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Ecological Engineering 49 (2012) 35– 40
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Ecological Engineering
j ourna l ho me page: www.elsev ier .com/ locate /eco leng
urvival and growth of alders (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. and Alnus incana (L.)oench) on fly ash technosols at different substrate improvement
ojciech Krzaklewski, Marcin Pietrzykowski ∗, Bartłomiej Wosepartment of Forest Ecology, Forest Faculty, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. 29 Listopada 46, Pl. 31-425 Krakow, Poland
r t i c l e i n f o
rticle history:eceived 25 April 2012eceived in revised form 18 July 2012ccepted 10 August 2012vailable online 29 September 2012
eywords:ly ashiological stabilizationldersfforestation
a b s t r a c t
Difficulties in disposal of fly ash resulting from coal combustion at electric power plants are of increasingconcern. Establishment of vegetation is often an effective means of stabilizing solid wastes. This paperpresents an evaluation of adaptation based on survival, growth and nitrogen supply of black alder andgrey alder introduced on the landfill fly ash resulting from lignite combustion in ‘Bełchatów’ Power Plant(Central Poland). The research was conducted at 3 substrate variants: control with pure fly ash (CFA), withaddition (3 dm3 in planting hole) lignite culm (CFA + L) and Miocene, acidic and carboniferous sands fromoverburden of ‘Bełchatów’ Lignite Mine (CFA + MS). Before putting the experience uniformly on the wholesurface sewage sludge (4 Mg ha−1) mixed with grass seedling (200 kg ha−1) and mineral fertilization (N –60, P – 36 and K – 36 kg ha−1) were applied by hydroseeding. The results show the high adaptability ofalders for extremely hard site conditions on the landfill ash. After 5 years of investigation the survival ofblack alder was from 61% (at CFA + MS) to 88% (at CFA + L), and grey alder from 81% (at CFA + MS) to 87%(at CFA). Black alder was characterized by higher growth parameters (diameter growth d0 and height h)compare to grey alder. The best substrate for fly ash enhancement was lignite culm. Therefore, if the goal
of biological stabilization of fly ash landfill would be the greatest increase of tree biomass for examplefor energy plantations, the recommend solution for substrate improvement is using of lignite culm andBlack alder. However, the introduction of alders directly on the fly ash using start up NPK fertilising andhydroseeding with seed sludge may be recommend mainly for economic reasons, especially when theintroduced alders are to have primarily protective and phytomelioration functions and thus prepare thesubstrate for the afforestation and next generation of target species.apotoe
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. Introduction
Generation of electric power through the combustion of coalroduces large amounts of waste, of which 70–75% is fly ashHaynes, 2009). Its use amounts to little more than 30% worldwide,t is mainly utilised in the production of building materials, theest is transported to various landfills (Asokan et al., 2005; Haynes,009). The impact of fly ash landfills results in a number of changes
n the adjacent ecosystems as toxic substances are leached out andransported to the soil and groundwater (Juwarkar and Jambhulkar,008; Dellantonio et al., 2009; Haynes, 2009). Among the charac-eristics of having an adverse impact on the environment, increasedontent of heavy metals and radioactivity of ash are listed, as well
Tripathi et al., 2004; Haynes, 2009). These properties are char-cterized by high variability, however, depending on the type andrigin of coal burned in power plants (Haynes, 2009). Furthermore,∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 12 6625302; fax: +48 12 4119715.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Pietrzykowski).
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925-8574/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.08.026
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
sh from landfills is susceptible to wind erosion as it remains sus-ended in the air for a long time and thus becomes a major sourcef pollution. This negatively affects the health of the local popula-ion, causing irritation of the upper respiratory tract and a numberf adverse health effects, including even lung cancer (Dellantoniot al., 2009; Pandey et al., 2009).
