this approach can be used with ELLs is by having the students choose pictures from

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014


Helfrich and Bosh

magazines to include in a book; together, the students and teacher identify the pictures and write several words or sentences that correspond to each picture. As students build their vocabulary using this process, they may become more comfortable and profi cient at participating in the LEA by dictating sentences to the teacher that represent experiences in their own lives, using spoken English, with the written English words being provided by the teacher.

Final ThoughtsProviding quality literacy instruction for all students is a teacher’s top priority; some

students, ELLs included, may require specialized instruction from the teacher to ensure their academic success. For beginning teachers, this may be especially challenging, as they are just starting to use their skills in the classroom and may perceive inadequacies in teaching students whose needs may be different from their own experiences. By acknowl-edging the differences among students and their varying individual needs, beginning and veteran teachers can develop and adopt strong instructional skills that will enhance ELL students’ understanding of necessary academic concepts and skills.

By acknowledging the role of literacy in a student’s culture, the teacher can begin to understand the student’s perspectives and academic needs. Teachers can work to in-tegrate different aspects of a student’s culture into his or her daily instruction through discussion, reading, and the availability of curricular materials that focus on diversity. Teachers also can encourage students to work with one another in peer groups, with more knowledgeable peers acting as tutors. Finally, teachers can build their own awareness that assessment of various literacy skills is necessary, but that there can be fl exibility in the ways in which these skills are assessed. When individual student differences are identifi ed and acknowledged, and the barriers to delivering appropriate instruction identifi ed and discussed, teachers and students benefi t. Schulz (2009, 59) stated it best:

English Language Learners are not a homogenous group. Their academic abilities

can range from emergent readers, writers, and speakers of English to profi cient read-

ers, writers, and speakers of English. The most effective teachers of [ELLs] understand

the vast differences amongst individual students’ academic performance and they

focus on what each individual student is capable of achieving instead of what the

student cannot do.

ReferencesAugust, D. 2006. Demographic overview. In Developing literacy in second-language learners:

Report of the National Literacy Panel on language minority children and youth, eds. D. August and T. Shanahan, 43–49. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

August, D., and M. Calderón. 2006. Teacher beliefs and professional development. In Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on

language minority children and youth, eds. D. August and T. Shanahan, 555–63. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Bahruth, R. E., and S. F. Steiner. 1998. Upstream in the mainstream: Pedagogy against the current. In Speaking the unpleasant: The politics of (non)engagement in the multicultural

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014



education terrain, eds. R.C. Chavez and J. O’Donnell, 127–47. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Banks, J. A. 1988. Multiethnic education: Theory and practice, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Banks, J. A. 2004. Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice. In Handbook of research on multicultural education, 2nd ed., eds. J. A. Banks and C. A. McGee Banks, 3–29. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cohen, E. G., and R. A. Lotan. 2004. Equity in heterogeneous classrooms. In Handbook of

research on multicultural education, 2nd ed., eds. J. A. Banks and C. A. McGee Banks, 736–52. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Delpit, L. 1995. Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press.

Education Alliance. 2006. Teaching diverse learners: Oral language. Providence, RI: Brown University. Available at: www.alliance.brown.edu/tdl/elemlit/orallanguage-prt.shtml.

García, G. E., G. McKoon, and D. August. 2006a. Language and literacy assessment of language minority students. In Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of

the National Literacy Panel on language minority children and youth, eds. D. August and T. Shanahan, 597–624. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

García, G. E., G. McKoon, and D. August. 2006b. Synthesis: Language and literacy assess-ment. In Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy

Panel on language minority children and youth, eds. D. August and T. Shanahan, 583–96. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Hall, K. W. 2008. The importance of including culturally authentic literature. Young Chil-

dren 63(1): 80–86.Helfrich, S. R., & R. M. Bean. 2011. Beginning teachers refl ect on their experiences being

prepared to teach literacy. Teacher Education and Practice 24(2): 201–22.Huebner, T. A. 2009. Small-group intervention for ELLs. Educational Leadership 66(7):

90–91.Hussar, W. J., and T. M. Bailey. 2009. Projections of education statistics to 2018, 37th ed.

Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. Available at: http://nces.

ed.gov/pubs2009/2009062.pdf.

Klein, S., R. Bugarin, R. Beltranena, and E. McArthur. 2004. Language minorities and their

educational and labor market indicators—Recent trends. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.

asp?pubid=2004009.

Kornhaber, M. L. 2004. Assessment, standards, and equity. In Handbook of research on

multicultural education, 2nd ed., eds. J. A. Banks and C. A. McGee Banks, 91–109. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Manyak, P. C. 2007. A framework for robust literacy instruction for English learners. Read-

ing Teacher 61(2): 197–99.McLaughlin, B. 1992. Myths and misconceptions about second language learning: What every

teacher needs to unlearn (Educational Practice Report 5). Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014


Helfrich and Bosh

Schulz, M. M. 2009. Effective writing assessment and instruction for young English lan-guage learners. Early Childhood Education Journal 37(1): 57–62.

Shanahan, T., and I. Beck. 2006. Effective literacy teaching for English-language learners. In Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on

language minority children and youth, eds. D. August and T. Shanahan, 415–88. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Teale, W. H. 2009. Students learning English and their literacy instruction in urban schools. Reading Teacher 62(8): 699–703.

Tompkins, G. E. 2009. 50 literacy strategies step by step, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Walker-Dalhouse, D., and V. J. Risko. 2008. Learning from literacy successes in high-

achieving urban schools. Reading Teacher 61(5): 422–24.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Tuf

ts U

nive

rsity

] at

10:

08 1

0 O

ctob

er 2

014

Documents

Teaching English Language Learners: Strategies for Overcoming Barriers