The primary method of preventing erosion of ash landfills isechnical and biological surface stabilization. Sealing lids made ofitumen emulsion, asphalt and other substances are used for tech-ical stabilisation. These methods are, however, very expensive.iological stabilization of ash landfills consists mainly of plantingurf or trees after an earlier application of an insulating layer inhe form of fertile sediment (Junor, 1978; Carlson and Adriano,991; Jusaitis and Pillman, 1997; Cheung et al., 2000; Cermák,008; Haynes, 2009). The introduction of vegetation directly onhe ash, without the insulating layer, is however most advanta-
eous due to low cost and labour input; it is also beneficial forhe landscape and effective as anti-erosion protection (Gupta et al.,002). The accumulation of heavy metals from fly ash in trees cane important to limit the migration of xenobiotics into the waters
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6 W. Krzaklewski et al. / Ecolo
nd adjacent ecosystems (Tripathi et al., 2004; Gupta et al., 2007;alá et al., 2010). The introduced vegetation is also an important
lement which initiates the processes of soil formation and therocess of ecological succession on completely anthropogenic post-
ndustrial sites. Combustion waste deposited in landfills displaysumerous properties which are unfavourable for plant growth,
ncluding mainly: high susceptibility to compaction, poor air andater ratio, excessively alkaline reaction, high EC variability, an
lmost complete absence of nitrogen and available phosphorus,nd in some cases high content of heavy metals (Hodgson andownsend, 1973; Adriano et al., 1980; Gray and Schwab, 1993;illman and Jusaitis, 1997; Cermák, 2008; Haynes, 2009). In someases such as ‘Lubien’ landfill belonging to ‘Bełchatów’ ligniteower station (Central Poland), afforestation is planned in theuture. This is a very challenging project due to the considerable sizef the site (about 440 ha) and the necessity to recreate soil directlyn an artificial substrate (fly ash), without the use of a mineraloil horizon. For these reasons it is necessary to develop effectiveethods of biological stabilization and reforestation allowing to
ecreate soils in situ on substrate and then to introduce the tar-et tree species. This is possible primarily by improving physicalnd chemical properties of the deposited ash. In case of afforesta-ion it is also necessary to test the adaptability of trees and shrubso the conditions on fly ash landfills. In Europe in the course ofxperiments concerning tree planting of fly ash landfills the fol-owing species were introduced: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.),ilver Birch (Betula pendula Roth), black locust (Robinia pseudoac-acia L.), red oak (Quercus rubra L.), common oak (Quercus robur.), black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and willow (Salix sp.)Pietrzykowski et al., 2010; Cermák, 2008). In addition, attentionas drawn to Nitrogen-fixing tree species: silverberry (Elaeagnus
ngustifolia L.), bladder senna (Colutea arborescens L.), common sea-uckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) and honey locust (Gleditsiariacanthos L.) which have fairly high tolerance to the conditionsf fly ash landfill (Hodgson and Townsend, 1973). In the Northmerica some investigation on pulverized coal ash was tested as aubstrate for woody plant species, included Nitrogen-fixing speciesike alders and other like maples (Scanlon and Duggan, 1979). Aseported in literature sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) andmerican sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) grew acceptably ony ash after coal burning, as well (McMinn et al., 1982; Carlson anddriano, 1991). Previous experiments show a satisfactory growthf the introduced woody plants species, but it should be notedhat they were conducted mostly after the ash was topped with
ineral soil (Hodgson and Townsend, 1973; Junor, 1978; Scanlonnd Duggan, 1979; Carlson and Adriano, 1991; Cheung et al., 2000;
ˇermák, 2008; Haynes, 2009; Pietrzykowski et al., 2010). Such aractice in addition to substantial costs also entails the risk of rootystem deformation due to the fact that it develops primarily inhe surface horizons containing mineral soil (Cermák, 2008). Thiss very important for the stability of the introduced afforestation inater phases of development. As mentioned above this technologys very expensive, and stocks of more fertile soil are limited. There-ore, at present, research is needed on the introduction of treesirectly on to the ash.
The optimum method of afforesting post-industrial sites, whichre highly difficult from the point of view of biological reclama-ion should be to stimulate natural succession by introducing firstioneering species which also have phytomelioration functions.nly after habitats are prepared and the initial soil formationrocess is dynamized by the pioneering species (improvement of
ir–water properties, accumulation of organic matter and nutri-nts) should species with higher habitat requirements (suchs oaks) be introduced. In Central Europe different species oflders (Alnus sp.) have potential significance as, owing to theirtE
ngineering 49 (2012) 35– 40
apability of atmospheric nitrogen fixing by symbiotic bacteria ofenus Frankia sp., they play an important phytomelioration roleKuznetsova et al., 2010).
This paper presents the results of experiments on the intro-uction of alders (A. glutinosa (L.) GAERTN. and Alnus incana (L.)OENCH) to a landfill containing fly ash generated by lignite com-
ustion. In the experiment, enhancing substrates were appliedlignite culm and Miocene acidic sands) available in the immediateicinity of the site and a variant in which trees were introduced ono the ash with no insulating layer was also included. The survivalnd growth rate of trees within 5 years of staring the experimentere assessed. This period is crucial for survival of introduced tree
pecies and first phase of biological stabilization.
. Materials and methods
.1. Study site
‘Bełchatów’ power plant and ‘Lubien’ combustion waste land-ll which belongs to it are located in Central Poland (N 51 27; E9 27), in temperate climate zone with precipitation ranging from50 to 600 mm annually and an average annual temperature ofround 7.6–8 ◦C. The vegetation period lasts from 210 to 218 daysWos, 1999). The ‘Lubien’ landfill has been in operation since 1980nd currently takes up approximately 440 ha. of land. Combustionaste containing about 85% ash and 15% slag is deposited thereith the use of hydro-transport. The main component of combus-
ion waste are thermally processed aluminosilicates. The averageontent of Al2O3 and SiO2 compounds is from about 60 to 70%, andalcium oxide CaO about 20%. The content of trace elements gen-rally do not exceed the average reported for natural soils. In thesh deposited on the tested landfill radioactivity determined byhe concentration of isotopes K40, Ra226 and Th228 is low and doesot constitute a threat to the environment (Kobus and Ostrowicz,987; Stolecki, 2005). In the case of landfills, ‘Lubien’ adverse envi-onmental impact is caused mainly by leaching sulfate, chloridend calcium, which in turn affects the growth of concentrationsf these ions, increased mineralization and increased the overallardness and alkalinization of ground water (Stolecki, 2005). Pre-iously introduction of vegetation was conducted mainly in partsf slopes, using an insulating layer of mineral soil (Pietrzykowskit al., 2010).
.2. Description of the experiment
The experiment stared in September 2005 in a part of a sedi-entation tank flat shelf set up between 2003 and 2004. Before
he start of the experiment and the planting of trees on the entireurface, it was first subject to hydro-seeding with seed sludgef 4 Mg ha−1 (dry mass) mixed with the seeds (200 kg ha−1) ofock’s-foot grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) and Italian ryegrass (Loliumultiflorum Lam.). Next NPK start up mineral fertilising was appliedith N – 60, P – 36 and K – 36 kg ha−1. Afterwards 24 plots measur-
ng 6 m × 13 m were laid out. They were separated using 2-m-wideuffer strip. On the plots 50 seedlings each of black alder or greylder were planted in holes of 40 cm × 40 cm × 40 cm in 3 variantswith 4 replications for each variant): control (fly ash – CFA), with aedding layer of Miocene acidic sand (CFA + MS) and with a bedding
ayer of lignite culm (CFA + L).
.3. Soil sampling and laboratory tests
In the spring of 2006 in order to determine the output charac-eristics of the deposited substrate (fly ash), a soil stick from anijkelkamp set was used to collect soil samples from 0 to 40 cm
gical Engineering 49 (2012) 35– 40 37
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W. Krzaklewski et al. / Ecolo
orizon and 16 points regularly distributed along the diagonalf the plot intended for the experiment; eventually four mixedamples were made out of them. Additionally, one sample was col-ected from each mixed enhanced substrate from piles (Miocenecidic sand and lignite culm) brought to the site for the experimentTable 1).
In 2008, samples were collected again to determine the prop-rties of substrates formed after using the combination of (CFA,FA + MS, CFA + L) from seeding holes. For this purpose, in each plot,amples were collected from 0 to 40 cm horizon in 5 points whichere regularly distributed along the diagonal of each plot in closeroximity to tree root collar. 24 mixed samples representative of
ndividual plots were selected from them.Mixed samples of technosols were taken (1.0 kg mass of fresh
ample) to determine basic soil properties. In the lab, soil sam-les were dried and sieved through a 2.0 mm sieve. The basic soilarameters were determined in the soil samples using soil labo-atory procedures: particle size distribution was determined byydrometer analysis method and sand fractions by sieving. SoilH was determined in 1 M KCl at a 1:2.5 soil:solution ratio; elec-rical conductivity (EC) by conductometric methods at a 1:5 soil:olution ratio with 21 ◦C temperature; total nitrogen (Nt) using thehermal conductivity method with the ‘Leco CNS 2000’; exchange-ble acidity (Hh) in 1 M Ca(OAc)2; basic exchangeable cations (Sh)a+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ in 1 M NH4Ac by AAS; phosphorus (P) in a
orm available by plants was assayed in calcium lactate extract(CH3CHOHCOO)2Ca) acidified with hydrochloric acid to pH 3.6by the Egner–Riehm method) and in total form using the molyb-ate blue colorimetric method. CEC was determined by the sum oflkaline cations (Sh) extractable in 1 N NH4OAc and exchangeablecidity (Hh) (Van Reeuwijk, 1995). The content of some metalliclements (close to the total forms): Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Cr wereetermined after digestion in the mixture of HNO3 (d = 1.40) and0% HCl04 acid in 4:1 proportion, using the AAS method (Ostrowskat al., 1991).
.4. Assessment of survival, growth and nitrogen supply in therees
In each experimental plot the survival rate was assessed (as percentage of live trees in comparison to the total number ofrees introduced), diameter at root collar was measured (d0) withn accuracy of 0.1 cm and height (h) of all trees with an accuracyf 0.01 m (Table 2). Tree measurements were conducted in theutumn of the first year (2006) and 5 years after planting (2011),ater based on these measurements the current annual growth wasalculated for tree collar diameter (�d0) and height (�h). Addi-ionally, samples of leaves to determine nitrogen content (the maineficient element in the ash substrate) were collected in autumn,rom 5 trees regularly distributed along the diagonal of each plot,rom the top of the crown of the exposition SW (Baule and Fricker,970). Nitrogen content in leaves was determined using ‘Leco CNS000′ (Ostrowska et al., 1991).
.5. Statistical procedures
Data sets were statistically analyzed using the Statistica 9.1 pro-ramme (StatSoft Inc., 2009). Significant differences between meanalues of basic soil characteristics (Table 1), survival and growthharacteristics of alder sp. from differing groups (e.g. substrate
ariants) (Table 2) were tested by RIR-Tukey multiple comparisonrocedure (at p = 0.05). Distribution conformity of the investi-ated features was compared to normal distribution using thehapiro–Wilk test. The average values of analyse characteristic for Table
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38 W. Krzaklewski et al. / Ecological Engineering 49 (2012) 35– 40
Table 2Survival and growth of alders at the different substrate variants.
Species Variant Survival [%] d0 [cm] h [cm]
2006 2011 2006 2011 2006 2011
Black Alder CFA 82 ± 5a* 76 ± 11a 0.97 ± 0.26a 5.17 ± 1.52a 90.36 ± 22.25b 302.61 ± 80.14b
CFA + MS 73 ± 6a 61 ± 3a 0.98 ± 0.28a 4.81 ± 1.67a 82.68 ± 26.01a 251.36 ± 86.52a
CFA + L 93 ± 4b 88 ± 4b 1.23 ± 0.36b 5.92 ± 1.80b 90.33 ± 27.89b 349.87 ± 81.45c
Grey Alder CFA 91 ± 4a 87 ± 4a 1.04 ± 0.32a 4.26 ± 1.78a 76.94 ± 22.70a 233.47 ± 70.17a
CFA + MS 85 ± 17a 81 ± 20a 1.14 ± 0.34b 4.73 ± 1.93b 77.81 ± 22.60a 264.06 ± 78.03b
02 ± 0.30a 4.61 ± 1.77ab 74.27 ± 16.32a 258.00 ± 76.71b
s of trees characteristics after 2 years on different substrate combination.
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Fig. 1. The average diameter growth (�d0) of alders after 4-year vegetation periods(autumn 2006–spring 2011) on the different substrate variants (CFA – control;Cc
wd2ah3acoincrease (�h) was from 33.50 (CFA + MS) to 53.63 cm yr−1(CFA + L),and these differences were statistically significant (Fig. 2).
CFA + L 88 ± 7a 82 ± 13a 1.
* Mean and SD; letters (a, b) indicate significant differences between mean value
ubstrate were compared using ANOVA preceded by Leven’s vari-nce homogeneity test.
. Results
.1. Substrate characteristics
The output properties of fly ash were very unfavourable for thentroduced vegetation and tended to be a strongly alkaline withH amounting to 9.57; hight EC with an average of 954.5 �S cm−1,
ow nitrogen content (Nt) (272.25 mg kg−1) and trace amounts ofhosphorus (P) (1.05 mg kg−1). The content of heavy metals con-entration was respectively: Zn 57.8 mg kg−1, Cu 22.3 mg kg−1, Pb0.1 mg kg−1, Cd 0.8 mg kg−1 and Cr 19.9 mg kg−1 (Table 1).
The properties of Miocene acidic sand used as an enhancingubstrate included acidity and pH of 3.38, EC of 255.0 �S cm−1
s well as low nitrogen (317.0 mg kg−1) and phosphorus con-ent (1.4 mg kg−1), CEC of 3.74 cmol(+) kg−1, and BS of 55.84%.he content of heavy metals concentration was respectively: Zn.7 mg kg−1, Cu 4.7 mg kg−1, Pb 3.2 mg kg−1, Cd 0.0 mg kg−1and Cr.0 mg kg−1 (Table 1).
Lignite culm used as enhancing substrate exhibited pH of.49, EC of 162.0 �S cm−1, nitrogen content (mainly geogenic)f 4800 mg kg−1 and phosphorus content of 4.6 mg kg−1, CEC of04.47 cmol(+) kg−1, and BS of 84.92%. The content of heavy metalsoncentration was respectively: Zn 5.9 mg kg−1, Cu 0.1 mg kg−1, Pb.3 mg kg−1, Cd 0.0 mg kg−1 and Cr 5.7 mg kg−1 (Table 1).
Two years after the experiment was begun the propertiesf the applied substrate combinations at tree root collar werequalised and amounted to: pH from 7.69 to 7.93; EC from 478.8o 550.6 �S cm−1; Nt from 472.32 to 629.4 mg kg−1 and P from.6 to 9.7 mg kg−1; CEC from 53.98 to 62.43 cmol(+) kg−1, and BSrom 98.38 to 99.06%. The content of heavy metals concentra-ion was respectively: Zn from 43.8 to 45.8 mg kg−1, Cu from 17.3o 20.7 mg kg−1, Pb from 16.5 to 17.5 mg kg−1, Cd from 0.9 to.1 mg kg−1 and Cr from 16.3 to 18.4 mg kg−1 (Table 1).
.2. Alders’ survival
After 1 year of starting the experiment an average of 73%CFA + MS) to 93% (CFA + L) black alder seedlings and from 85%CFA + MS) to 91% (CFA) grey alder seedlings survived. After 5 yearsf starting the experiment, black alder survival ranged from 61%CFA + MS) to 88% (CFA + L), while the grey alder survival from 81%CFA + MS) to 87% (CFA) (Table 2).
.3. Alders’ growth parameter
Black alder root collar diameter (d0) after 5 years of setting uphe experiment on control plots (CFA) was 5.17 cm. In the vari-nt with added acidic sand (CFA + MS) it was 4.81 cm. These valuesere significantly lower than the ones obtained on the variant
F(Cc
FA + MS – fly ash with acidic Miocene sand addition; CFA + L – fly ash with ligniteulm addition).
ith added lignite culm (CFA + L) (5.92 cm) (Table 2). An averageiameter growth (�d0) in the 4-year period (autumn 2006–spring011) was from 0.79 cm yr−1 (CFA + MS) to 0.94 cm yr−1 (CFA + L),nd these differences were not statistically significant (Fig. 1). Theeight (h) of black alder on control plots (CFA) was on average02.61 cm which is considerably higher in comparison to the vari-nt with an addition of acidic sand (CFA + MS) (251.36 cm) andonsiderably lower in comparison to the variant with an additionf lignite culm (CFA + L) (349.87 cm) (Table 2). The average height
ig. 2. The average height growth (�d0) of alders after 4-year vegetation periodsautumn 2006–spring 2011) on the different substrate variants (CFA – control;FA + MS – fly ash with acidic Miocene sand addition; CFA + L – fly ash with ligniteulm addition).
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Root collar diameter (d0) of grey alder on control plots (CFA)as 4.26 cm, which was considerably lower in comparison to
ariants CFA + MS (4.73 cm) and CFA + L (4.61 cm) (Table 1). Theverage diameter increase (�d0) of grey alder was from 0.63 (CFA)o 0.72 cm yr−1 (CFA + MS and CFA + L), and these differences wereot statistically significant (Fig. 1). The height of grey alder in CFAariant was on average 233.47 cm, which was considerably lower inomparison to variant CFA + MS (264.06 cm) (Table 1). The averageeight increase (�h) was from 30.87 cm yr−1 (CFA) to 36.37 cm yr−1
CFA + MS), and these differences were not statistically significantFig. 2).
.4. Nitrogen supply
Nitrogen (N) content in black alder leaves was on average5.73 g kg−1 in CFA + MS variant, 28.55 g kg−1 in CFA + L variant upo 29.11 g kg−1 in CFA variant, and these differences were not sta-istically significant.
Nitrogen (N) content in grey alder leaves was poorly diversi-ed between the variants and ranged from 25.49 g kg−1 in CFA + MSariant, through 25.95 g kg−1 in CFA + L variant to 26.08 g kg−1 inFA variant.
. Discussion
In biological stabilization of fly ash landfills the key issue ishe selection of plant species with high tolerance to adverse siteonditions (Carlson and Adriano, 1991; Cheung et al., 2000; Guptat al., 2002; Pavlovic et al., 2004; Pietrzykowski et al., 2010; Cermák,008; Juwarkar and Jambhulkar, 2008; Haynes, 2009; Pandey et al.,009; Bilski et al., 2011). Based on experiments described in liter-ture, this group includes first of all the species belonging to therassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabiaceae, Leguminoceae and Poaceaeamilies (Jusaitis and Pillman, 1997; Pandey et al., 2009). They are
ainly herbaceous plants which may form turf and provide erosionrotection. In the course of tree planting or afforestation of somesh landfills it is important to recognize the adaptability potentialf trees and shrubs. As already mentioned, the main factors limitinglant growth in these conditions are primarily a deficit of nutrientsmainly N and P) and very high pH (Table 1). Therefore, in ordero provide start up doses of nutrients in extreme conditions, uni-orm mineral NPK fertilization was applied with initial stabilizationhrough hydroseeding with seed sludge uniformly on all surfaces.pplication of the tested substrates was primarily aimed at low-ring the pH. The rationale for testing the above substrates waslso their availability in the vicinity of ‘Bełchatów’ opencast ligniteine. Miocene acidic sands widely present in the overburden of
he mine usually have a high content of carbon and sulphur. Theyend to have sulphur content higher >0.2%, geogenic carbon content0.5% and low pH values (even <3.5). Soils formed on the Mioceneeposits are referred to in the literature as the so-called ‘sulphurousine soils’ from areas of Lusatian Mine District in Germany (Katzur
nd Haubold-Rosar, 1996). Hence, in the course of work on biolog-cal stabilization in ‘Lubien’ landfill, a concept was developed ofowering the pH of excessively alkaline ash by mixing it with acidicands. In the case of lignite the possibility has long been pointedut of using this substrate for the production of organic fertilizersKwiatkowska et al., 2008; Chassapis et al., 2009; Giannouli et al.,009). Lignite may also be a valuable source of soil organic matter
SOM) due to a high content of humic acid. Humic acids enhance thehysical properties of soil and increase soil fertility because of highontent of nutrients (Chassapis et al., 2009). The above properties ofignite and its relatively low pH as well as hydrophilic character ofdh(�
ngineering 49 (2012) 35– 40 39
umic acid may improve fly ash properties and growth conditionsf vegetation introduced to fly ash landfills.
Within 2 years of starting the experiment the properties ofhe applied substrate combinations in the seeding holes were uni-orm. With the applied amount of substrate (3 dm3 per hole) andfter sampling was carried out no significant parameter differencesere observed in substrates (Table 1). It was found however, that
ven such scarce NPK start up fertilising and hydroseeding witheed sludge uniformly on all surfaces had a positive impact on theubstrate properties. The positive impact of the treatment was evi-ent most of all in a significant lowering of fly ash substrate pHfrom 9.6 to approx. 8.0) as well as in nitrogen content increaseN) (from 272.3 to 472.3–629.4 mg kg−1) and phosphorus (P) (from.05 to 7.6–9.7 mg kg−1) content increase. The contents of selectedeavy metals in the fly ash substrates, before and during the exper-
ment, does not exceed the average reported for non-contaminatedoils (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1992). Thus the literature datand data from technical reports were confirmed, that there is nopecific threat to introduced vegetation by this factor in terms ofombustion waste landfills ‘Lubien’. Despite uniform propertiesn the combinations of substrates, it was found that the survivalate and dimensions attained by alders were diverse for differ-nt variants (Table 2). This indicates that the substrates used hadhe greatest impact on the studied tree species in the first yearf the experiment. This period determines the most survival ratend further growth of seedlings planted in extreme habitat con-itions of anthropogenic sites (Kuznetsova et al., 2011). This isonfirmed by results of alder survival rate where the largest num-er is lost after the first year of the experiment (Table 2). After
years the survival rate of alders on the research plots was rel-tively high and ranged from 61 to 88% for black alder and from1 to 87% for grey alder (Table 2). Similar survival rate resultsere obtained for other reclaimed for forestry post-industrial sites
haracterized by a substrate with a strongly alkaline reaction,uch as: sediment tanks for waste generated by an acetylene andolyvinyl chloride factory (Oliveira et al., 2005) and shale oil miningites (Kuznetsova et al., 2010). This demonstrates high adaptabilityotential and broad ecological amplitude of alders, which in natu-al conditions occur in habitats which are mostly fertile, constantlyumid, or even periodically flooded (Ellenberg, 2009). Nutrientupply, especially nitrogen, which in these conditions is frequentlyhe minimum factor (Adriano et al., 1980; Cermák, 2008; Haynes,009) is an important aspect of tree adaptability potential assess-ent to extreme conditions. Nitrogen content in the leaves of black
lder (from 25.73 to 29.11 g kg−1 and grey alder (from 25.49 to5.95 g kg−1) was within the ranges reported for the genus Alnusp. in conditions of Central Europe (Uri et al., 2002, Kuznetsovat al., 2011). It indicates an absence of disturbance in the uptakend mineral nutrition with this nutrient and is another factor inonfirming the adaptability potential of the tested alder species.
. Conclusions
The results of alder survival rate and growth assessment inhe presented experiment indicate the species’ significant abilityo adapt to habitat conditions in the combustion waste landfills.he obtained results of survival rate studies, especially of blacklder, however, clearly indicate that the use of Miocene sand isot a good solution for improving ash substrate. Lignite culmddition impacted most beneficially the survival rate and attained
imensions of black alder. In plots where it was applied, theighest survival rate and bigger (considerably) average root collard0) as well as height (h) and bigger (insignificantly) annual growthd0 and �h were reported. In the case of grey alder, the highest
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urvival rate was reported in the control plots where no enhancinggents were used (CFA). In this variant the smallest dimensionsf alders were reported (average root collar diameter d0, height, annual growth �d0 and �h) in comparison to other substrateariants (CFA + MS; CFA + L), where the assessed parameters wereomparable. Comparing the growth of the introduced alder speciesnd the applied experimental variants it was found that the bestesults were obtained in the case of black alder in the variant usingignite (CFA + L). This solution is important, e.g. when planninghe production of trees to obtain biomass for energy generationurposes, where the objective is to maximize timber production.lose proximity of the site to the power plant indicates the validityf this approach and may affect additional benefits resulting fromhe use of biological stability. As follows from the conductedxperiments, the introduction of two species of alders directly onhe fly ash using start up NPK fertilising and hydroseeding witheed sludge may be recommend mainly for economic reasons.specially when one considers the fact that the introduced alderpecies are to have primarily protective and phytomeliorationunctions, and thus prepare the substrate for the major and targetpecies with higher habitat requirements (such as oaks).
cknowledgements
The authors acknowledge and appreciate the efforts of partiesepresenting mining firms: KWB ‘Bełchatów’ and Power PlantBełchatów’, and The State Forests National Forest Holding PGLasy Panstwowe, Forest Districts: Bełchatów, who provided siteccess permissions and assistance. Thanks to Iwona SkowronskaSc. from Lab of Department of Forest Ecology for laboratory
nalyses. This study was financially supported by the Polish Min-stry of Science and Higher Education in frame of DS 3420 KEkL011, Department of Forest Ecology, Agricultural University ofrakow.
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